HANDBOOK OF

TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL

HORTICULTURE

By
Ernest Mortensen and Ervin IC.Bullard /

Agency for Ihternational DevelotmlW

U."brary
Room 105 S-1,8
Washington, D.C. L-523

Department of State

Agency for International Development

Washington, D. C.

For sale by the Superintendentof Documents,U S- GovernmentPrintingOffice

Washington, D.C. 20402 - Prsce $3 90

Stock Number 044-001-00022-5

Oat No 818 8 H781970

 Agriculture Technical Services Desk

Agriculture and Rural Development Service

Office of War.on Hunger

Agency for International Development

Printed May 1964

Reprint November 1964

Reprint April 1966

Revised April 1968

Revised June 1970

 PREFA CE

U.S. agencies having responsibility in foreign the first chapter those fields of endeavor where
assistance programs long have recognized the need work is needed immediately. Major fruit, nut and
for a handbook on horticultural crops in the Trop­ tree crops are discussed in the second chapter with
ics. Information on the subject may be found in emphasis on such important points as spacing,
various scientific textbooks, treatises and papers. It pruning, fertilizing, budding, and disease and in­
is to fill the need for consolidated information in sect control. A few Temperate Zone fruits are in­
ready reference form that this "Handbook on cluded to stress that they can be grown only at
Tropical and Subtropical Horticulture" is issued higher elevations in the Tropics, due to chilling
by the Agency for International Development in requirements. Crops are listed alphabetically and
consultation with the U. S. Department of Agri­ scientific names are given for reference purposes.
culture. The Handbook continues with a description of
Based upon an extensive survey of available all major vegetable crops. Information is presented
literature, this manual is designed for the use of on seed storage, vegetable varieties, fertilizer recom­
U.S. A.I.D. technicians and contract personnel, and mendations, plant spacings, temperature require­
for Peace Corps volunteers engaged in rural de­ ments, soil and cultivation. Major diseases with
velopment. It is written in layman's language so their control are presented in a table for easy
that it may be understood by the non-specialist who reference.
yet is called upon to work with farm families in Herbicides are being used extensively in temper­
solving their agricultural problems. Nevertheless, ate regions for weed control. They will come into
research workers and students also will find it of more use in the Tropics in the future, especially if
value because of its up to date and extensive bibli­ labor costs continue to increase. Accordingly, a
ography. It also serves as reference and guide for table lists recommended herbicides for each crop.
teaching courses. Likewise, a table is presented to indicate major in­
In addition to U.S. A.I.D. and Peace Corps per­ sects and how they can be controlled. Pictures are
sonnel, there are two other groups to whom this included for identification purposes.
Handbook can be of great help. The one group is Source of plant material is provided, as well as
composed of missionaries living with rural people sources of equipment and materials used in the
and concerned with agricultural education in the production of horticultural crops. Conversion fac­
Tropics. Often lacking an agricultural background, tors are included for converting the imperial system
they must search for practical information on tropi­ of weights and measurements to the metric system,
cal crops to help local farmers increase agricultural which is used in most of the tropical countries. A
productivity. In the other group are employees of conversion table is presented for converting tem­
large agricultural companies. Some of these are perature from Fahrenheit to centigrade. Included
foreign, others are local technicians. Perhaps their also is a table to determine the number of plants
first aim is to promote the use of a specific agri­ or trees per hectare at the most common spacings.
cultural chemical, for example, but since they have In summary, the main function of the Handbook
close contact with farmers, they are called upon is to give A.I.D. agricultural technicians, Peace
often to answer questions pertaining to other Corps personnel, and other workers concise meth­
phases of agriculture. ods of economically producing horticultural crops
There has been a dearth of agricultural research in the Tropics. It is to assist them in helping the
people in the Tropics and a shortage of funds for farmer produce food crops more efficiently and
basic and applied research. In general the quality improve his standard of living. As this Handbook
of research work has been good, but quantity arid is translated into different languages, it is used
coverage are limited. The Handbook indicates in directly by local extension personnel, village-level

ii
workers, and the better-trained farmers who are Spanish by A.LD.'s Regional Technical Aids Cen­
natural leaders in their communities. This publi- ter (R.T.A.C.) in Mexico City, Mexico. Finally,
cation has been translated into French by A.I.D.'s the references on the different crops lead the stu-
Centre Regional d'Editions Techniques (C.R.E.T) dent's way to the more detailed information which
in Paris, France. It also has been translated into is beyond the scope of the Handbook.

1v
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors acknowledge the help received from spacing found in his book "Handbook for Vegeta­
members of the U.S. Agency for International De­ ble Growers," published in 1960 by John Wiley
velopment Mission to Haiti. Thanks, in particular, and Sons, Inc., New York City.
are expressed to David Keogh, Acting Mission Di­ The following specialists were consulted in the
rector, to Albertano G'de Baca, Acting Food and preparation of this revision:
Agriculture Officer, and to the Agriculture Staff. Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department
Their interest, encouragement and cooperation of Agriculture: W. H. Anderson, J. H. Gilmore,
made possible the production of the original field and Judson McGuire for insects; C. R. Benjamin
notes from which the original Handbook and this for plant pathogens; J. M. Good for nematodes;
revision evolved. B. S. Crandall and J. R. McGrew for plant diseases;
Appretiation also is expressed to the staff of L. L. Danielson for weed control.
the Haitian Division of Research for research as­ University of Hawaii, Honolulu: J. C. Gilbert,
sistance, and in particular to Jacques Jolicoeur, H. Y. Nakasone, R. R. Romanowski, and I. W.
Director of Research at the Damien Experiment Buddenhagen.
Station, Haiti. Donald Penner, Research Assistant University of Florida, Gainesville: George F.
at the Grand Pr6 Experiment Station, reviewed the Webber, H. B. Popenoe, and L.. E. Kietert.
literature and wrote information on several tropical Dr. C. A. Schroeder, of the University of Cali­
crops included in the Handbook. Hassan Azzam, fornia at Los Angeles, was especially helpful with
University of Puerto Rico, supplied information suggestions.
on conversion factors used in Latin America. The Harold F. Winters and other specialists in the
picture for the cover was contributed by Donna Crops Research Divisidn, Agricultural Research
Bullard. Service, provided general review. editing and proof­
The authors also wish to express appreciation to reading.
James E. Knott and to his publishers for permis­ In no case are the consultants responsible for the
sion to use information on vegetable yields and facts as presented or the method of presentation.

V
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Ernest Mortensen worked for eight years for the Rhode Island, Purdue University and the Uni­
Australian Government on prickly pear control versity of Idaho before starting work with the
in Brazil, Mexico, Honduras and El Salvador. He United States Agency for International Develop­
was associated for 23 years with the Agricultural ment. He was associated with the Ministry of Agri­
and Mechanical College of Texas, and served in culture and the University of Cairo as a Research
the following countries under the United States Scholar under a Fulbright Grant in 1951-52. He
Agency for International Development. Greece, also made trips to Israel and Turkey under the
Jordan, Lebanon, El Salvador, Haiti and Afghani­ UNESCO program in 1952. During his time with
stan. U.S.A.LD. he has worked in Liberia, Ecuador,
Ervin T. Bullard was with the University of Haiti, Dominican Republic and Brazil.

VI
 Contents

Page Page
Preface . . . . iii FRUIT AND TREE CROPS ( Cont)
Acknowledgements v Lemon . . . . .. .. . 39
About the Authors vi Limes 39
Loquat - .. . .... . 40
Lychee - - - . . . 41
Chapter 1 Macadamia . .. 41
Mamey 42
AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH 9 Mamoncillo 42
Mandarin 42
Mango 43
Chapter 2 Mangosteen 45
Naranjilla 45
FRUIT AND TREE CROPS . . 11 Nutmeg-Mace .. . 45
Acerola . . . 12 Oil Palm - - - 46
Apple . Olives . 47
Apricot 13 Orange-Sour . . . 47
Avocado 13 Orange-Sweet 48
Banana 15 Papaya 50
Betel Nut 17 51
Passion Frdit
Blackberry 17
Peaches . 52
Brazil Nut . . - 17
Pears - - 55
Breadfruit . 18
Pepper . . .. . . 57
Cacao . .. . . . . 18
Persimmon 57
Calamondin 24
Cashew.. ...... .. Pili Nut - 58
25
Casimiroa Pineapple 59
26
Ceylon Gooseberry 26 Plum 59
Cherimoya 27 Pomegranate 60
Chinese Gooseberry 27 Rambutan 61
Coconut 27 Raspberries 61
Coffee . . 28 Roselle 61
Custard Apple 31 Rubber 61
Cyphomandra 31 Sapodilla . 64
Dates 32 Sapote - . 65
Durian 33 Sapucaia Nut . . 66
Figs 33 Soursop-Guanab ana . . . . 66
Grape 34 Star-Apple 66
Grapefruit 34 Strawberries 67
Guava . . 36 Sweetsop 68
Guava-Cattley . - 38 Tangelos 68
Ilama . . . . 38 Tea . . . 69
Imbu . 38 Tung . . . . 71
Kumquats -- 38 Vanilla - - 73

vii
 Page Page
Chapter3 Turnip .. .. .. -. Ill
Watermelon . - 111
VEGETABLE CROPS...... .. 73
Seed Storage - 74 Chapter 4
Estimated Yield . .... ... 76
DISEASE AND NEMATODE CONTROL 113
Plant and Temperature Requirements - 77
Composition 78
Chapter 5
Artichoke 75
Asparagus 75 WEEDS AND THEIR CONTROL 135
Beans . 84
Broad Bean - 84 Chapter 6
Dry Bean . -. . 84 INSECT CONTROL . . 143
Hyacinth Bean... ... - . 84
Lima Bean - . . 84 Chapter 7
Mung Bean . .. ... .. 84
Snap Bean----------­ 84 PLANT MATERIAL. -­ 162
Soybean . 86
Beets . 86 Chapter 8
Broccoli------------------.-.--- 86 EQUIPMENT, SUPPLIES
Cabbage . . . . 87 AND MATERIAL . . - - - - 163
Carrots . . . . . .. . . 88
Cauliflower . . - 89 Chapter 9
Celery 89
Chayote 90 CONVERSION FACT ORS . 166
Chick-Peas 90 Area - 166
Corn - . 90 Irrigation . 166
Cress 92 Length 167 S
Cucumber . . . .... 92 Pressure . 167
Eggplant.-........ 93 Various . 167
Endive-Escarole . . . 94 Volume ....... - .... ..... 167
Greens 95 Weight...... 169
Lettuce..... . . . ....... .. 96 Yield . . . .. . ... .... .--- 169
Muskmelon . 97 Number of plants per acre
Okra 98 at different spacing ... 170
Onion . .. 98 Number of trees per acre
Peanut ........... . - 100 at different spacing --­ 172
Peas 101 Random Numbers 17a
Pepper. ...... - 102
Pigeon Pea 103 Chapter 10
Popcorn 103
BOOKS AND GENERAL REFERENCES 175
Pumpkin 103
Radish . . . . 104 APPENDIX A . 178
Root Vegetables . . . 104 Insects alphabetically by Common Name
Sesame 107
APPENDIX B............... 180
Southern Pea .. . - - 107 Insects alphabetically by Scientific Names
Squash - . 108
Tomato - . - 108 INDEX-.... ........... 182

viii
 Figure 21. CUSHION GALL ON CACAO TREE.

Figure 22. REMOVING A WITCHES BROOM ON A Figure 24. POD DAMAGE CAUSED BY A SQUIRREL.
YOUNG CACAO TREE.

Figure 23. DISTORTED CACAO POD CAUSED BY Figure 25. DARK COLORED PODS ARE INFECTED BY
WITCHES BROOM. MONILIA POD ROT.

I
 BuddingA Young Cacao Tree

Figure 26. PREPARING A YOUNG CACAO TREE TO Figure 28. SLIP BUD IN STOCK AND TAPE.
RECEIVE BUD.

Figure 27. REMOVING BUD FROM A HIGH YIELDING Figure 29. PLASTIC TAPE SHOULD COMPLETELY
TREE. COVER WOUND TO PREVENT INFECTION

2
 PLANT DEFICIENCY

SYMPTOMS IN CACAO

Figure32. POTASSIUM DEFICIENCY.

Figure30. NITROGEN DEFICIENCY. Figure 33. CALCIUM DEFICIENCY.

Figure 31. PHOSPHORUSDEFICIENCY. Figure 34. MAGNESIUM DEFICIENCY,

3
 PLANT DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS

IN CACAO (Continued)

Figure 37. COPPER DEFICIENCY,

Figure 35. MANGANESE DEFICIENCY. Figure 38. IRON DEFICIENCY.

Figure 36. BORON DEFICIENCY. Figure39. SULPHUR DEFICIENCY.

4
 COFFEE TREES IN BLOOM

Figure45. LIBERICA COFFEE.

Figure 43. ARAB[CA COFFEE. Figure 46. ONE OF COFFES WORST DISEASES, ORI-
ENTAL LEAF RUST.

Figure 44. ROBUSTA COFFEE. Figure 47. COFFEE CHERRIES READY FOR HARVEST.
GREEN CHERRIES SHOULD NEVER BE HARVESTED.

5
 PLANT DEFICIENCY

SYMPTOMS IN COFFEE

Figure 51. PHOSPHORUS DEFICIENCY.

Figure 49. NITROGEN DEFICIENCY. Figure 52. CALCIUM DEFICIENCY.

Figure 50. POTASSIUM DEFICIENCY. Figure 53. MAGNESIUM DEFICIENCY.

6
 PLANT DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS

IN COFFEE (Continued)

Figure 56. IRON DEFICIENCY

Figure 54. MANGANESE DEFICIENCY.

Figure 5. BORON DEFICIENCY. Figure57. ZINC DEFICIENCY.

7
Figure 59. FEMALE PAPAYA TREE WITH FRUIT. Figure 65. BROAD BEAN PLANT AND PODS. SOME.
TIMES CALLED HORSE BEAN.

Figure 64. ARTICHOKE BLOSSOMS. Figure 77. CUCUMBER MOSAIC CAUSED BY A VIRUS
ON A TOMATO PLANT.

8
 Chapter 1
AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH

Low agricultural productivity prevailed generally tor Justin S. Morrill from Vermont sponsored a
throughout all parts of the world until research be­ bill in 1862 to establish land grant colleges to en­
gan making substantial improvements in the field courage the development of agriculture.
of agriculture. A relationship exists between the The information obtained through research re­
level of agricultural productivity and the level of sulted in increased crop yield and livestock pro­
economic development and nutrition. Countries of duction. This was due in part to the extensive use
the highest productivity are among the most highly of a wide range of improved methods and tech­
developed of the world. Increased food production nology, including improved crop varieties, fertiliz­
and improved human nutrition are major objec­ ers, pesticides, herbicides, water conservation and
tives of national development and international mechanization that made possible more economic
asustance programs. and better seeding, cultivating, harvesting and
Average crop yields in the United States in­ marketing. The extensive use of modern scientific
creased 50 per cent from 1940 to 1961. Agricultural methods could treble or quadruple agricultural
production in the United Kingdom, France, Neth­ production in most of the less extensively developed
erlands and Japan was 54, 52, 68 and 45 per cent tropical countries. Such methods will continue to
greater, respectively, in 1960 than during the provide for higher levels of productivity in the
prewar era. Most of the increases resulted from economically advanced countries. It is estimated
increased yields per unit area of crops or per live­ that the U. S. population could live a year on the
stock unit rather than from an increase in the area food destroyed annually by the world's rats, insects
of crops or number of livestock. George H. Schull, and plant diseases. Americans eat enough fruits
who fint developed hybrid corn, is partly responsi­ and vegetables in a year to fill 1,500,000 freight
ble for the fact the U.S. farmers are now producing cars (1) .
20 per cent more corn on 25 per cent less area than The scientific methods used in the more ad­
in 1930. Agricultural research is directly or indi­ vanced countries must be adapted for use in the
rectly responsible for a large percentage of the other countries, most of which are in the tropical
increase in production. areas. Technical assistance is needed to accelerate
The farm picture in the United States has change and increase productivity. It is necessary to
changed considerably as a result of agricultural re­ promote the introduction and adaptation of
search in the past century. One hundred years ago modern scientific methods of agricultural pro­
67 per cent of the working people were working on duction, assist in the establishment of agricultural
farms but in 1962 only 8 per cent of the U. S. institutions and services, the training of staff mem­
population was on farms. However, the efficiency bers and the analysis of the country's agricultural
of farming is mechanized to a point where one problems and methods of solving them.
farmer can produce enough to feed 27 people. The The foundation for technological advance has
average American spent only 20 per cent of his been laid in most regions. The introduction, adap­
income for food in 1962 as compared with 67 per tation and breeding of improved varieties of major
cent one hundred years before (I). crops has been intensified in the last ten years in
Modem agricultural research began during the the Near East, Far East, and Latin America and
period of 1830 to 1850 in France, England and to a lesser degree in Africa. Many superior varieties
Germany. The United States Department of Agri­ of numerous food crops are being grown now and
culture and the land grant colleges and experiment more will be used within a few years. Some coun­
stations were started in the 1860-1890 period. Sena­ tries are developing improved facilities for the

9
production, storage and distribution of improved 7. Herbicide Trials: to determine the most
seed, but much remains to be done. economical means of weed control.
Fertilizer is closely correlated with productivity 8. Irrigation Trials: to determine water re­
and serves as an index of the degree to which more quirements and methods of irrigation for
modern agricultural practices are used by a nation tropical crops.
(2). It has been established that the Near East, Far 9. Farm Management: to determine the most
East, Latin America and Africa wilt require an economical cultural practices for tropical
additional 26 million tons of nitrogen, phosphate crops.
and potash by 1980 if food production and nutri­ 10. Marketing: to determine the most economi­
tion goals are to be met (2). cal means of transportation and marketing.
The development of well trained personnel and
1I. Processing: to explore the possibility of
agricultural institutions requires a long time. In
processing tropical crops for export.
some countries a good start has been made in
recent years. The number of competent agricultural 12. Distribution; to determine the most eco­
personnel and institutions in 1962 is much greater nomical means of distribution to prevent
spoilage and inefficient handling.
than in 1950.
A great deal of research is needed on tropical 13. Health: to improve the quality of the diet
crops in. the future. The areas which need im­ and change the nutritional level where
mediate attention are 'as'follows'' needed in tropical countries.
1. Variety Trials: to determine the best va­ 14. Credit: to establish a good credit system so
rieties for a given environment. that farmers can take advantage of new
2. Plant Breeding: to develop new high yield­ scientific methods.
ing varieties resistant to plant pests. 15. Extension: to develop an efficient means of
3. Fertilizer Trials: to determine the kind, distributing research results to the farmers.
amount and placement of fertilizers for
each crop for a given environmrent. ', ,
References
4. Machinery: to develop machinery that will'
work' undtr' tiropical conditibons on small 1. Anonymous. 1962. Life. Nov. 23. Time Inc. Chicago, I1.
farms, or develop cooperative niachinery 2. Parker, F.v. 1962. Fertilizers and Economic Development.
pools. Presented to the Fertilizer Workshop, American Society
of Soil Science.
5. Disease Control: to determine the most
economical means of disease control under 3. Parker, F.W. 1962. Progress and Prospects for Food Pro­
duction. Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Amcri­
tropical conditions. can Society of Agronomy. Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.
6. Insect and Rodent Control: to determine 4. Williams. M.S. and LW. Couston. 1962.. Crop. Production
the most economical means of insect, rodent Levels and Fertilizer Use. Food and, Agr_. Org., of ilt , ,,
and nematode control. U.N., Rome, Ttaly (FAO).

10
 Chapter 2
FRUIT AND TREE CROPS

Tropical fruit crops are numerous and only Anacardium occidentale. Cashew, nuts and
those considered most important are included in fruits.
this book. Many of the temperate zone fruit crops Annona cherimola. Cherimoya.
can be grown in the Tropics at high altitudes pro- Annona diversifolia. llama.
vided the chilling requirements are met. Each fruit Areca cathecu. Betel nut for
crop is considered separately and listed alpha­ chewing.
betically so that each can be located readily. Artocarpus communis. Breadfruit.
There is a shortage of reliable research data on Bertholletia excelsa. Brazil nut.
many of the crops in the Tropics. Experimentation Canarium ovatum. Pili nut.
is much needed on most of the important tropical Citrus aurantium. Sour orange.
fruits. Most of the work in past years has been con- Citrus aurantifolia. Lime.
ducted by the French, Dutch, Germans, English, Citrus limon. Lemon.
Belgians, Hawaiians, Costa Ricans, Puerto Ricans, Citrus nobilis. King and Satsuma
Portuguese and Brazilians. orange.
A classification of the most important fruit crops Cola acuminata. Kola nut for drinks.
follows: Diospyros kaki. Persimmon.
CLASS I. Of wide commercial importance. Dipteiyx odorata. Tonka bean.
CLASS II. Of limited commercial impor- Elaecis guineensis. African oil palm.
tance. Eriobotrya japonica. Loquat.
CLASS III. Usually grown for local markets Ficus carica. Fig.
only. Fragariaspp. Strawberry.
CLASS IV. Minor crops not often marketed. Ilex paraguariensis. Mate tea.
Litchi chinensis. Lychee.
Macadamia ternifolia. Macadamia nut.
CLASS I. Malus sylvestris.
Apple.
Ananas comosuts. Pineapple.
Myristica fragrans.
Nutmeg.
Citrus paradisi Grapefruit.
Olea europaea.
Olive.
Citrus reticulata. Mandarines and
Passiflora edulis. Passion fruit.
Tangerines. Phoenix dactylifera.
Dates.
Citrus sinensis. Orange. Pinus pinea.
Pine nuts.
Cocos nucifera Coconut.
Piper nigrum.
Black pepper.
Coffea arabica. Coffee.
Pistaciavera. Pistachio nut.
Hevea brasiliensis. Rubber tree.
Prunus armeniaca. Apricot.
Mangifera indica. Mango.
Prunus persica. Peach.
Muse spp. Banana.
Musa paradisiaca.
Prunus salicina. Plum.
Plantain.

Persea americana. Avocado.

Psidium guajava.
Guava.
Thea sinensis. Tea.
Punica granatum.
Pomegranate.
Theobroma ca cao. Cocoa. Vanilla planifolia.
Vanilla vine.
Vitis spp. Grapes.
CLASS 11.
Aleurites fordii. Tung nut for CLASS IIT.
industrial oil. Achras zapota. Sapodilla, Chicle.

11
 CLASS III. (Cont'd)
CLASS IV.

Annona muricata.
Guanabana, Anacolosa luzoniensis. Galo (filbert).

Soursop.
Annona purpurea. Soncoya.

Annona reticulata. Custard apple.

Antidesma bunius. Biznay.

Annona squamosa. Sweetsop.

Averrhoa bilimbi. Bilimbi.

Artocarpus integra. Jackfruit.

Averrhoa carambola. Carambola.

Artocarpus odoratissima. Marang (dessert

Carissa grandiflora. Natal plum.

fruit) .
Carissa carandas. Karanda.

Byrsonima crassifolia. Nanche, Golden

Souari nut.

Caryocar nuciferum.
Spoon.
Chrysobalanus icaco. Icaco, Cocoplum.

Calocarpum sapota. Sapote.

Citrus mitis. Calamondin Orange.
Calocarpum viride. Green sapote.
Coccoloba uvifera. Seagrape.
Carica papaya. Papaya,
Cydonia oblonga. Quince.
Canarium commune. Java almond.
Grumixameira.
Eugenia brasiliensis.
Casimiroa edulis. White sapore.
Grumichama.
Eugenia dombeyi.

Ceratonia siliqua. Carob.

Eugenia malaccensis. Malay apple.

Chrysophyllum cainito. Cainito, Star-apple.

Pitanga, Surinam

Eugenia uniflora.
Citrus crandis. Shaddock.
cherry.
Cubilia blancoi. Cubili nut.
Feijoa sellowiana. Feijoa.
Cyphomandra betacea. Tree tomato.
Flacourtiaindica. Governor's plum.
Dovyalis hebecarpa. Ketembilla, Ceylon

CLASS IV. (Cont'd)

gooseberry.

Durio zibethinus.
Durian.
Licania platypus. Sansapote.

Euphoria longan.
Mortis nigra. Black mulberry.

Longan.

Fortunella spp.

Nephelium mutabile. Pulasan, Bulala like

Kumquat.

Garcinia mangostana. Mangosteen.

lychee.

Lansium domesticum. Lanson.

Syzygium cumini. Java plum.

Lecythis spp. Syzygium jambos. Rose apple.

Sapucaia nut.

Terminalia edulis. Beach almond,

Paradise nut.

Malpighia glabra. Acerola, Barbados

Calompit.

cherry. Zizyphus mauritiana. Indian Jujube.

Mammea americana. Mamey.

Mangifera verticillata. Bauno.
Melicocca bijuga. Mamoncillo, Genip. ACEROLA
Monstera deliciosa. Ceriman,
Myrciaria cauliflora, Jaboticaba.

Nephelium lappaceum.
WEST INDIAN CHERRY, BARBADOS
Rambutan.
CHERRY
Passiflora ligularis. Sweet Granadilla.

Passiflora quadrangularis. Giant granadilla.

Psidium cattleianum. Yellow Strawberry

(Malpighiaglabra)
guava. Acerola is a shrub which may grow to a height
Pyrus prunifolia.
Chinese pear. of 15 feet. Some acerola trees have been found to
Rollinia deliciosa.
Biriba. have the highest known content of ascorbic acid
Rubus spp.
Blackberry. of any fruit, 1,000 to 3,300 mg. of ascorbic acid per
Rubus albescens.
Mysore raspberry. 100 grams of edible fruit or about 100 times that
Solanum quitoense.
Naranjilla. of oranges and 10 times that of guava or cashew
Spondias cytherea. Otaheite apple. (2). It is also an excellent source of vitamin A and
Spondias mombin. Yellow mombin. iron (4).
Spondias purpurea. Red mombin, Since there is a great variation in seedlings, it is
"Ciruela del Pais." best to propagate superior clones asexually either
Spondias tuberosa. Imbu. by cuttings with leaves untrimmed or by shield
Tamarindus indica Tamarind. budding. Because acerola is highly susceptible to

12
 nematodes, side-grafting or budding on Malpighia (2). Sprays may be used but are not very satisfactory
suberosa or another resistant species might be ad­ for breaking dormancy in apples. (2).
visable. Mild winter varieties that have been recom­
The Florida Sweet variety selected at Homestead, mended are White Pearmain, Winter Banana,
Florida, is superior in vigor, yield, ease of propaga­ Beverly Hills (1), Emilia (2), Transcendant, Yellow
tion and has a pleasant flavor similar to that of Siberian (3), Early Harvest, Hyslop, Delicious, Wolf
cherry. It may yield 25 tons of fruit per acre at 8 River (4), and Hume (5).
years of age (3).
Poor pollination has become a factor in Hawaii, References
perhaps because of lack of wind or specific pollinat­
ing insects; the use of indole butyric acid at 100 1. Allen, F.W. 1951. Apple growing in California. Calif. Agr.
p.p.m. gave a good set without serious toxic effect Ext. Cir. 178.
(5). 2. Anonymous 1962. Cultivo del manzana. Ministerio de
Agr. Lima, Peru. Bol. Tech. No. 21.
3. Boynton, I. 1959. Observations on the temperature
References limitations of the apple in Tropical America. Proc.
Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. Carib. Sec. 7:69-88.
I. Arostegui, F. and W. Pennock. 1956. The acerola. P.R. 4. Chandler, W.H. 1960. Some studies of rest in apple trees.
Agr. Exp. Sta. Misc. Pub. 15. Proc.Amer. Soc. Hort.Sci. 76:1-10.
2. Asenjo, C.F., et al. 1946. The high ascorbic acid content 5. Foster, L.T. 1963. The performance of cloud apple root­
of the West Indian cherry. Science 103:219. stock in Nyasaland. The Rhodesian Journal of Agricul­
3. Garcia Monge, G., et al. 1962. Persistence of parathion ture Research I (1:39-46.
residues on fresh West Indian cherries and in canned 6. Reinecke. O.S.H. 1931. Dieback of fruit trees in Western
West Indian cherry juices. Jour.Agr. Univ. P.R. 46(1): Cape Province. Ul. of S. Aft. Dept. Agr. But. 97.
9-14. 7. Weinberger, J.H. 1961. Seeds. U.S. Dept. Agr. Ybk: 46-51.
4. Ledin, R.B. 1958. The Barbados or West Indian cherry.
Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 594. 28.
1 Yamane, G.M. and H.Y. Nakasone. 1961. The effects of APRICOTS
growth regulators on fruit set and growth of acerola.
Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech, Bul. 43. 19.
(Prunusarmeniaca)

APPLES Temperatures between 400 and 45OF are needed

for breaking the rest period of apricots. Some
(Malus sylvestris) varieties with low chilling requirements can be
used in places like southern California but apricots
Apples normally are temperate zone plants since generally are poorly adapted to the Tropics. Earli­
they require varying amounts of chilling and gold, Reeves, Trevatt, Royal and Newcastle (1) (2),
dormancy for good crops; however, some varieties seem to withstand mild winter temperatures better
are able to produce fruit with relatively short chill­ than others.
ing. In any case apples can be grown at higher
elevations in the Tropics if the cold requirements References
can be met. Quality is never as good in hot regions
as in the temperate zone, but at 7,000 feet in Guate­ 1. Chandler, W.H. 1947. Deciduous Orchards. Lea A-Febiger.
mala good quality has been obtained. Apples are Philadelphia, Pa.
grown near Ambato, Ecuador, which is one degree 2. Home, Wj., et al. 1926. Resistance of peach varieties to
south of the equator, at an altitude of 9,000 feet. an obscure disease in California. Jour. Hered. 17 (3):
99-104.
It has been calculated that most apple varieties
require 1,000 hours below 45'F and 1,500 to 2,000
day degrees for maturing the fruit. This may be AVOCADO
modified by cloudy weather, pruning or dwarfing
rootstocks. There should be a mean minimum of (Perseaamericana)
450F or less and a mean maximum of 65 0 F or be­
low for 4 months together with low rainfall. Warm Avocados are native to tropical America but are
months should have a mean minimum of 50 0 F or cultivated in nearly all tropical countries. In food
higher and a mean maximum of 70*F or higher value the avocado compares with banana. Fat con­

1
Figure 1. APPLE DEFORMED AND RUSSETED BY PEAR LEAF BLISTER MITES. U.S.DA. Photograph.

tent varies from 7 to 23 per cent in different va­ patible (4). There are other causes for poor fruit
rieties and is highly digestible. Pound for pound, set, such as a heavy crop the preceding year and
the avocado has more energy value than meat. The weather conditions at the time of flowering.
iron content is higher and it contains vitamins A, Varieties have been classified as to time of open­
B, C, D, E, and K (8). ing of flowers into: (A) those which shed their
Three races are recognized: the West Indian, pollen in the morning but are not receptive except
which is larger in size and lower in percentage of in the afternoon, and (B) those which shed their
oil than the Guatemalan, which has a thick rind pollen in the afternoon and are not receptive ex­
and is intermediate in oil percentage and is of cept in the morning. In some cases it has been con­
medium to small size; the Mexican race has anise­ sidered best to interplant varieties of each class to
scented leaves while the other races do not. insure good crops (6).
Pollination is a problem that has had much study Seeds should not be permitted to dry out and it
in the United States because of the poor crops in is best to plant them directly from the fruit. They
some cases; however, none of the leading com­ should be planted with the broadest part down­
mercial varieties have been found to be self-incom- ward and usually the tip left uncovered or only

14
lightly covered. Since the trees usually become between leaf nitrogen and yield of Fuerte avocado.
Proc.Amer. Soc. Hart. Sci. 74:378-382.
large and need more space than citrus, it is best
6. Hume, E.P. 1951. Growing avocados in Puerto Rico.
to allow about 100 m2 per tree. Avocado trees P.R. Agr. Exp. Sta. (Federal) Cir. 33.
usually are balled when being moved from nursery 7. Johnston, J.C. and E.F. Frolich. 1957. Avocado propaga­
to orchard. Balls 10 inches in diameter and 14 to 16 tion. Calif. Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir. 463.
inches deep are used (7). Pruning is mainly for 8. Pierce, H.F. 1959. Nutritional value of the avocado.
convenience in cultivating or harvesting. Calif, Avocado Assoc. Ybi, 43:83-85,
9. Rosetti, V. 1960. Podridao das raizes do abacateiro.
Shield budding has been successful in California Biologico 26 (12) :249.
but in wrapping, the bud should be left uncovered. 10. Ruehle. C.D. 1958. The Florida avocado industry. Fla.
The veneer side-graft is generally preferred in Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 602. 100.
Florida. 11. Zentmyer, G.A. and A.O. Paulus. 1957. Phytophthora
Varieties (10) more commonly propagated are: avocado root rot. Calif. Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir. 465. 15.

West Indian race: Simmonds, Pollock,

Catalina. BANANAS
Guatemalan race: Hass, Nabal, Itzamna,
Taylor. (Musa spp.)
Mexican race: Puebla.
Hybrids: Fuerte, Lula, Choquette, Bananas are unusual in that all are partheno­
Booth 8, Hall, Collinred. carpic clones of uncertain origin. This is one of
Edranol, Fuerte, Hass, Huzzard and Sherwil were the oldest known cultivated crops. The cooking
the best of many varieties tested in Queensland. banana or plantain has been classified as Musa
Kampong has very large fruits and ripens in the paradisiacabut taxonomy of other bananas is not
spring at Homestead, Florida. entirely clear (4).
Nitrogen is the most important fertilizer; how­ Among dessert varieties, Gros Michel is adapted
ever, requirements appear to be less than in citrus. to shipping but is susceptible to Fusarium oxy­
Too much nitrogen apparently reduces fruit set in sporum (Schlecht.) which causes Panama disease.
California (1). No evidence of need for phosphates Other names for Gros Michel are Pisang Embon,
or potash has been reported, to the knowledge of Bluefields and Johnson. Cavendish, which is re­
the authors. Magnesium requirements are higher sistant to Fusarium sp., is small and well flavored
than in citrus but toxicity results from excessive but more easily bruised when handled as stems. It
amounts (2). Approximately 2 lbs. N per tree per is the principal variety in the Canary Islands, the
year appears to be the maximum in California (5) Mediterranean region and Australia where hands
and 0.5 to 1.0 lb. per tree is an average application. are cut from stems and packed in crates. Lacatan
Avocado trees are sensitive to poor drainage and is larger than Cavendish but otherwise similar. The
water logging, factors which may predispose the
trees to the avocado root rot, Phytophthora cin­
namomi Rands (ll). This soil-borne fungus is
difficult to control and practically impossible to
eradicate at present.
Fruits do not tolerate storage at temperatures
below 50 0 F (3).

References
1. Boyce, A.M. 1959. Avocado research at Citrus Experi­
ment Station. Calif. Citrog. 44 (4):134-137.
2. Brusca, J.N. and A.R.C. Han. 1960. Magnesium re­
quired by avocado trees. Calif. Agr. 14 (7):54.
3. Campbell, C.W. and T.T. Hatton. 1959. Chilling injury
in Pollock avocados during cold storage. Proc. Fla. State
Hurt. Soc. 72:337-338.
4. Chandler, W.H. 1950, Evergreen Orchards, Lea £
Febiger. Philadelphia, Pa. Figure 2. BANANAS SHOULD BE PLANTED ONLY ON
5. Embleton. T.W., et al. 1959. Curvilinear relationship SOIL FREE OF THE PANAMA DISEASE.

15
 the temperature. At lower temperatures fruits re­
quire a longer time. Temperatures below 530F are
harmful to the fruit. "An ideal banana district
would have no temperatures below 60OF or above
950F and for high yields, temperatures above 750
during a considerable part of the time" (4). Con­
stant moisture is needed; soil should be a deep, well
drained loam.
Limiting the number of suckers that are allowed
to grow per plant is necessary to obtain marketable
fruit. Cavendish bananas planted 3 x 3 meters do
best with 2 to 3 stems. Gros Michel at 16 x 16 feet
will do well with 4 suckers or stems. Choosing and
spacing these to provide continuous production re­
quires skill and good judgment. The banana plants
should be close enough to shade out grasses while
other weeds are kept low by periodic machete
Figure 3. THE SIGATOKA DISEASE ON BANANAS IS
cuttings.
CONTROLLED WITH DITHANE M-22 IN AGRICUL-
TURAL SPRAY OIL. Blossoming occurs 9 to 10 months after planting
and the first harvest 13 to 15 months after planting.
Cutting the bud below the stem after it has been
formed is a common practice in Central America
and is thought to add about 2 pounds to the weight
of the stem. Stems are cut before the fruit is fully
ripe or when the ribs begin to round out. Bananas
tend to split if allowed to ripen on the tree (1).
Sprinkling for 24 hours may cause loss of 8 per
cent N and 14 per cent Mg from Cavendish leaves
by leaching (2). Frequent light irrigations under
the trees gives better results than overhead sprin­
kling or less frequent heavier irrigations.
Nitrogen is the only fertilizer which has shown
response in 13 years of experience in Jamaica (3).
Insects, diseases and nematode control are im­
portant factors in production (8). Consult Chapters
4 and 6 for further information.

References
1. Anonymous, 1947. How Bananas Grow. United Fruit Co.
2. Bhan, K.C, et al. 1959. Some mineral losses from leaves
Figure - AICRO-AIR SPRAYER USED FOR THE CON-
by leaching. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 73:289-293.
TROL OF SIGATOKA ON BANANAS.
3. Butler, A.F, 1960. Fertilizer experiments with Gros
Michel banana. Trap. Agr. (Trinidad) 37 (1):31-50.
varieties Apple and Lady Finger or Date are small, 4. Chandler, W.H. 1950. Evergreen Orchards. Lea &
Febiger. Philadelphia, Pa.
richly-flavored bananas, useful mainly for home 5. Naik, K.C. 1949. South India Fruits and Their Culture.
use or local market (4). Williams Hybrid is especial­ Varadachy & Co. Madras, India.
ly valuable where high winds occur and may have 6, Ochse, J.J., et al, 1961. Tropical and Subtropical
resistance to bunchy top, to which Cavendish is Horticulture. Vol, II 1446, The MacMillan Co. New
susceptible. York, N.Y.
7. Ruehle, G.D. 1958. Growing bananas in Florida. Fla.
Bananas produce the same tonnage of edible ma­ Agr. Ext. Cir. 178.
terials per acre as potatoes (9). 8. Shell Oil Co. 1960. Bananas, pest, disease and weed
Fruit matures in 75 to 115 days, depending on control. 40.

16
 9. Simmonds, N.W. 1948. The relative yields of bananas results in premature fruit fall. If the disease goes
and potatoes. Trop. Agr. (Trinidad) 23 (12):226-228.
unchecked it may be fatal to the tree. Control pro­
10. Simmonds, N.W. 1962. Bananas. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
New York 16, N.Y.
cedures call for Bordeaux applications and the re­
moval of infected trees. The symptoms of the foot
rot are similar to those of drought. The most com­
mon procedure for at least partial control of this
disease is the eradication of infected material (1).
BETEL NUT
Reference
ARECANUT
1. Raghaven, V., and H.K. Baruah. 1958. Arecanut: India's
popular masticatory-history, chemistry and utilization.
(Areca cathecu Linn.) Econ. Bot. 12:315-345.

The betel nut palm or arecanut palm is the chief

source of chewing nuts of India and other far BLACKBERRIES
eastern nations such as Malaya and Indonesia (1).
The betel nut is tropical in its requirements and
(Rubus spp.)
is confined to Southeast Asia for the most part. The Berries grow only at higher altitudes in tropical
betel nut is believed to have originated in the areas or at cool locations. One variety known
Sunda Islands (1).
locally as "Mora" is Rubus glaucus and grows suc­
The betel nut can grow in very moist soils; how­ cessfully at 5,000 ft. in Central America. This is a
ever, the soil should have the capacity for thorough
vigorous vine that requires trellising and bears
drainage and the ability to retain optimum mois­
large fruits, very firm and richly flavored. Produc­
ture for the palms. An overabundance of lime may
tion is practically continuous with sufficient mois­
limit production (1). The betel nut is a shade ture.
loving plant that prefers low altitudes with tem­
Other varieties of possible value are Bigness,
peratures of 600 to 100 0 F. If grown in areas of 30
Regal Ness, Oklawaha and Flordagrand (3). Florda­
to 60 inches of rainfall per year the betel nut may
grand requires a pollinator if no wild berries are
require supplementary irrigation.
growing near by.
The betel nut is propagated exclusively by seed-
It is preferable to shade the nursery and bananas
spaced 3 m. x 3 m. provide adequate shade. The
References
seedlings are usually transplanted 3 months to 4 1. Scott, D.H. 1961. Growing blackberries. U.S. Dept. Agr.
years after seeding in the nursery. The seedlings Farm But. 2160 (revised).
2. Shoemaker, J.., et al. 1958. Flordagrand, a new black­
should be transplanted during the rainy season.
berry for home gardens and local markets. Fla. Agr. Exp.
The number of trees planted per acre varies from Sta. Cir. S-112.
400 to 600 trees per acre in some areas to as high 3. Yarnell, S.H. 1946. Introducing three new berry varieties
as 800 to 1200 trees per acre (1). of the Ness family. Texas Agr. Exp. Sta. Prog. Rpt.
The betel nut palm will attain the height of 12 1043.
to 30 meters, 30 to 45 cm. in diameter. It flowers
in its seventh year and reaches full bearing poten­ BRAZIL NUT
tial in about 10 to 15 years. The flowers are cross­
pollinated. The fruits take 6 to 8 months to ripen (Bertholletia excelsa)
and are harvested when they are bright red in
color. Trees may yield 300 to 600 fruits per year. Brazil nuts generally are not planted as a com­
In Malaya trained monkeys often are used to aid in mercial crop but are gathered from wild trees in
harvesting the nuts from the tall palms (1). the Amazon valley. The nuts are in large pods with
The most prevalent diseases of the betel nut are up to 25 or more triangular nuts packed inside.
the "Koleroga" fruit rot caused by Phytophthora Nuts have a high oil content, 65 to 70 per cent
arecae (Col.) Pethy, and a foot rot caused by fat, 8 per cent carbohydrates and 13 to 17 per cent
Ganoderma lucidum (Leys.) Karst. The fruit rot protein. Seeds lose their viability rapidly when
attacks the fruits while they are still green which stored (1).

17
 Reference Most of the world's supply of cacao is produced
in Nigeria and Ghana. Brazil also accounts for a
1. Chandler, W.II. 1958. Evergreen Orchards. Lea &Febiger. large part of the world production.
Philadelphia, Pa.
Most of the research work has been conducted in
Nigeria, Ghana, Trinidad, Brazil, Costa Rica, Indo­
BREADFRUIT nesia and Ecuador. Information can be obtained
on the latest cacao research from these countries.
(Artocarpus communis) The American Cocoa Research Institute is financ­
ing research in some of these countries.
This is an East Indian and Polynesian fruit It is desirable to start with the highest-producing
which has been introduced to the West Indies. It plant material available. Clonal or hybrid cacao
is not generally liked in Central America where should be used. There is a tendency in the western
many other fruits are more tasty, but is used widely hemisphere to concentrate on hybrid cacao since
in the West Indies. The breadfruit is an attractive, certain hybrids are resistant to witches' broom
ornamental tree with large leaves. The fruit is high caused by Marasmius perniciosus (Stathel) .
in starch, rich in calcium and is a fair source of In order to produce interclonal cacao hybrids it
vitamins A and B. is necessary to have cacao clones available. The
Breadfruit is limited by some horticulturists to highest yielding clones in Trinidad are ICS 1. ICS
the seedless clones which are propagated by root 95, ICS 6 and IMC 67; the best clones in Ecuador
suckers or root cuttings. Branch cuttings 3/s inch in are EET 400 and EET 19, and the best clones in
diameter and 12 to 15 inches long, treated by Costa Rica are UF 221 and CC-10; however, these
dipping the bases in 1% indolebutyric acid (IBA) clones are not resistant to witches' broom. If hy­
solution, have resulted in rooting. brids are to be made in the future with resistance
The common forms which produce seeds are to witches' broom the SCA 6, SCA 12 and SIL I
sometimes called breadnuts. These seeds are com­ clones, all of which have resistance, should be used.
monly sold in the markets in Haiti and are roasted These can be imported from the United States De­
and eaten like chestnuts. partment of Agriculture Plant Introduction Station
at Miami, Florida, or Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, as
References these are quarantine stations and the plant material
is free from serious cacao diseases.
I. Chandler, W.H. 1950. Evergreen Orchards. Lea &kFebiger.
Philadelphia, Pa.

CACAO
(Theobroma cacao)
Cacao belongs to the family Sterculiaceae. It can
be grown in areas between 20 degrees north and
south of the equator. All the main production cen­
ters are located within a belt extending 10 degrees
north and south of the equator. Cacao is grown in
altitudes from sea level up to 500 meters but it
thrives best in the lowlands, below 300 meters.
Cacao performs best at 1,500 to 2,000 mm. (60 to
80 inches) of rainfall annually, well distributed
throughout the year. A deep, well drained top soil,
rich in organic matter is desirable for cacao. Cacao
will tolerate a pH range of 4.0 to 7.4 in the top
soil and pH 4.0 to 8.3 in the subsoil. A soil survey
Figure 5. ROOTING CACAO CUTTINGS IN A CORE OF
should be made before planting so that only the SAWDUST WHICH IS IN THE CENTER OF A BAG OF
best areas will be selected for cacao (2). GOOD SOIL

18
 be resistant to witches' broom since resistance seems
to be governed by dominant genes. The clones SCA
6 and SCA 12 are resistant to witches' broom but
they have no commercial value as clones because
of their small seed size. When these clones are
crossed to clones having large seeds the hybrid
progency produces seed acceptable to the market
since the seed size of the hybrid tends to equal the
mean of the two parents. In countries where
witches' broom is not a problem it would not be
necessary to use resistant clones and many different
crosses could be tried. It would be desirable to try
crossing high yielding clones of diverse origins. The
use of self-incompatible clones should be considered
since isolated seed gardens could be used in the
future for producing hybrid seed.
There has not been a great deal of work done on
spacing cacao trees. A spacing trial at the Tropical
Experiment Station in Pichilingue, Ecuador,
showed that clonal cacao trees spaced 2 x 5 meters
Figure 6. A MIST TYPE CACAO PROPAGATOR WITH gave a higher yield than trees spaced 3 x 5 or 4 x 5
50 PER CENT SHADE
meters. At the present time, many growers are
spacing clonal and hybrid cacao 4 x 4 meters. Ex­
periments are needed to determine the most eco­
nomical spacing for hybrid and clonal cacao. The
results in Trinidad indicate that closely spaced
cacao trees give high yields per acre in the earlier
years of production. The spacing recommended for
clonal cacao in Trinidad is 3.6 x 3.6 meters.
An experiment on pruning clonal cacao was
started in 1954 at the Tropical Experiment Station
in Ecuador. The results at the present time indicate
that the unpruned trees give the highest yield.
Experiments need to be conducted on hybrid
cacao. At the present time the information avail­
able would indicate that cacao trees should be
pruned as little as possible. Light pruning can be
done to remove diseased wood and to make harvest­
ing and spraying easier.
It has been a common practice nearly every­
where to grow cacao trees under shade trees. In a
Figure 7. A POLYETHYLENE TYPE CACAO PROPA- few areas cacao trees grown without shade are
GATOR producing high yields; however, where cacao is
grown without shade, the young seedlings receive
The highest yielding hybrids in Trinidad, re­ temporary shade while being established. Experi­
sistant to witches' broom, are ICS 60 x SCA-12, ICS ments need to be carried out in all new areas to
6 x SCA 6, ICS 1 x SCA 12 and ICS 6 x SCA 12. determine which method is best. Fertilizer trials
The best yielding hybrids in Ecuador resistant to need to be incorporated into the experiments as
witches' broom are ICS-6 x SIL-1, ICS-I x SIL-1, the unshaded cacao may require more fertilizer
and ICS-fi x SCA 12. Most of the hybrids tested in since the level of phytosynthesis would be higher.
the western hemisphere have one parent resistant The fertilizer practices must be worked out for
to witches' broom so that the hybrid progeny will each cacao area since the environmental conditions

19
 4h

Figure S. AN INTERCLONAL HYBRID CACAO THAT IS RESISTANT TO WITCHES' BROOM CAN HE MADE BY
CROSSING SCA-12 WITH ICS-6.

*.IL

#600
** i

LET 10 EET- 2 75

S CA -7/2 ICS- 6

Figure 9. THE SEEDS OF SCA-12 ARE TOO SMALL TO BE SOLD COMMERCIALLY BUT WHEN IT IS CROSSED
WITH ICS-6 THE SEEDS OF THE PROGENY ARE ACCEPTED COMMERCIALLY.

20
 no aood control of this disease. Infected trees are
removed and burned and insecticides are used
against mealybugs, Planococcoidesnjalensis (Laing)
which disseminate the virus (3). Dieldrin is used
to control the ants which move the mealybugs.
The cacao pods should be harvested only when
they are fully ripe. Some types of cacao produce
red pods while others produce yellow pods. The
red-podded types turn vermilion-orange color when
they are ripe and the green-podded types turn
yellow. The trees should be harvested weekly dur­
ing the harvest season. The diseased and insect­
infected pods should be destroyed (3).
The cacao beans should be fermented in wooden
boxes for 3 to 8 days, depending on the type of
cacao and climatic conditions. Some types of cacao
can be fermented in baskets or by placing them in
piles on a drying patio. The Rohan system of fer­
mentation has given excellent results for small lots
of beans. This system consists of stacking small
boxes together in piles. The time of fermentation
needs to be worked out for different types of cacao
since some types require less time than others. After
Figure 10. CLONE EET-62 WAS LOCATED AT HACIEN-
DA PORVENIR IN ECUADOR AND IS A VERY HIGH the beans are fermented they are dried in the sun
YIELDING CLONE. on a patio. This will require 3 or 4 days depending
on the temperature. Some of the large plantations
use artificial driers. The dry beans are graded for size
vary in different places. Where nothing is known
and insect injury. (Color photographs, pages 1-4.)
about fertilizers in an area a complete factorial ex­
periment should be started. It is possible that re­
sponses from fertilizers will be apparent earlier on
unshaded cacao than on shaded cacao. In some
countries no fertilizer response to nitrogen has
been obtained in areas on unshaded cacao.
The most serious disease in the western hemi­
sphere are witches' broom caused by MaG.vmius
perniciosus (Statheb), Monilia pod rot caused by
Monilia sp. and black pod rot caused by Phytoph­
thora palmivora Bud. In order to prevent witches'
broom, resistant interclonal hybrid cacao should
be grown. Experiments are being conducted on
Monilia pod rot at the Tropical Experiment Sta­
tion, Pichilingue, Ecuador. Kocide or zineb is the
best control at the present time. Bordeaux or
kocide has been used to control black pod rot and
at the present time experiments are being con­
ducted with new fungicides by the Instituto de
Ciencias Agricolas at Turrialba, Costa Rica.
The most important disease in West Africa is
swollen shoot caused by viruses. The branches of
the trees swell and small yellow elongated spots
appear all over the mature leaves. Later the leaves Figure 11. A CACAO FERMENTATION BOX IS NEEDED
drop and death of the branches follows. There is TO PRODUCE HIGH QUALITY CACAO.

21
 40

EE T" 62 EE T- 275
PORVENIR 7 ICS-6
Figure 12
THE SEEDS OF FET-62 AND ICS-6 ARE LARGE AND MAKE GOOD PARENTS FOR CROSSING WITH
WITCHES' AROOM-RESISTANT CLONES SUCH AS SCA-6 AND SCA-12.

'7
a

IL
EET -96
EE T
-F

POP VENIR 10
Figure 13. CLONES EET-96 AND ICS-6 HAVE LARGE SEEDS AND ARE HIGH YIELDING CLONES. THESE CLONES
CAN BE CROSSED WITH SCA-12 OR SCA-6 TO OBTAIN HYBRIDS RESISTANT TO WITCHES' BROOM.

22
 Figure 16. A HEALTHY POD AT TOP COMPARED
WITH TWO PODS INFECTED WITH MONILIA.

Figure 14. THE VIALS ARE REPLACED AFTER POLL-

NATION, TO PREVENT INSECTS FROM VISITING THE
FLOWERS.

Figure 15. THE VIALS ARE HELD ON THE TRUNK Figure 17. SIDE VIEW OF LOW VOLUME KNAPSACA
OF THE TREE WITH MOLDING CLAY AND WIRE. SPRA YER.

23
Figure 18. VIALS ARE PLACED OVER CACAO BUDS
BEFORE THEY OPEN.

Figure 20. THE FLOWERS ARE EMASCULATED BE-

FORE BEING POLLINATED WITH A DIFFERENT
CLONE.

References
1. Hardy, Frederick. 1961. Cacao Manual. Instituto Inter­
americano de Ciencias Agricolas. Turrialba, Costa Rica.
2. Ochse, Jj., MJ. Soule, Jr., MJ. Dijkman, C. Wehlburg,
1961. Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture. The Mac-
Millan Co. New York, N.Y.
3. Urquhart, D.H. 1955. Cocoa. Longmans, Green and Co.
New York, N.Y.

CALAMONDIN
(Citrus mitis)
Calamondin also is called Philippine lime and
is especially useful for limeades. Flavor is different
and appeals to many people. It has the advantages
of year-round production and decorative value.
Fruits are bright orange color, mostly an inch in
diameter and the peel is thin and loose resembling
the tangerine. It is considered by some as a man­
Figure 19. FRONT VIEW OF LOW VOLUME KNAP- darin hybrid but since it breeds true from seed it
SACK SPRAYER USED ON SMALL BANANA, CACAO does not have to be vegetatively propagated. It has
AND COFFEE PLANTATIONS. shown some promise as a rootstock since it has re-

24
sistance to gummosis (2) and has been found suit­ with the stalk upward (10). Maturity and time of
able for satsumas but questionable for oranges in harvest had no effect on germination. Seeds germi­
south Texas (4). It is a good stock for citrus at nate in 3 to 4 weeks.
Homestead, Florida (3). It is not resistant to Seedlings were found to transplant readily at
nematodes. It is highly tolerant of calcareous soils I month old or at 10 months old. At 3 to 8 months
(1) of age, they were difficult to transplant (4).
Culture, fertilizers and pests would be similar to Spacing of 20 to 40 feet is used in South India.
that of oranges. Calamondins are considered excel­ Plantings 15 ft. each way usually are too close.
lent for marmalade. Air layers from the more productive trees come
into bearing in 20 months as compared with 4 years
References for seedlings. Grafted trees are taller and more ro­
bust and bear fruit sooner than seedlings (8).
1, Cooper, W.C., et al. 1954. Screening citrus rootstock Budded trees come into bearing in the second year
seedlings for tolerance to calcareous soils. Proc. R.G.
after budding in El Salvador. Trees may be budded
Valley Hart. Inst. 8:100-105.
2. Klotz, LJ. and H.S. Fawcett. 1930. Relative resistance of in the Philippines by using mature budwood that
varieties and species of citrus to Pythiacystis gunmosis is turning grayish; the bud is cut 1/2 to Is/4 inches
and other bark diseases. Jour. Agr. Res. 41 (5):415-425. long; the bud is inserted at a point of approximate­
3. Lynch, SJ. 1942. Citrus Culture Studies. Fla. Agr. Exp. ly the same age and appearance as the scion.
Sta. An. Rep. 193-195. Harvesting the nuts may be done as soon as the
4. Mortensen, E. 1954. Citrus rootstocks in the Winter
Garden area of Texas. Proc. R.G. Valley Hort. Inst.
shells become ash-colored, before the fruit is ripe.
6:28-34. The usual method is to shake the tree. Nuts are
allowed to dry in the sun until they rattle in the
hull, then they are roasted in rotary cylinders at
CASHEW 150 to 160'F. Shelling is done by hand after roast­
ing and kernels are dried either in the sun or in
(Anacardium occidentale) hot air chambers. Mechanical shelling is used in
Tanganyika experimentally (5). Afterwards the
Cashews are related to mangoes. They will grow
brownish thin skin is removed and the peeled
in stony, sandy or hilly land not suitable for other
kernels are placed in "sweating chambers" to ab­
crops. They rarely are grown above 5,000 feet and
sorb some moisture (7) . The shell contains an oil
are found mostly below 2,000 feet elevation (7).
that is highly irritating to the skin. It is expelled
The fleshy portion or apple is used for fresh
during roasting so the smoke should not come in
eating and when fully ripe can be made into a
contact with the eyes or skin.
delicious beverage. It also makes a good wine or
Since only 5 per cent of the trees in South India
may be used in preserves (9). It is rated as a rich
are heavy bearers and the nut characters show a
source of vitamin C and has 7 to 9 per cent sugar
wide variation there should be a great improve­
and 0.5 per cent tannin (3).
ment by propagating superior clones (10).
There is a wide variation in the weight, size and
juice content of the apples as well as the size of the
nuts. Larger apples usually have larger nuts and References
higher juice content while yellow apples are less . Albuquerque, S.D.S., et al. 1960. Studies on the apple
astringent, heavier and softer than red apples (1). characters of cashew (Anacardiurn occidentale). Mysore
Cashew nuts of high density usually give better Agr. Jour. 35 (1):2-8.
germination, more vigorous seedlings and produce 2. Auckland, A.C. 1961. The influence of seed quality on
a higher yield than those from nuts of low density the early growth of cashew. Trop. Agr. (Trinidad) 38
(1):57-67.
(2)(12). 3. Chandler, W.H. 1950. Evergreen Orchards. Lea &
The kernel is an important commercial item Febiger. Philadelphia, Pa.
growing extensively in India and East Africa, It 4. Hassan, MV. and V.N.M. Rao. 1957. Transplanting
has 40 per cent oil of high quality and 15 per cent seedlings of cashew. Indian Jour. Agr. Sci. 27 (2):
protein (6). 177-184.
5. Morton, J.F. 1961. The cashew's bright future. Econ.
In spite of the great variation in seedlings there Bot. 15 (1):57-58.
are few named varieties (5). Seeds were found to 6. Mowry, H., et al. 1958. Miscellaneous tropical and sub­
germinate best when planted 2 to 3 inches deep tropical Florida fruits. Fla. Agr. Ext, Bul. 156 A.

25
 7. Naik, K.C. 1949. South India Fruits and Their Culture. and still develop almost full flavor. The fruit is
P, Varadachy & Co. Madras. fairly rich in vitamin C and nearly as rich in carbo­
8, Nayar, T.G. and P.J. Jacob. 1958. Cashew grafts and
hydrates and protein as banana (1).
layers excel seedlings. Indian Jour. Agr. Sci. 28 (1):
129-132. Dade requires another variety for pollination as
9. Popence, W. 1920. Manual of Tropical and Subtropical it does not have normal pollen (2).
Fruits. The MacMillan Co. New York, N.Y. As in citrus, seeds should be planted at once
10. Rao, V.N.M. and M.V. Hassan. 1956. Variations in seed after removing from the fruit. Nitrogen require­
characters of the cashew. Indian Jour. Agr. Sci. 26:
ments are lower than for citrus. Spacing probably
211-216.
I1. Rao, V.N.M., et al. 1957. Germination of cashew seeds. should be 8 to 10 meters each way in the orchard.
Indian four. Agr. Sci. 27 (1):25-34.
12. Sayed, IA. 1937. The development of the cashew nut References
industry in India. Agr. and Livestock in India. Vol. 9,
part 1. 1. Chandler, W.H. 1958. Evergreen Orchards. Lea k Febiger.
13. Turner, D.J. 1956. Germination and grading of cashew Philadelphia. Pa.
nuts. E. African Agr. Jour. 22 (1):35-39, 2. Mustard, MJ. 1954. Pollen production and seed develop­
ment in the white sapote. Bot. Car. 116 (2):189-192.
3. Popence, W. 1920. Manual of Tropical and Subtropical
Fruits, The MacMillan Co. New York, N.Y.
CASIMIROA

(Casimiroa edulis) CEYLON GOOSEBERRY (Kitembilla)

This is called white sapote in the United States (Dovyalis hebecarpa)

and actually is not a sapote but a relative of citrus.
In Central America it is called "matasano". Two This is a shrub native to Ceylon, bearing round
species are recognized, C. edulis and C. tetrameria, velvety berries along the branches about the size
of which only C. edulis has fruits that are free of of marbles and brownish-purple when ripe. The
unpleasant turpentine flavors (1). Fruits of C. tetra­ juice from these berries is an intense red color and
meria are larger and more attractive but have a makes excellent jelly or beverage. Fruits ripen in
lingering, disagreeable aftertaste. August and September north of the equator and
The trees are ornamental, vigorous, rapid grow­ thrive in well-drained soil (1). Plants normally are
ing, and easily propagated. They tend to grow tall dioecious when grown from seed. Perfect flowered
and, like most citrus, severe pruning causes them plants are found occasionally and selections should
to reduce flowering and fruiting. They normally be made from these for propagation by cuttings
are found in deep, well drained soils at medium which are easily rooted. Seeds germinate in 10 to
elevations in Central America but probably with 15 days. The plants may be budded or grafted (2).
irrigation would grow at lower elevations. Because of its high ascorbic acid content it is
Selections have been made in California and well worth growing for home use and might have
Florida of which Dade and Pike probably are best. some commercial value for processing as jelly.
The skin of Pike is smooth and bright green when Spacing should be at least 6 to 8 meters each way
ripe but is yellow on Dade. The flesh is yellow, because plants are widely spreading and occupy as
tender and sweet, without acidity. Fruits tend to much ground as citrus. Enormous crops of fruit
fall when ripe but may be harvested before ripe are normally produced (3).

26
 Other species that have larger fruits with yellow China and thrives in citrus growing areas of New
or apricot-colored flesh are Dovyalis abyssinica and Zealand. They have not been seen in the American
D. cafira, the keiapple. Each of these may be made Tropics by the authors. It is readily propagated
into jelly, sauces or preserves but D. abyssinica is from cuttings. Abundant moisture is required. A
especially pleasant for fresh eating. Both of these good market for the fruits is available in Australia
species also are deciduous (2). ().

References Reference
1. MacMillan, H.F. 1954. Tropical Planting and Gardening. 1. Avant, K.L. 1959. Berry fruit growing in Victoria. Jour.
The MacMillan Co. New York, N.Y. Agr. Victoria. 57 (10):647-651, 677.
2. Mowry, H., et al. 1958. Miscellaneous tropical and sub­
tropical fruits. Fla. Agr. Ext. But. 156 A.
3. Popenoc, W. 1920. Manual of Tropical and Subtropical COCONUT
Fruits. The MacMillan Co., New York, N.Y,
(Cocos nucifera)

CHERIMOYA The coconut is grown throughout the tropical

world and has become important as the source of
(Annona cherimola) copra and coconut oil. Coconuts can withstand
brackish water and commonly are seen growing
Cherimoya, Annona cherimola, is found in the along the sandy tropical coasts.
highlands of Central America and South America The coconut requires a well-drained soil for
and does not thrive in hot areas. A temperature proper root development. The trees do well in low
range of 700 to 85QF seems ideal, which means that areas where the water table is relatively high,
it would not do well in the Tropics below 3,000 provided the water table fluctuates to allow suf­
ft. elevation. Only in southern California have ficient aeration for proper root development (1) (8)
named varieties been reported to the authors' (4).
knowledge. Fruits from some clones may average The most important centers of coconut produc­
I to 2 lbs. Hand pollination seems to be necessary tion lie within 150 latitude of the equator and at
for a good crop (1) since cherimoya flowers do not elevations of 300 meters or lower (4); however,
pollinate themselves. In Peru, pollen from Annona coconuts have been grown successfully as far as 260
senegalensis is reported to give a better set and latitude north and at elevations as high as 600
larger fruit (2). meters (1). Coconuts will withstand a small amount
Cherimoya does not tolerate heavy pruning and of frost but do best in a climate having a mean
usually light pruning is sufficient. temperature ranging from 770 to 86*F (1) (4). A
It grafts well on seedlings of Annona reticulata, minimum of 60 inches of rainfall is required. Even
cherimoya or Annona squamosa. distribution of the rainfall and high atmospheric
humidity are preferable <1) (4).
References Cross-pollination has resulted in a great number
of varieties. These are distinguished on the basis of
1. Chandler, W.H. 1950. Evergreen Orchards. Lea & Febiger. color, size and shape (4). Because coconuts are
Philadelphia, Pa.
propagated only by seed, careful selection of seed
2. Garcia Pittman, E. 1956. La Chirimoya. La Molina Est.
Erp. Agric. Cir. 71:26. for reproduction is necessary. Coconuts from
known parentage should be selected (2) (3). Dwarf
coconuts bear early and give high yields in Jamaica.
CHINESE GOOSEBERRY Coconuts for propagation should be planted in
a nursery and then transplanted to the field from
(Actinidia chinensis) one-half to 4 years after placement in the nursery
(4). It is preferable to transplant them when they
The Chinese gooseberry is a climbing shrub with have attained a height of at least 18 inches (2).
fruits about the size of a small hen's egg. These are Spacing of trees in the plantation varies from
tart until fully ripe when they are sweet and may 8 m 2 to 10 m 2 which results in a tree density rang­
be eaten fresh. The Chinese gooseberry is native to ing from 100 to 156 trees per hectare (2) (4).

27
 The coconut requires 6 to 10 years before pro­ The most common insect pests of coconuts are
duction begins and does not reach full production as follows:
until 15 to 20 years of age (3). In many areas the 1. Rhinoceros beetle, Oryctes rhinoceros L.
average annual production is about 50 fruits per which attacks the heart of the tree (4).
tree, however, yields in superior plantations may 2. The coconut weevil, Rhynchophorus pal­
go as high as 100 fruits per tree (2) (4). Fruits usual­ marum (L.) is a Coleoptera which attacks the
ly require 1 year to develop (3). bud. (Dieldrin gives an effective control) (2).
The plantation should be well cultivated for 3. The beetles, Strategus spp., the larvae of which
weed control or a cover crop may be grown be­ attack the soft wood and the heart of the
tween the coconuts for the first 4 to 6 years (2) (3). tree (4).
Corn, tomatoes, bananas, or plantain may be grown 4. Katydids or long-horn grasshoppers, Sexava
between the rows; however, it is preferable to grow coriacca (U), S. nubila Stal, S. karnyi Leef­
mans, and S. novaeguineae Brancs. attack co­
leguminous green manure crops to increase the
conuts in almost all the coconut growing areas
level of soil fertility and enchance coconut pro­
duction (2) (3). Legumes recommended are Vigna (4).
sinensis, Vigna hosei, Puerariaphaseoloides, Crota­ 5. The larvae of the moths, Artona cataxantha
laria spp., Tephrosia sp., Stizolobium sp. etc. (2) (4).
(Hampson) and Hidari irava (Moore) eat the
Pasturing of the plantation usually is inadvisable young coconut leaves (4).
because the packing of the soil at the base of the
tree reduces the soil aeration, thus impeding root References
development.
Coconuts will respond to NPK applications de­ 1. Chandler, W.H. 1950. Evergreen Orchards. Lea & Febiger.
Philadelphia, Pa.
pending upon the nutrient level of the soil. In­ 2. Gattoni, LA. 1960. El Cocotero en Panama. Servicio
creased coconut production may be obtained by Interamericano de Cooperacion Agricola, Ministerio de
soil application of 5 pounds of 10-10-10 fertilizer AgTicultura, Comercios Industrios. Panama.
per mature tree per year (4). Gattoni (2) recom­ 3. Leonard, L.Y. and P.G. Sylvain. 1931. Traitt de Culture
Service Technique du Dtpartenent de 1'Agri­
mends I pound of nitrogen per plant for one year Fruititre.
culture et de 1Enseignement Professionel, Port-au-Prince.
old plants. By the time the trees reach the age of 173-198.
5 years this amount could be increased to 4 or 5 4. Ochse, Jj., M.J. Soule, Jr., Mj. Dijkman, and C. Wehl­
pounds of nitrogen per tree per year. burg, C. 1961. Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture. Vol.
The most damaging diseases attacking coconuts 11. The MacMillan Co., New York, N.Y.
are as follows: 5. Van Del Abeele, M. and R. Vandenput. 1951. Le
Principales Cultures du Congo Belge. La Direction de
1. Bud rot caused by Phytophthora palmivora I'Agriculture de IElevage et de la Colonisation. Bruxelles.
Bul. which attacks and kills the terminal
bud (2).
2. Leaf spot or leaf blight caused by Pestalotia COFFEE
palmarum Cke. (2).
3. Red ring caused by Aphelenchoides coco­(Coflea arabica)
philus, a nematode hitherto confined to the
western hemispheric tropics, results in a rapid Coffee belongs to the family Rubiaceae and will
wilting of the leaves and a red ring in the grow under a wide range of climatic conditions.
trunk (4). High quality coffee is obtained at altitudes of
4. Bronze leaf wilt, which is believed to be 1,200 to 1,700 meters where the temperature is 160
physiological in nature (4). to 22' centigrade. About 50 per cent of the world's
coffee comes from Brazil at elevations of 800 to
5. Bleeding stem disease caused by Thielaviopsis
paradoxa (De Segn.) Hoehn. (4). 1,200 meters (4). Very high yields of sun-grown
coffee are obtained at sea level in Hawaii. The
6. Dieback caused by Botryodiplodia theobro­
mae Pat. (4). milder coffees come from the higher elevations of
The height of the coconut often makes chemical El Salvador, Guatemala, Colombia and Costa Rica.
control difficult in older plantations. However, in Coffee thrives best in a deep, well-drained soil
many areas, aerial spray equipment is available that is not too light or too heavy. Volcanic loams
and fungicides may be applied. seem to be ideal for coffee. A pH range of 4.2 to

28
 5.1 is best for arabica coffee in Brazil and Robusta is found in sun-grown coffee. The leaves of coffee
coffee in East Africa (4). trees should have about 2.8 per cent total nitrogen
It is very important to select the right variety for for good production. A potash response has been
any given area. In order to decide which variety obtained in some countries on sun-grown coffee.
yields the highest, it is necessary to conduct variety Generally coffee does not respond to phosphate. In
trials. The following varieties have performed well some areas coffee responds to magnesium, iron,
in some Latin American countries: Caturra, Pacas, zinc, manganese and boron. Leaf symptoms of
Mundo Novo and Bourbon. The Caturra variety
has short internodes, is easy to harvest and adapts
itself well to close spacing. The INEAC variety of
Robusta coffee is a good yielder.
Coffee is grown under shade in many countries
but at the present time there is a trend away from
this type of coffee culture. Several experiments in
different parts of the world have shown that sun­
grown coffee, when fertilized, yields several times
more coffee than shade grown coffee.
Spacing trials in Puerto Rico and Ecuador have
shown that close spacing of coffee trees yields
higher than wide spacing of the trees. At the pres­
ent time the best spacing seems to be 1 x 2 meters
for Caturra coffee. Close spacing reduces the labor
costs for weeding the coffee.
Since fertilizer requirements for coffee vary with
different environmental conditions, trials corre­
lated with tissue analysis are necessary for de­
termining the correct fertilizer practices for a
specific environment.
Figure 41. A FOUR-YEAR-OLD ROBUSTA COFFEE
Sun coffee requires more fertilizer than shade­ TREE GROWN WITHOUT SHADE.
grown coffee. Nitrogen usually is deficient in most
tropical soils and a nitrogen response frequently

Figure 40. GROWING COFFEE SEEDLINGS IN POLY- Figure 42. A THREE-YEAR-OLD CATURRA COFFEE
ETHYLENE BAGS. TREE GROWN WITHOUT SHADE.

29
nutrient deficiencies are shown in color on pages TABLE 1. PRUNING COFFEE BY THE

22 through 25. BF I - 3 - 2 - 4 SYSTEM

Many different types of pruning systems are used

Trees planted in 1964 with two meters between rows and one
for coffee. The main reason for pruning is to re­ meter between trees
duce the effect of biennial bearing and to make
harvesting easier. Biennial bearing is a characteris­ Row No. I pruned 1967
tic of coffee since the cherries develop on one year Row No. 3 pruned 1968
lat cycle
Row No, 2 pruned 1969
old wood. When coffee is not pruned there is a ten­
Row No. 4 pruned 1970
dency for coffee to bear heavily one year and pro­
duce new wood the next year when production is
Row No. pruned 1971
light, then to produce another heavy crop the fol­ Row No. pruned 1972
lowing year on the one year old wood. A good 2nd cycle
Row No. pruned 1973
pruning system will tend to lower the yield on Row No. pruned 1974
the peak years and raise the yield on the lower
years of coffee production. Some pruning systems
require skilled laborers. The best system that does row pruning is to take advantage of the shade of
not require skilled labor is called the BF pruning the trees which have not been pruned recently.
system and was named after Dr. J. H. Beaumont More information on the BF system of pruning
and Mr. Edward Fukunaga of the Department of
can be obtained from the Department of Horticul­
Horticulture, University of Hawaii. The main ad­ ture of the University of Hawaii.
vantages of this system are that it can be applied The most serious coffee disease is Hemileia rust
to a high population of trees and the pruning sys­ caused by Hemileia vastatrix Berk. & Br. as shown
tem is simple enough so that it can be taught to on page 23. This disease prevents the growth of
the farm workers. Several modifications of the BF arabica coffee in several countries of the world.
system can be used for different coffee tree spacings. Robusta and Liberica coffee are more tolerant to
The BF 1 - 3 - 2 - 4 system will be used as an ex­ the disease and will grow in areas like western
ample. The pruning system should start after the Africa where Arabica coffee cannot produce. A few
second harvest year. The system consists of cutting Arabica varieties have resistance to this disease.
off the trees about 12 to 18 inches above the
Rootrot caused by Rosellinia bunodes (Berk. &
ground with a pruning saw. On large plantations
Br.) (Sacc.) can be serious under certain environ­
a mechanical saw can be used. New shoots will
mental conditions as well as berry spot caused by
appear and the three best ones should be selected Cercospora coffeicola (Berk. & Cke.)
for the next crop while the others are removed with
Scales and leaf miners can be serious on coffee
pruning shears. The pruning should be done after
in many Latin American countries. Scale damage
the harvest is completed each year. The BF 1 - 3 ­
is more serious in the dry season since a fungus is
2 - 4 system usually is used on coffee spaced I x 2
present in the wet season that kills the scale. Over­
meters. An example of two cycles of pruning is
head irrigation is the best control for scale when
shown in Table 1.
it is feasible. When it is not possible, the trees can
The rows are numbered consecutively through­ be sprayed with a mixture of agricultural spray oil
out the field from one to four and all the number and parathion. Leaf miners can be controlled with
one rows are cut the first year. These trees will be malathion or diazinon but the timing of the spray
out of production for one year so that only 75 per is very important and must be worked out for each
cent of the total tree population will be harvested environment. These insecticides should be applied
each year. This might appear as a disadvantage of only by experienced personnel since they are very
the system but since the system is set up for close toxic to human beings.
spacing such as I x 2 meters there will be 5,000 Coffee pickers tend to strip the berries from the
trees in each hectare and 3,750 trees would be trees in many parts of the world. The reason for
harvested each year. In a normal planting of coffee this is that the pickers are paid a certain amount
spaced 3 x 3 meters, there are only 1,111 trees per per box and they wish to harvest the highest
hectare, all of which are harvested each year. The amount possible in a given period of time in order
second year all the trees in row number three are to make as much money as possible. When the
pruned in like manner. The reason for alternate berries are stripped off the limbs, the green berries

30
 are harvested with the red cherries as the cherries
near the central axis of the tree mature before the
berries on the other part of the limb. The green
cherries are difficult to pulp and give a lower
quality coffee. When the limbs are stripped the
buds on the limbs also are injured and this affects
production next year.
This problem can be solved by the use of a
grading board. This can be made of wood or plastic
and should contain one hundred holes slightly
smaller than a coffee cherry. A random sample of
cherries is graded on the board by counting the
number of green cherries. When pickers are penal­
ized for the number of green cherries, this system
has a tendency to reduce the number of green
cherries picked.
All coffee should be processed by the wet method
in order to produce a high quality coffee. The red
cherries are pulped as soon as possible after harvest. V
In some countries a siphon tank is used before
pulping to separate the light beans from the heavy Figure48. SUN-DRYING COFFEE.
beans. After the cherries are pulped they are fer­
mented for 12 to 24 hours, then washed to remove CUSTARD APPLE, BULLOCKS HEART
the mucilage from the beans. The beans are then
sun-dried or artificially dried. After the beans have (Annona reticulata)
been dried they are hulled, polished and graded.
Large processing plants are more efficient for The custard apple is native to Central America
handling coffee and should be used whenever pos­ and the West Indies and grows in more difficult
sible. In areas where processing plants are not situations than other Annonas. Fruits are as large
available small pulpers and washers can be used. as those of cherimoya but not generally liked ex­
The technique or skill of processing coffee is ac­ cept in India (2). It grows in areas subject to long
quired with experience and cannot be obtained dry periods and does not tolerate high soil moisture
strictly from books. (1).
The dry method of processing is used in Brazil Its main value is as a vigorous, resistant stock
in areas where there is a shortage of water. The for other Annonas.
cherries are dried for 15 to 30 days and hulled
mechanically. This type of coffee usually is sold References
for less money due to lower quality.
1. Kennard, W.C. and H.F. Winters. 1960. Some fruits and
nuts for the tropics. U.S. Dept. Agr. Misc. Pub. 801:135.
2. Naik, K.C. 1949. South India Fruits and Their Culture.
References
Varadachy & Co. Madras.

1. Anonymous. 1960. Coffee Bibliography. Instituto Inter­

arnericano de Ciencias Agricolas. Turrialba, Costa Rica. CYPHOMANDRA
2. Haarer, A.E. 1956. Modern Coffee Production. Leonard
Hill Ltd., London, England.
3. Muller, L.E. 1959. Algunas deficiencias minerales com­
(Cyphomandra betacea)
munes en el Cafero. Instituto Interamericano de Ciencies
The "palo de tomate" or tree tomato of the
Agricolas. Turrialba, Costa Rica.
4. Ochae, JJ., M.G. Soule, Jr., MJ. Dijkman, C. Wehlburg. family Solanaceac is native to Peru and grows in
1961. Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture. The Mac- warmer regions only at higher elevations. The
Millan Co. New York, N.Y. plant is found in the Andean areas of Latin Ameri­
5. Wellman, F.L. 1960. Coffee. Interscience Publisher, Inc., ca and in Brazil. It begins bearing at 2 years from
New York, N.Y. seed and usually is finished at 5 or 6 years (2). It

31
has been developed as a commercial crop in New ripening. Pollen from the Fard male ripens Deglet
Zealand. Noor several weeks earlier than from other male
It grows 8 to 10 feet high with large cordate varieties. Pollen from Phoenix canariensis delays
ovate leaves, small pinkish flowers and fruits oval ripening by 3 weeks and reduces seed size (12).
in shape about 2 inches long, at first greenish Propagation is from offshoots which are pro­
purple changing to reddish purple when ripe. It duced in the first 8 to 10 years of growth. Planting
has a subacid agreeable flavor but usually is used seeds will give half males and half females and sex
in stews or for preserves (3). Other varieties may cannot be determined until flowers are produced,
be orange or red when mature. It requires abun­ after 5 to 8 years or more. Seedlings are highly
dant soil moisture and cool temperatures. Because variable. Offshoots should grow to about 15 to 20
it has a hard rind, it withstands the rough ride to pounds in weight and preferably have roots before
market and is a useful fruit for tropical mountain removing for transplanting. Special sharp chisels
areas. It is easily propagated from seed but also are used to sever the connection with the mother
may be propagated from cuttings which come into palm to prevent damage to either one. Mulching
bearing earlier (2). A spacing of 4 meters should about the base of the plant after transplanting and
be sufficient. The plants do well in the poultry wrapping the leaves in burlap are helpful in the
yard where they can serve as shade. hot summer. Medjhool is a large fruit of high
It is fairly free from insects and diseases but has quality that resists rain (5). To avoid rain and
been reported to be a host to potato virus Y (1). insect damage some varieties are eaten in the
When cooking the fruit the skin is removed by khalal (hard ripe) stage. Barhi, Jozee and Braim
scalding and the seeds are strained out (2). are sweet in this stage. Braim may be ripened by
boiling and drying (7).
References It is important that the time of ripening be free
of rain to prevent spoilage; however, some varieties
1. Barghava, K.S. and R.D. joshi. 1959, Virus disease of tree such as Amir Hajj, Kustawy, Thoory, Khadrawy,
tomato, Cyphomandra betarea, due to potato virus Y. Dayri and Halawy are less susceptible to rain
Amer. Pot. Jour. 36:288-291.
spoilage.
2. Hume, E.P. and H.F. Winters. 1949. The "palo de
tomate" or tree tomato. Econ. Bot. 3 (2)140-142. The number of heat units from the time of
3. Popenoe. W. 1920. Manual of Tropical and Subtropical blossoming to ripening ranges from 4,000 to 5,500
Fruits. The MacMillan Co. New York, N.Y. for various varieties (1). Growth of palms stops be­
low 48 0 F (10).
DATES Pruning or thinning 50 to 60 per cent of the
fruit set has been shown to give good results (13).
(Phoenix dactylifera) Dates are especially salt tolerant but are twice
as productive on salt free soils (8).
Date palms will grow throughout the Tropics
but only in favorable areas will they bloom and
ripen fruit. North East Brazil has promise as a References
date area (14). Over one third of the dates of the
1. Albert, D.W. and R.H. Hilgeman. 1933. Fruit growth
world are grown in Iraq (12). and temperature relationships in the date palm. Proc.
It probably is one of the earliest cultivated crops. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 30:225-228.
The plants are dioecious and are not pollinated 2. Aldrich, W.W. and T.R. Young. 1941. Carbohydrate
changes in the date palm during the summer. Proc.
by insects but fruit production is dependent on
Amer. Soc. Hort. Sd. 39:110-118.
man for pollination. Although the male flowers 3. Aldrich, W.W., et al. 1945. Some factors in influencing
produce abundant pollen wind does not carry the growth of date offshoots in the nursery row. Proc.
pollen very far. Amer. Soc. Hort.Sci. 46:215-221.
In orchard culture, one male palm produces 4. Barger, W.R. 1940. Harvesting and storing small lots of
enough pollen for 40 or 50 female palms. The fe­ dates at home, U.S. Dept. Agr. Cir. 553.
5. Brooks, R.M. and H.P. Olno. 1950. New fruit and nut
male flower has to be pollinated within 2 to 3
varieties. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Si. 56:519.
days from opening, Pollen can be stored for as 6. Chandler, W.H. 1950. Evergreen Orchards. Lea &
long as 12 months in an ordinary household re­ Febiger. Philadelphia, Pa.
frigerator if kept dry. Pollen from different males 7. Dowson, V.H.W. 1921. Dates and date cultivation in
can affect size of fruit, size of seed or time of Iraq. Parts I, II, III, Cambridge Univ., England.

32
 8. Eaton, F.M. 1949. Irrigation agriculture along the Nile ing; however, figs also grow in the Tropics in
and the Euphrates. Sci. Mo. 69 (1):34-42.
9. Furr, JR. and W.W. Armstrong. 1957. Nitrogen fertiliza­
areas free of frost. The most favorable climate ap­
tion of dates-a review and progress report. Date Grow. pears to be that of the Mediterranean area and
Inst. Rpt. 34:6-9. similar areas such as California, Chile and South
10. Mason, S.C. 1925. Minimum temperature for growth of Africa. To get the best quality of fruit, nights
the date palm and absence of a resting period. Jour. should be warm but temperatures above 100 0 F
Agr. Res. 31 (5):401-414.
would not be desirable (4). Figs thrive on abundant
11. Nixon, RW. 1936. Fruit thinning experiments with
Deglet Noor dates. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hart. Sci. 34:107. moisture but since figs are native to desert areas
12. Nixon. R.W. 1951. The date palm-'tree of life" in the they can withstand dry periods very well if the
subtropical deserts. Econ. Bot. 5 (3):274-301. soil is deep enough. Annual rainfall should be at
I3. Nixon, R.W. 1959. Growing dates in the United States. least 25 inches, preferably in the winter or early
US. Dept. Agr. Inf. But. 207.
spring.
14. Schrader, O.L. 1945. Contribucao no estudo da tamareira
no Brasil (Phoenix dactylifera). Bol. Min. Agr. Brasil Figs are high in calcium, sugar, iron and copper
34 (3):101. (2). Larger and better quality figs are grown along
15. Tate, H.F. and R.H. Hilgeman. 1958. Dates in Arizona. the coast rather than in the dry interior of Cali­
Ariz. Agr. Ext. Cir. 165. fornia.
Figs are propagated readily from cuttings. Graft­
DURIAN ing or budding also may be done. Many varieties
are known but only a few are adapted to the
(Durio zibethinus) Tropics. Because of insect damage by entering the
"eye" near maturity, it is necessary to choose varie­
The durian is not well known outside of south­
east Asia and the Malay archipelago where it is ties with a dosed "eye."
native. The large fruits weighing up to 10 lbs. are Smyrna figs require pollination but most of the
covered with numerous spines. When mature, the "closed eye" group are parthenocarpic. Celeste,
fruits have a very offensive odor but an excellent Green Ischia, Kadota and Brown Turkey do not
flavor and they are highly appreciated in the area require pollination (3). Preston Prolific is reported
where they are native (3). The seeds may be roasted to be resistant to splitting and insect damage in
and eaten like nuts (2). Australia. (6).
Apparently there is a great variation in seedlings Large scale production will continue to be in the
and some occur that are free of the objectionable Mediterranean type of climate but other areas may
odor (1). Seeds are quickly perishable but germi­ grow them for home use or canning (1) (5). It has
nate readily in 8 days when planted soon after re­ been shown that nitrogen gives increased growth
moving from the fruit. They can be budded by and yields without reducing quality. There was no
using buds prepared by removing the leaves from response from heavy applications of phosphorus
the twigs about 2 weeks before they are to be used. and potash (6). Figs are very susceptible to ne­
No horticultural varieties have been located by matodes and should not be grown in nematode in­
the authors. fested soils unless the soil has been treated.

References References
1. Barrett, O.W. 1912. The durian. Philip. Agr. Rev. b 1. Condit, LJ. 1947. The Fig. Ronald Press. New York, N.Y.
(11):589-592. 2. Condit, IJ. 1948. Figs-facts and figures of 1948. Econ.
2. MacMillan, H.F. 1954. Tropical Planting and Gardening. Bot. 2 (4):403-418.
The MacMillan Co. New York, N.Y. 3. Condit, IJ. 1955. Fig varieties-a monograph. Hilgardia.
3. Popence, W. 1920. Manual of Tropical and Subtropical 23:323-528.
Fruits. The MacMillan Co. New York, N.Y. 4. Eisen, C. 1901. The fig: its history, culture and curing
with descriptive catalog of known varieties of figs. US.
Dept. Agr. Div. Ponol. But. 9.
FIGS 5. Krezdorn, A.H. and G.W. Adriance. 1961. Fig growing in
the South. US. Dept. Agr. Hbh. 196.
(Ficuscarica) 6. Malcolm, H.D.R. 1964. Preston Prolific: new fig variety.
Ar. Gar. N.S.W. 75 (4):1209-1272.
A native of the Near East, the fig is more 7. Proebsting, EL. 1954. The effect of fertilizers on yield,
properly subtropical. It is deciduous and grows quality and leaf composition of figs. Proc. Amer. Soc.
where temperatures drop considerably below freez­ Hart. Sci. 63:10-18.

33
 GRAPES 3. Brooks, R.M. and H.P. Olmo. 1956. New fruit and nut
varieties. List 11. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sd. 68:618419.
4. Brooks, R.M. and H.P. Olmo. 1957. New fruit and nut
(Vitis spp.) varieties. List 14. Proc.Amer. Soc. Hart. Sci. 74:768-770.
5. Brooks, R.M. and H.P. Olmo, 1959. New fruit and nut
Grapes are preferred fruits in all Mediterranean varieties. List 14. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 74:768-770.
countries and wherever Mediterranean people have 6. Brooks, R.M. and H.P. Olmo. 1960, New fruit and nut
gone in the Tropics they have taken grapes with varieties. List 15, Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci.76:735-756.
7. Fennell, J.L. 1948. Inheritance studies with the tropical
them. Except for a few instances grapes have not
grape. Jour. Hered. 39 (2):54-464.
prospered in the Tropics. This is partly due to the 8, Le Roux, M.S. 1943. Grape varieties for local market.
lack of a dormant period but diseases have also Fmg. So. Afr. 18 (207):397-400.
prevented good growth and fruiting. The knowl­ 9. Le Roux, M.S. 1948. Planning a new table-grape vine­
edge that some vines have borne good fruit in the yard. Fmg. So. Afr. 23 (272):825"826.
Tropics and that some species of Vitis are tropical 10. Loomis, N.H. 1958. Performance of Vitis species in the
South as an indication of their relative resistance to
has encouraged plant breeders at the Florida Agri­ Pierce's disease. Plant Dis.Rep. 42 (7);833-830.
cultural Experiment Station laboratory at Lees­ I1. Maxwell, N.P. 1955. Vinifera grape marketing in the
burg, Florida, to use these in developing varieties Lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas. Proc. R. G. V.
suitable for warm climates (7, 15). Other breeders Hort. Inst. 8:74-78.
are using species from warm regions to develop re­ 12. Mortensen, E. and U.A. Randolph. 1940. Grape produc­
tion in Texas. Tex. Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir. 89.
sistance to black rot (1, 2, 16). 13. Raman, K.R. 1956. Early growth behaviour of two
Some varieties released that are of particular commercial grape varieties under Madurai conditions.
interest for the Tropics are Lake Emerald, Blue South India Hort. 4:118-127.
Lake (15), Dunstan, Phil S. Taylor (5), Red Ni­ 14. Raski, DJ. and L. Lider. 1959. Nematodes in grape
agara (6), Fairchild, Tropics (3), Everglades, Largo production. Calif. Agr. 13 (9):13-15.
15. Stover, L.H. 1961. New varieties may make Florida a
and Tamiami (4). Of the older varieties, Perle of grape producer. Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Res. Rpt. 6 (1):9, 17.
Csaba, Perlette and Delight (ll), Queen of the 16 Syamal, N.B. and G.I. Patel. 1954. A wild species of
Vineyard (8), Barlinka (9) and Pachadraksha (13) grape in India. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 62:228-230.
have been recommended in different areas.
Some varieties have been observed to bear fruit
in the Tropics. Black Spanish and a variety re­ GRAPEFRUIT
sembling Valhallah have produced fruit in El Sal
vador. Several vines bear fruit regularly at medium (Citrus paradisi)
elevations in Haiti. Lake Emerald has borne fruit
at sea level in Haiti. Isabella is one of the better Grapefruit is of American origin, probably in the
known varieties in Guatemala and Colombia. Her­ Caribbean area (6). It is characterized by generally
bemont and Lenoir are capable of cropping twice thinner skin, smaller juice sacs, and a more pleas­
a year in Honduras. Trials including the above va­ ing pulp texture than usually found in shaddocks.
rieties would be worthwhile wherever permanent It is very important in the U.S. citrus market and
planting can be made. is generally liked in the Caribbean area but is find­
Grapes are commonly propagated by cuttings. ing slow acceptance in other parts of the Tropics.
Rootstocks are useful in avoiding soil diseases and This is partly due to the very seedy fruits usually
nematodes. Dog Ridge, Champanel and La Pryor obtained from seedling trees and to the fact that
are good stocks for root rot resistance (12). Dog they are not allowed to ripen properly before har­
Ridge, Salt Creek and 1613 (14) are resistant to vesting.
some nematodes.
Grapefruit is especially adapted to the warm
climates at low elevations and does not require low
References temperatures for proper coloring when mature as
do the oranges (7). Grapefruit also requires nearly
. Barrett, RC. 1955. Black rot resistance of foliage on
twice as many heat units for maturity as oranges.
seedlings in selected grape progenies. Proc. Amer. Soc.
Hart. Sci. 66:220-224.
Using the summation of daily means above 550F
2- Barrett, H.C. 1957. Vitis cinerea as a source of desirable as an index, grapefruit needs 6800 units. Higher
characters in grape breeding. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. average temperatures give larger fruit in Cali­
70:165-168. fornia. Grapefruit is not as sensitive to water

34
Figure 5$. A-BLUE MOLD ON GRAPEFRUIT. B-BLUE AND GREEN MOLD ROTS. US.DA. Photograph.

35
deficits as oranges but an abundance of moisture is near the ground. Infected areas may be cleaned
is important for good yields (8). and painted with Bordeaux paste or Cuprocide
Most grapefruit varieties have originated in the but the only satisfactory control is the use of
United States. Two popular earlier varieties were resistant rootstocks.
Duncan, a very seedy but high quality fruit with An "aerial" gummosis can attack the branches
white flesh and Marsh, seedless with white flesh. in humid areas. Spraying with Captan has been
Limb sports with pink flesh are Thompson (Marsh found effective when applied at the beginning of
Pink) and Foster which is seedy. Further muta­ the rainy season each year. Reducing pruning to a
tions in recent years have produced varieties with minimum also is helpful since the disease enters
deeper red flesh and with color that shows through through wounds.
the peel. Ruby is the leading variety in South Tristeza is a serious virus that is transmitted
Texas (3). Burgundy Red has a deeper red color through infected budwood. This can be controlled
throughout the season than Ruby (5). John Garner only by using virus-free budwood and resistant
originated from Duncan seed and has the Duncan rootstock such as Cleopatra mandarin.
quality, with only 5 seeds per fruit (2). Duncan is To prevent blue or green mold, fruits should be
preferred for canning because the segments sepa­ stored at 45 0F. Fruits in tropical climates tend to
rate more easily. show pitting if stored below 45*F.
Grapefruit is propagated by budding <n seed­
lings. The best rootstock in extensive trials in References
Texas has been the Cleopatra mandarin (4).
1. Anonymous. 1956. The Mediterranean fruit fly: methods
Grapefruit requires a little more space than of eradication. US. Dept. Agr. P. A. 301.
oranges and should be planted 25 x 25 or 30 x 30 2. Brooks, R.M. and H.P. Olmo. 1944. New fruit and nut
feet. Pruning to remove dead wood and broken varieties. List No. 1. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hart. Sci. 45:467­
branches usually is sufficient. In very humid areas 490.
it may be necessary to prune branches near the 3. Brooks, RM. and H.P. Olmo. 1946. New fruit and nut va­
rieties. List No. 2. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 47:544-569.
ground. 4. Cooper. W.C., et a1. 1957, Orchard performance of young
Grapefruit requires fertilizer to produce high trees of red grapefruit on various rootstocks in Texas.
yields which may reach 20 tons of fruit per acre Proc.Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 70:213-222.
or more. About 1 to 2 lbs. of actual N per tree 5. Oberbacher, M.F., et al. 1960. Internal color and car­
should be used per year. This usually is applied in otenoid pigments of Burgundy grapefruit. Proc. Amer.
Soc, Hort. Sci. 75:262-265.
the spring just before blooming. It is best to keep 6. Robinson, T.R. 1952. Grapefruit and pummelos. Econ.
the nitrogen low when the fruit is ripening. Nitro­ Bot. 6 (3):228-245.
gen applied at the time of ripening may delay ma­ 7. Stearns, G.R. and G.T. Young. 1943. Relation of cli­
turity and reduce the quality. matic conditions to color development in citrus fruit.
Citrus Ind. 24 (3):9-12.
The California red scale is the most serious of all
8. Webber, H.J. 1943. Plant characteristics and climatology.
insects. In humid areas or during the rainy season The Citrus Industry. Vol. I, 41-69. U. of Calif. Press.
the scale is kept in check by fungi if no spraying
is done; however, when humidity is low and fungi
cannot develop, it sometimes becomes necessary to GUAVA
spray with parathion. Mites occasionally are serious
and can be controlled with Kelthane or malathion. (Psidium guajava)
Fruit flies also can be serious in the Tropics. These
are controlled by a bait spray at 2 week intervals; The common guava, Psidium guajava,native to
this consists of I lb. protein hydrolysate, 3 lbs. tropical America, has been distributed to nearly
malathion (25%) with I gal. or more of water (1). all the tropical and subtropical areas of the world.
Gummosis is a common disease in the Tropics. The fruit commonly is used for making jelly,
This may be avoided by budding 12 to 15 inches puree, paste or jam; however, it may be eaten as
above the ground level onto resistant stock such as fresh fruit. The guava has a high vitamin C con­
sour orange or Cleopatra mandarin. In setting the tent which may be 5 times as high as the orange <6).
nursery trees in the orchard, planting boards The guava may be grown on a wide range of
should be used to prevent the trees from settling soils. It will thrive on soils ranging in pH from 4.5
as the scion may become infected if the bud union to 8.2 if properly fertilized (7). For optimal growth

36
 the guava needs a constant supply of moisture (4). are marcottage or air layering, side-grafting and
The guava will survive flooding and will grow on cuttings. Both root and stem cuttings may be used.
water-logged soils (2). Hybrid guava stem cuttings treated with 0.8 per
Guavas are sensitive to low temperatures. Ma­ cent indolebutyric acid were 40 per cent successful
ture trees may withstand 26 0F for a short duration. in rooting after remaining under mist for one
However if mature trees are killed back to the month (3).
ground they will sprout from the base and return A limited number of plants can be made by
to production in 2 or 3 years. Young trees may be severing roots 2 to 3 feet away from the trunk of a
killed at 28 0 F for a short period of time (7). desired parent with a spade. Plants developing
Guavas are grown commercially at elevations less from the cut off portion can be dug up and trans­
than 1,000 meters in areas having an annual rain­ planted as soon as they reach a height of 12 inches.
fall from 40 to 150 inches (2) (5). Excessive and Recommended spacings between trees vary from
prolonged rainfall at the time of fruit ripening 18 to 30 ft. (2) -(7). In fertile soils or under heavy
often causes severe fruit cracking resulting in spoil­ fertilization the greater spacing would be the more
age and fruit loss (7). desirable.
Guavas commonly are propagated by seed. This The guava requires little pruning. Suckers aris­
has resulted in a wide assortment of seedlings. At ing at the base of the trunk should be removed as
present only a few named varieties of guava exist. well as low-hanging branches that touch the
The variety Supreme is high-yielding and produces ground.
a white-fleshed fruit of good quality for preserving The type, amount, and mixture of fertilizer used
or eating fresh (7). Three of the better known red­ will vary with the nature of the soil. One general
fleshed varieties are Red Indian, Rolfs, and Ruby. recommendation (2) includes applications of /
A cross between Ruby and Supreme has been pro­ pound of 8-8-8 or 10-10-5 fertilizer around the base
duced in Florida (7). of each tree four to five times a year. The second
Guavas are open-pollinated and produce seed­ year 2 pound and the third year 1 pound per tree
lings which are highly variable regarding fruit and per application should be used. Mature, producing
tree characteristics. In order to produce high yields guava trees should receive 150-200 pounds of nitro­
of desirable fruit it is advantageous to use vegeta­ gen per acre per year, preferably split into at least
tive propagation. Variability in seedlings can be 3 applications per year (7).
decreased by hand self-pollination of individual Under proper fertility guava trees usually begin
flowers designated for seed production. bearing fruit the second or third year and reach
When guavas are propagated by seed the seed satisfactory production after the fourth year (6) (7).
should be planted as soon as possible after the re­ The fungus, Clitocybe tabescens (Scop. ex Fr.)
moval from the fruit (7). The seed should be sown Bres. causes a root and crown rot which often at­
in flats of a sandy loam soil and covered to the tacks and kills guava trees. The fungus attacks
depth of 1/4 inch. Damping off may be a problem many species of trees as both a parasite and a
but can be controlled by seed treatment with cu­ saprophyte. Removal of tree roots, especially oak,
prous oxide or other suitable fungicides. Five to in the field prior to planting is the only known
seven months are required before the seedlings are method of avoiding this disease (7).
ready to be transplanted (2). The alga, Cephaleuros virescens Kunze often
An efficient method of vegetative propagation is causes a. spotting of fruits and leaves in humid
by bud grafting the selected variety on seedling coastal areas. Spraying with copper and zinc re­
rootstocks. Both the patch bud technique and the duces the infection (7).
Forkert technique are successful. Seedling stock Parasitic rootknot nematodes can cause con­
and budwood should be from 2 inch to 1 inch in siderable damage in sandy soils. Injury can be
diameter. Budwood should be conditioned by cut­ somewhat overcome by heavy fertilization, irriga­
ting off the leaves of selected branches 10 days to tion, and the use of nutritional sprays (7).
2 weeks before removing the branches for bud­ The oriental fruit fly, Dacus dorsalis Hendel, is
wood. During this period of time the buds become the most serious insect pest of guava in Hawaii. In
more enlarged and grow more readily after bud­ other areas the Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis
ding (2). capitata (Wied.), may be the most important pest
Other successful means of vegetative propagation attacking guava. The larvae of the fruit flies bur­

37
row through ripe fruit making it unfit for human The large sized fruit cracks when it ripens on
consumption. Satisfactory control may be obtained the tree and this cracking is the usual indication
with applications of malathion combined with a of time to harvest in Central America; however, it
protein hydrolysate bait material, applied at 2 would be better to harvest just before it splits
week intervals. High pressure spraying of DDT or and allow it to ripen after harvest. It should be
Methoxychlor also will give effective control (2). soft before eating.
Consult Chapter 4 for insect controls. Ilama appears to be well adapted to a protracted
dry season. "It is a fruit which cannot be too
CATTLEY GUAVA strongly recommended for cultivation throughout
the Tropics" (1).
(Psidium cattleianum)
Reference
The Gattley guava Psidium cattleianum Sabine,
1. Popenoe, W. 1920 Manual of Tropical and Subtropical
often called the strawberry guava, is more frost Fruits. The MacMillan Co. New York, N.Y.
resistant than the common guava. Mature plants
may withstand 22oF. The Cattley guava is of two
types, red and yellow. It is easily propagated by IMBU
seed and the seedlings are l6ss variable than in the
common guava. Red-banded thrips may attack the (Spondias tuberosa)
Cattley guava but they can be controlled easily
with Malathion (1) (4). The imbu grows wild on the plains of north­
eastern Brazil and has been cultivated in areas
where it is not indigenous. It has a low spreading
References
crown about 25 feet in diameter. The roots are
1. Chandler, W.H 1950. Evergreen Orchards. Lea & Febiger.
swollen, hence the specific name tuberosa. The
Philadelphia, Pa.
2. Hamilton, R.A. and H. Seagraves-Smith. 1954. Growing leaves are 4 to 6 inches long with 5 to 9 oblong
guava for processing. Univ. of Hawaii. Ext. But. 63. ovate leaflets, I to 1/4 inches in length. The fruit
3. Jolicoeur, J.H. 1962. The rooting of guava (Psidium is similar to a Green Gage plum. It is oval, about
guapava L.) cuttings treated with hormones under mist I/2 inches long and greenish yellow in color. The
in Haiti. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. S4. Carib. Sec.
skin is thicker than a plum and tough. The seed
4. Mowry, H., L.R. Toy, and H S. Wolfe. Revised by
Rueble, G.D. 1953. Miscellaneous tropical and subtropical is oblong and about s4 inch long (1).
Florida fruits. Fla. Agr. Ext. Scr. Bul. 156:91-92. The fruit of the imbu has the best flavor of the
5. Ochse, J.J., M.J. Soule, Jr., M.J. Dijkman, and C, Wehl­ Spondias. The fruit is eaten fresh and is used in a
burg. 1961. Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture. Vol. I. jelly. It is used to make a dessert in Brazil called
The MacMillan Co. New York, N.Y.
imbuyada.
6. Popenoce, W. 1920. Manual of Tropical and Subtropical
Fruits. The MacMillan Co. New York, N.Y. The fruits usually are grown from seed but it is
7. Ruehle, G.D. 1959. Growing guavas in Florida. Fla. Agr. desirable to propagate high yielding trees by vege­
Ext. Ser. Bul. 170. tative propagation. Cuttings can be used or imbu
can be inarched on ambarella. The tree should not
ILAMA be planted on calcareous soil.

(Annona diversifolia) Reference

This fruit thrives at low elevations and is con­ 1. Popenoc, W. 1920. Manual of Tropical and Subtropical
Fruits. The MacMillan Co. New York, N.Y.
sidered by most people equal to cherimoya as a
dessert fruit. The flesh may be either white or
pink. Superior clones have been successfully grafted KUMQUATS
on Annona reticulata. Because it can be grown
under more diverse conditions it probably has (Fortunellaspp.)
greater value than cherimoya in the Tropics. In
addition, hand-pollination is unnecessary. It is sel­ This citrus differs from other commercial types
dom found above 2,000 feet elevation. of citrus in that it is bushy and the fruits are small

38
with a sweet, mild rind. These are borne on small pruning is confined to interfering branches and
shoots with I to 5 fruits per shoot. These shoots dead wood.
often are harvested by cutting the twig to be used -Close spacing may be best in areas where the
for decoration. There is considerable demand for frost hazard is a problem, but in the warmer areas
the fruits in salads. 25 x 25 feet is recommended. Nitrogen is the main
Three varieties usually are considered most im­ fertilizer needed but more than 1 lb. of actual
portant. The Nagami is oval or oblong, brightly nitrogen per tree per year has not given any in­
colored but somewhat acid in pulp, about I to 2 creased yields (5). Lemons may respond to phos­
inches long and s/4 to 1 inch in diameter. The phorus especially if budded on rough lemon (2).
Marumi is small, round, rather acid but pleasant Lemons are harvested green and "cured" before
to eat in small quantities. It is highly colored and putting on the market. This is done in rooms with
decorative. The Meiwa is larger, about 1 to 1.5 80 per cent humidity at 60'F for 3 weeks (8).
inches in diameter, round, sweet and pleasant to Insect and disease problems are the same as for
eat. It is not as highly colored as the other two. It oranges.
frequently bears fruit in the nursery row before it
is one year old (1). References
They grow readily on trifoliate stock but may be
budded on other stocks, especially the citranges. 1. Brooks, R.M. and H.P. Olmo. 1946. New fruit and nut
Kumquats do not bloom until May in the varieties List No. 2. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hoyt. Sci. 47:
United States, thus being at their best at Christ­ 544-569.
2. Haas, A.R.C. 1951. Growth response of lemon and
mas time. orange trees to phosphate. Calif. Citrog. 36 (4):137,
166-167.
Reference 3. Oberbacher, MT.F, et a]. 1961. Handling Florida lemons
for the fresh market. Proc. Amer. Sac. Hart. Sci. 77:
1. Ochse, J.J., M J. Soule, Jr., MJ. Dijkman, C. Wehlburg. 225-230.
1961. Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture. The Mac- 1. Robinson, T.R. and E.M. Savage. 1948. Add citrus fruits
Millan Co., New York, N.Y for the Gulf Coast and Eastern subtropical crops region,
U.S. Dept. Agr Mimeograph
5 Rodney, D.R. and G.C. Sharples. 1962. Responses of
Lisbon lemon trees to applications of nitrogen, phosphate
LEMON and manure. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hart. Sci. 78:181-185.
6. Tanaka, T. 1926. Taxonomic aspect of tropic citriculture.
(Citrus limon) Philip. Agr. Rev. 19 (3):179-184.

Lemons are not as well adapted as limes and

calamondins to the Tropics (6) and are commercial­ LIMES
ly important only in the Subtropics such as Cali­
fornia, Chile and the Mediterranean area. This is (Citrus aurantifolia)
unfortunate for tropical regions as lemons have
some advantages in their tougher peels and resis­ Citrus aurantifoliais considered to be the only
tance to handling in marketing. They also have truly tropical species of commercial citrus (6).
higher ascorbic acid content and may be stored Limes are especially well adapted to tropical areas,
for considerable time. growing well at low elevations and even near the
In Florida a lemon-lime hybrid called Perrine is seacoast where other citrus does not thrive. The
being grown to some extent (1). It appears to do common lime was introduced to the American
best on rough lemon or sweet orange (4). Meyer, Tropics by early explorers and has been propa­
another variety introduced from China is doing gated generally by seeds. Various names are used
better than Eureka or Lisbon in the warmer areas depending on where they are grown such as Key
of Texas and Florida and has shown evidence of lime, Mexican lime and West Indian lime. These
better adaptation to the Tropics. It is a large­ are the main commercial limes, popular for drinks,
fruited juicy lemon with thinner peel than Lisbon seafood, melons, fruits, salad dressing, etc. (1).
or Eureka. Trees of this group are small and bushy so that
Lemons are grown much like oranges except that they may be spaced closely, about 16 x 16 or 20 x
sometimes more pruning is required; however, 20 feet.

39
 Another group of limes includes Tahiti, Persian any other country but is cultivated extensively in
and Bearss, which are triploid, with larger trees, the Mediterranean region and in India. It is re­
leaves and fruit, and are seedless. This fruit is as lated to apple, pear and quince. Fruits are'borne in
large as lemons and often is called lemon in the clusters and are mostly oval to pyriform with a
Tropics where true lemons are not well adapted. tough skin which separates easily from the flesh
They are heavy producers and resistant to the when ripe. The fruit is firm, yellowish, sweet and
withertip disease which attacks the West Indian mildly subacid but in some clones may lack flavor.
lime (4). Good varieties with a higher proportion of edible
A group of varieties developed from crosses of flesh are available, of which Tanaka, Oliver and
the Key lime with kumquat is a little more tolerant Early Red are consumed fresh. Smaller fruited
of cold. Those already released include Eustis, sorts are used for cooking or for jellies (1).
Lakeland and Idemor, of which Lakeland is more The loquat needs a little cool weather to give
nearly like the lime parent. good production and in Central America does best
Limes normally have been grown from seeds in at 3,000 feet elevation or higher. The tree will
the West Indies but gummosis has made it advis­ withstand frost when not in bloom but in the
able to bud on resistant stocks such as sour orange northern temperate zone it flowers in early Febru­
or Cleopatra mandarin. The varieties Tahiti and ary and any frost would prevent fruiting (7). Light
Persian, which are seedless, can be propagated pruning is done after harvesting the crop. Seedling
only by budding. Sour orange was found undesir­ trees are extremely variable. Shield budding on
able at Homestead, Florida, but Cleopatra, rough one-year old seedlings with mature buds from which
lemon and calamondin were good stocks for Tahiti leaves have dropped should be done in the fall in
limes. The stock apparently did not influence pro­ California. Grafting is more successful than bud­
duction or juice content (3). Excellent results from ding in Florida (7).
rooting cuttings under polyethylene covers in par­ The best results in grafting are produced by
tial shade have been reported (5). using the side-veneer graft (4). Loquat seedlings
Cultural practices are similar as for oranges but give longlived trees but poor crops. Quince stocks
harvesting is likely to be continuous unless there give dwarf trees and early, high yields. Crataegus
is interruption by cold or dry periods. It is im­ oxyacantha stocks give smaller, shorter-lived trees
portant to avoid bruising in harvesting because it but bear regularly and heavily (5). Oliver is the
causes very rapid rind breakdown. With careful best variety at Homestead, Florida, and Fletcher
handling, 4 weeks is about the limit of storage at and Red Royal are promising (6). One-year-old
40oF. Storing at 50'F is better but the fruits turn wood is best for grafting. Hu reported that Photinia
yellow (2). serrulata and persimmon stock have been used
successfully in Japan (3) .
References
Fire blight, or pear blight, is the most serious
1. Cromartie, A L. 1958. Using Florida's citrus fruits. Fla.
Agr. Ext. But, 167.
disease affecting loquat. Thinning the fruit will
2. Eaks, I.L 1956. The physiological breakdown of the help to avoid alternate bearing and at the same
rind of lime fruits after harvest. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. time give better-sized fruit (2).
Scz. 66,141-145. Cross-pollination has been found beneficial in all
3. Lynch, SJ. 1942. Some analytical studies of the Persian varieties in India. Golden Yellow is entirely self­
lime. Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta. But. 268.
sterile.
4. Robinson, T.R. and E.M. Savage. 1948. Acid citrus fruits
for the Gulf Coast and Eastern subtropical crops region.
U.$. Dept. Agr. Bur. Pl. Ind. Mimeograph. References
5. Sharma, B.R. and S.M. Singh. 1961. Propagation of I. Chandler, W.H. 1950. Evergreen Orchards. Lea & Febiger.
Kagzi lime (Citrus aurantifolia) by softwood cuttings. Philadelphia, Pa.
Agra. Univ. Jour.Res. SeE. 10 (2):109-116. 2. Hodgson, R.W. and P.W. Moore. 1943. Fruit thinning ex­
6. Tanaka, T. 1926. Taxonomic aspects of tropic citricul­ periments with loquat. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 42:
ture. Philip.Agr. Rev. 19 (3): 179-184. 187-192.
3. Hu, H.L. 1956. Trials on grafting loquat. Acta Agr.
Sinica 7 (2):181-192 (Hort. Abs. 28 (4): No. 3819).
LOQUAT 4. Mowry, H., et al. 1958 Miscellaneous tropical and sub­
(Eriobotrya japonica) tropical fruits. Fla. Agi. Ext. Bul. 156 A.
5. Pinto Cesar, H 1951. A nespereira e su enxertia. Rev.
This fruit is more important in Japan than in Agr. Paraczcaba 26:373-376.

40
6. Popenoe, J. 1960. Evaluation of loquats at Subtropical 3. Chandler, WfH. 1950. Evergreen Orchards. Lea &
Experiment Station. Proc.Fla. State Hort. Soc. 73:315-316. Febiger Philadelphia, Pa.
7. Popenoe, W. 1920. Manual of Tropical and Subtropical 4. Chen, W.H 1949. Culture of lychee Proc. Fla. St. Hort.
Fruits The MacMillan Co. New York, N.Y. Soc.
5. Cobin, M. 1954. Lychee in Florida. Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta.
But, 546.
LYCHEE 6. Joiner, J.N and R.D. Dickey. 1961. Effects of nitrogen,
potassium and magnesium levels on growth and chemi­
cal composition of the lychee grown in sand culture.
(Litchi chinensis) Proc.Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 17:270-277.
7. Singh, Raujet. 1958. The Litchi in India. India Council
Lychee is subtropical since it requires some cold of Agricultural Research, Farm Bul No. 44.
to induce flowering and does not produce fruit 8 Storey, W.B., et al. 1953. Groff-a new variety of lychee.
except at elevations high enough to provide a cool Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Cn. 39.
period in the winter. South Florida and Cuba ap­ 9. Yee, W. 1957. The lychee in Hawaii. Hawaii Agr. Ext.
Cir. 366.
pear to be ideal for lychees. They also do well in
10. Young, T.W., and J.C. Noonan. 1959. Influence of ni­
Hawaii. Apparently most varieties have perfect trogen source on cold tolerance of lychees Proc. Amer.
flowers but pollination by bees has been reported Soc Hort.Sc. 73:229-233.
to be necessary for fruit set (2). 11. Young, T.W. and RA. Harkness. 1961. Flowering and
Fruits are produced in clusters of 10 to 20 and fruiting behavior of Brewster lychees in Florida. Proc.
Fla. St. Hort Soc. 74:358-363.
are 1.0 to 1.5 inches in diameter. The peel or rind
is fairly thick but separates easily from the white
gelatinous flesh beneath. The flavor is appealing
to most people. Fruits usually are dried and sold
MACADAMIA: AUSTRALIAN NUT
as "nuts" in China but freezing is a better way of
preserving them and they may be stored for a year
(Macadamia integrifolia)
or more, especially if carefully culled for insect
A native of Australia, Macadamia is not as
punctures and kept in polyethylene bags (1). They
widely grown as cashew and only a small com­
also can be canned after removing peel and seeds.
mercial production in Hawaii has been developed
Propagation usually is made by air-layering. The
outside of Australia. Thirty-five trees are planted
best results in grafting is by the preparation of bud­
per acre in Hawaii and should produce 100 lbs.
wood by ringing 3 or 4 weeks in advance. Layered
of nuts annually at 15 years of age (3). Nuts have
plants bear in the third year. Seeds are short-lived
a high nutritive value and are very tasty but shells
and must be planted directly from the fruit (4).
are usually thick and hard. Oil content is 73 per
Varieties of lychee are numerous. Brewster is the
cent at maturity and the kernels are a good source
main variety in Florida and Peerless seems promis­
of calcium, phosphorus, iron and vitamin B1 . The
ing because of larger fruit and regular bearing.
kernel contains about 9 per cent each of protein
Groff is a regular bearer in Hawaii (7) and Mau­
and carbohydrate (2). Shelling percent is only 24
ritius is commonly grown in South Africa. Bengal
to 43 per cent.
is a good variety which was selected in Florida.
Seeds are planted 1 inch deep in sand or vermi­
Pruning is unimportant (5). Improper nutrition,
culite in full sun and germinate in I to, 4 months.
lack of dormancy and drought may prevent normal
After 18 months the seedlings are ready to graft
flowering in Florida (10). Ammonium sulfate ap­
with side or veneer grafts. They also may be cleft­
pears to be the best source of nitrogen (9) but an grafted or whip-grafted. Cuttings from. mature
excess of nitrogen may depress growth rate (6).
branches with the leaves intact may be rooted in
The plants are brittle and cannot withstand strong
sand with high humidity. Wood for grafting should
winds (8).
be girdled well in advance of time of use. The en­
tire scion is covered with grafting tape to avoid
References drying. Transplanting needs to be done carefully
and preferably in the cool season (5).
1. Akamine, E.K. 1960. Preventing the darkening of fresh
lychees prepared for export. Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta.
Heavy producing varieties in Hawaii are Ikaiki,
Tech. Prog. Rept. 127. Kakea, Keauhou and Wailua (4). The Burdick
2. Butcher, F.G. 1956. Bees pollinate lychee blossoms. Proc. variety has a thin hull and is said to bear annually
Fla. Lychee Grow Assn 3:59-60. (1).

41
 Difficulty in propagating, slowness in coming References
into bearing and the limited areas in which it pro­ 1. Morris, M.P., et al. 1952. Es el Mamey una fruta vene­
duces well are factors in preventing any rapid nosa? Rev. de Agr. de Puerto Rico. Sup. Secc. Aliment
expansion of production. Nutr. 43 (1) 288a-288b.
Macadamias have failed to produce at low ele­ 2. Morton, Julia F. 1962. The Mamey. Proc. of the Florida
vations in Central America and possibly require State Hart. Soc. 75A400-407.
S. Ochse, J.J, et al. 1961. Tropical and Subtropical Agri­
more cool temperatures to induce flowering. An­
culture. The MacMillan Co. New York, N. Y.
thracnose caused by Colletotrichumcan be a serious
disease in many areas (4).
MAMONCILLO
References (Melicocca bijuga)
1. Anonymous. Yearbook. California Macadamia Society,
1288 Las Flores Drive, Carlsbad, California. The mamoncillo is cultivated in the West Indies
2. Brooks, R.M and HF. Olmo. 1960. New fruit and nut and South America. It is a popular fruit in Puerto
varieties List 15. Proc. Amer. Soc Hort. Sco. 76:738. Rico and Cuba. The tree is usually 30 to 40 feet
3. Chandler, W.H. 1950. Evergreen Orchards. Lea & Febiger. high but may reach a height of 60 feet. The smooth
Philadelphia, Pa.
round fruits are about the size of plums. The outer
4. Hamilton, R.A. and W B. Storey. 1956. Macadamia nut
production in the Hawaiian Islands. Econ. Dot. 10:92­ covering of these fruits is thin and leathery, and
100. green on the surface. It encloses a large round seed
6. Hamilton, R A, and E.T. Fukanaga. 1959. Growing maca­ surrounded by soft, yellowish, translucent, juicy
damia nuts in Hawaii. Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 121. pulp. The flavor is usually sweet and pleasant if
6. Storey, W.B. 1959. Progress report on Macadamia. Calif.
the fruits are fullyiripe. In some varieties it may be
Avocado Soc. Ybk. 43:67-71.
7. Wills, J.M. 1945 The Queensland nut. Qld. Agr. Jour. acid. "Melicocca" means honey-berry and refers
60 (6):242-251. to the flavor of the fruit. In English speaking coun­
tries it is known as the Spanish lime.
The mature plant withstands several degrees of
MAMEY frost without injury. The mamoncillo is generally
propagated by seed but probably could be vegeta­
(Mammea amerzcana) tively propagated. It will grow on most soil types
The mamey is native to the American Tropics. and does not require rich soil.
It is common as a garden plant in the Caribbean
area. The flesh of the fruit is similar to a fine apri­ MANDARIN
cot in taste and texture.
Mature trees reach a height of 25 meters. The (Citrus reticulata)
fruit is globose or oblate in form, 7.5 to 15 cm. in
The more recent botanical works have classified
diameter, with a russet-brown, rough, thick, pliable
the whole group of loose skinned oranges under
skin and firm, pulpy, reddish, yellow or bright yet
mandarins, Citrus reticulata (3). These are then
low flesh. The fruit contains one to four large
divided into horticultural classes as follows:
seeds (1).
The mamey prefers humid areas below an eleva­ CLASS I. King, which has relatively large
tion of 1,000 meters. Temperatures lower than seedy fruits with thick, rough and
5 0 C may kill the trees. Deep, rich, well-drained bumpy rind. Varieties: King.
sandy loams are best for mamey. The plants are CLASS II. Satsuma, with medium-sized, most­
propagated by seed but high yielding trees can be ly seedless fruits with smooth, thin,
budded or grafted to obtain a high yielding or­ loose peel. Varieties: Owari, Silver­
chard. The trees should be spaced 10 meters hill, Wase, Ikeda, False-hybrid, etc.
apart (2). CLASS III. Mandarin, which is bushy with
The fruits can be eaten fresh or stewed. They numerous fine branches, small
are sometimes processed into jam, preserves and a leaves and flowers, small to medi­
sauce. The sauce may be used over cakes or cookies. um fruits, peels yellow to light
All parts of the plants have been known to con­ orange. Varieties: Emperor, Ones­
tain toxic principles (1). co, Willowleaf, etc.

42

 CLASS IV. Tangerines, which have deep ing is probably unnecessary, and, except to remove
orange to reddish fruits with small dead wood, reduces production.
seeds. Varieties: Beauty, Dancy, Fertilizers, irrigation, culture and insect and
Clementine, Ponkan, Cleopatra, disease control are similar to oranges.
etc. Mandarins are susceptible to damage by birds.
CLASS V. Hybrids: Kara, Kinnow, Wilking Sapsuckers and woodpeckers are especially destruc­
(10). tive when the fruit ripens. Erecting poles about
400 feet apart in the orchard gives these birds a
Nagpur and Coorg mandarins are important in place to light where they may be shot. A few days
India. Ponkan is considered identical with Suntara of watching and shooting will discourage them.
of India and Swatow of China (11). Satsumas are Probably other means of protection will have to be
well adapted to the Tropics. Tankan has red skin, used for other birds.
deep orange colored, highly flavored pulp and
seems a genuine tropical variety better suited to a References
hot humid climate than the sweet orange (11).
1. Anonymous. 1940. Memoria anual del afio. Rev. Indust.
Beauty of Glen Retreat is a high quality mandarin Agric. Tucuman 36.120-1l2.
in good demand in Australia (4). Emperor, Ellen­ 2. Cameron, J.W. and R.K. Soost. 1953. The Kara Man­
dale Beauty and King of Siam are recommended darin. Calif. Agr. 7 (7);4, 14.
for tropical Queensland (9). Kara has a relatively 3. Chandler, W.H. 1950. Evergreen Orchards. Lea S&Febi­
large fruit with rich flavor and high quality (2). ger. Philadelphia, Pa.
4. Crocker, AJ. 1956. The Beauty of Glen Retreat Man­
Although these fruits have to be handled more
darin. Queensland Agr. Jour. 82 (6):315-318.
carefully than grapefruit or sweet oranges, they 5. Lamour, R 1941. Le Clenentier producteur rfgulier de
have the advantages of richer flavor, being easier 800 quintaux de fruits h Pha Fiats Primours 11:143­
to eat, and higher vitamin A content. In the case 145.
of satsumas there is the additional advantage of 6. Mortensen, E. 1954. Citrus rootstocks in the Winter
Garden area of Texas. Proc. L. R. G. Valley Hort. Inst.
seedlessness and low acidity. One is not so likely
8:13-22.
to have ill effects from eating satsumas in quantity. 7. Oppenheimer, H.R. 1948. Experiments with unfruited
The disadvantages are that they may be kept only a Clementine mandarin in Palestine Agr. Res. Sta. (Re­
short while after maturity and must be sold quickly. hovot) Bul. 48. ,1
Pollination is not a problem with most mandarins 8. Soost, R.K. 1956. Unfruitfulness of Clementine manda"
rin Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 6:171-175.
but Clementine has lower yields when planted
9. Stephens, S.E 1944. Fruit growing in tropical Queens­
alone, particularly as the trees become older. Pollen land. Queensland Agr. Jour 58 (6343-349.
from other mandarins increases the crop and the 10. Swingle, W.T. 1948. The botany of citrus and its wild
number of seeds (8). Girdling has improved the crop relatives of the orange subfamily. The Citrus Industry.
in the Mediterranean area (7). Budding on trifo­ Vol 1: 129-478 U. Calif. Press.
11. Tanaka, T. 1926. Taxonomic aspect of tropic citricul­
liate stock and keeping bees in the orchard is rec­
tute Phalip. Agr, Rev 19 (g):179-184.
ommended in Algeria (5).
Rootstocks reported suitable for mandarins are
calamondin, Carrizo, Rusk and Rustic citranges, MANGO
sour orange, trifoliate (6) and Rangpur (1). Since
Cleopatra mandarin is a good stock for other citrus, (Mangifera indica)
it might be quite satisfactory for mandarins.
Mandarins are more likely to be damaged by The mango probably is the most widely used
high temperatures during intense sunlight than tropical fruit other than bananas and citrus. It is
other oranges. A few days of very high tempera­ especially well adapted to areas with a definite dry
ture may permanently damage the fruits so that and wet seasons. It is Asiatic in origin and definite­
they have to be culled out when harvested; gen­ ly tropical.
erally, however, warmer temperatures produce Varieties from India are very old and sometimes
higher quality fruit and higher yields. light producers. The best varieties in Florida come
Spacing usually is 20 x 20 feet but in some of from Mulgoba and include Haden, Irwin, Keitt
the more vigorous varieties should be 25 x 25 feet. and Kent which are seedlings. Other important
Except for training in the first year or two, prun­ varieties for home use or market are Carrie, Ed­

43
 ward, Earlygold, Fascell, Lippens, Palmer, Spring- culture and certainly should be used with caution.
fels and Zill (7) (3). Pairi and Fairchild are liked Excessive fertilization may prevent blooming. Some
in Hawaii (14) (4). Kensington is highly recom­ nitrogen is used in Florida and Australia (12) (15).
mended in Australia (11). Other good varieties are Anthracnose may be a problem, especially at
Julie, Sandersha and Manila in various areas. Local fruit setting time. Three pounds of Captan per 100
names often are given to popular varieties. The gallons of water has given excellent control in
West Indian varieties are Madame Francisse and Hawaii (2). Scale insects may be a problem in some
Bombay. Many seedling mangos have a strong areas but usually the worst pest is the fruit fly. The
turpentine flavor which is undesirable to many Mediterranean frtiit fly has been controlled by a
people. bait spray consisting of I lb. protein hydrolysate
Propagation is mostly by seeds but most varieties and 3 lbs. of malathion in water (1). Methoxyclor
need to be budded or grafted. A few varieties are has been more effective for the Mexican fruit fly.
polyembryonic and can be propagated from seeds Investigations on control are being intensively
without grafting. The Manila or Mexico, Cam­ studied in the Fruit Fly Laboratory, Mexico, I. F.
bodiana, Saigon, Cecil and Simmonds are of this Marketing of the mango fruit has been greatly
type but are not the best market varieties. Kens­ hindered because of the fruit fly. It is necessary to
ington comes true from seed and is highly recom­ be sure that the fruit fly is not introduced into free
mended (12). It usually is necessary to graft or bud areas. Fumigation with methyl dibromide is effec­
for commercial plantings. Seeds are very perishable tive.
and should be planted at once with the point up­ Some canned mangos are now on the market.
ward so that straight stems and tap roots will be Processing by drying and freezing also may be de­
produced. Sowing the seeds flat may cause crooked veloped (10). Mangos are being dehydrated in Haiti
stems and roots. Seeds germinate 12 days sooner if for shipping to the United States.
the hull is removed but this is an expensive opera­
tion. Growing in pots is generally too slow and References
direct sowing in the field is expensive in compari­
1. Anonymous. 1956. The Mediterranean fruit fly: Meth­
son with nursery propagation. About 80 per cent ods of eradication. U. S. Dept. Agr. P. A. No. 301.
germination may be expected in the seedbeds 2. Arayaki, M and M. Ishii 1960. Fungicidal control of
within 25 days (8). Seedlings usually are trans­ mango anthracnose. Plant Dis. Rep. 44 {5):318-328
planted to nursery rows when about 6 inches tall. 3. Brooks, R.M. and H.P. Olma. 1957. New fruit and nut
varieties List. 12. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 70:557.
When the stocks reach the stage of turning from
4. Brooks, R.M. and H.P. Olmo. 1960. New fruit and nut
green to brown or when they are about pencil size varieties. List 15. Proc. Amer. Sac. Hort. Sci. ?6:738.
or larger they may be budded or grafted. The most 5. Chandler, W H. 1950. Evergreen Orchards. Lea & Febi­
successful type appears to be veneer graft, a type ger. Philadelphia, Pa.
of side graft. The bud material should be prepared 6 Gangolly, S.R. 1957. The Mango. Indian Council of
about two weeks ahead by cutting the leaves from Agriculture Research, New Delhi, S.R. Guha Ran Sree
Saraswatz Press Ltd. 32, Upper Circular Rd., Calcutta 9.
the petioles and ringing which results in a higher
7. Hosein, I. 1958. Mango propagation by a T-graft meth­
take. Inarching is commonly done in India and od. Trop. Agr. 85 (9)181-189.
some other countries but is a laborious process. 8 Ledin, R.B. 1958. Florida mango varieties. Proc. Amer.
Budding on young stock of pencil size with ter­ Soc. Hot. Sc. Carib. Sect. 6:32.
minal buds cut 1.5 in. long from prepared budwood 9. Naik, K.C. 1949. South India Fruits and Their Culture.
Varadachy & Co. Madras.
costs one-fourth as much as inarching (6).
10. Pennock, W. 1960. La siembra commercial de tnangos
Mangos are more difficult to transplant than en Puerto Rico. Rev. Agr P. R. 47 (2):75-89.
citrus and require more watering and care in mov­ IL Sherman, GA., et aL 1958. Commercial mango canning
ing. Roots never should be allowed to dry out. in Hawaii. Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir. 54.
12. Stephens, S.E. 1960. Mango growing in Queensland. Gid.
Spacing is best at 30 feet or more except for the
Jour.Agr. 86 (12):761-766.
Julie which may be planted at 20 or 25 feet. 13 Tree, E.F. 1959. The Kensington mango. Qid. Jour. Agt.
Pruning, except for early training and prevent­ 85 (11):749-751.
ing excessive height, is apparently not important. 14. Yee, W. 1958. The mango in Hawaii. Hawaii Agr. Ext.
Pruning to reduce alternate bearing has not proved Cir. 388.
15. Young, T.W. and J T. Miner. 1960. Response of Kent
to have value. mangos to nitrogen fertilization. Ptoc. Fla. St. Hart.
Fertilizing apparently is unimportant in mango Soc. 73:334-336.

44
 MANGOSTEEN 6. Popenoce, W. 1928. The mangosteen in America. Jour.
Hered. 19 (12) 537-545.
7. Winters, H.F. and F. Rodriguez-Colon. 1952. Storage of
(Garciniamangostana) mangosteen seed. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 61:304-306.

The reputation of this fruit as the best flavored

of any in the Tropics has caused many attempts NARANJILLA
to grow it in tropical regions of the Western
Hemisphere but results have not always been en­ (Solanum quitoense)
couraging (3). The trees are slow growing but may
reach a height of 30 to 40 feet. The trees take 8 to The naranjilla is a perennial plant with large
15 years to come into bearing depending on the leaves and a orange tomato-like fruit. Its bright
growing conditions (3). Fruits must ripen on the green pulp yields a pleasantly flavored juice used
tree and keep only a short time after harvesting. in drinks, ice creams, sherbets, jelly and jams. Fruits
They also tend to be irregular in fruiting (5). The also may be preserved. The crop is limited to cooler
fruits are 1.5 to 3 inches in diameter and are red­ areas with high moisture but will not succeed in the
dish-violet at harvest time (3). open where frost occurs. It does not tolerate tem­
Mangosteen trees grow well on tropical lowlands peratures above 85'F (1). Since the naranjilla is
on clay or loam soils. The trees require a humid highly susceptible to nematodes it is necessary to
environment with ample rainfall. Good soil drain­ rotate the crop frequently. Plants produce when 6
age is necessary for high production. to 12 months old and bear continuously for 2 to 4
Seeds are all from the mother tissue and come years (2). The plant itself is ornamental.
as true as though they were from cuttings. Seeds
are very perishable and lose germination within a References
week (6). The seeds can be shipped if placed in
moist charcoal. The seeds germinate well in peat 1. Gattoni, L.S. 1957. La naranjilla. Panama Min. Agr. Com.
y. Ind. SICAP. Circular.
moss. Transplanting to outdoor nurseries should 2. Ochse, J.J., et al. 1961. Tropical and Subtropical Horti­
be done at the 2-leaf stage (2). The outdoor nursery culture. The MacMillan Co. New York, N.Y.
should be heavily shaded (3). The shade should be
gradually reduced to about fifty percent shade. It
is desirable to mix manure with the soil for the NUTMEG, MACE
nursery planting.
The seedlings can be transplanted to the field (Myristicafragrans)
when 2 to 3 years old. It is very important to move
The nutmeg tree reaches a height of 10 to 18
the plants to the field with a large ball of moist
meters. The flowers are unisexual (dioecious), al­
earth. A clay type soil holds together better for a
though trees with perfect or polygamous flowers
nursery soil. Animal manure should be placed in
the planting hole and mixed with soil. The young occur occasionally. The seed is 1.5 to 4.5 cm. long
and I to 2.5 cm. thick. The kernel is whitish and
trees should be heavily shaded at planting time,
much plaited and ruminate. The husk is thick,
and the shade should be gradually removed so the
yellowish white or amber in color and encloses the
trees will adjust to full sunlight (3).
single glossy dark brown seed. Each seed is partially
References covered by a lacy red aril, the mace of commerce.
Nutmeg is grown in Indonesia, Grenada, Penang
1. Chandler, W.H. 1950. Evergreen Orchards, Lea & Febi­ and Banda. It prefers a tropical climate with high
ger Philadelphia, Pa.
2. Hume, E.P. and M. Cobin. 1946. Relation of seed size
humidity and well distributed rainfall. Nutmeg is
to germination and early growth of mangosteen. Proc. a surface feeder and requires a light soil.
Amer. Soc. Hont. Sci. 48:298-302. Nutmeg usually is grown from seed; it flowers
3. Kennard, VC. and H F. Winters 1960 Some fruits and after six or seven years and starts production after
nuts for the tropics. U.S. Dept. Agr. Misc. Pub. No. 801 eight years. Since about 40 per cent of the seedling
U.S D.A.
4. Mowry, H., et al. 1958. Miscellaneous tropical and sub­
trees are males and only 10 per cent are needed for
tropical fruits. Fla Agr. Ext. Bul. 156 A-69-70 pollination, vegetative propagation has possibilities.
5. Naik, KC. 1949. South Indian Fruits and Their Culture. High yielding trees can be budded onto M. argen­
Varadachy &Co. Madras. tea which is resistant to root rot. The trees should

45
 be spaced about 9 meters apart. A tree should yield Various methods of germinating oil palms are
about 300 nuts and 600 grams of mace annually (1). successful. In some areas they are germinated in
The nuts are harvested when the fruits burst charcoal and in other areas sand is used. It is de­
open and the nuts and mace are removed from the sirable to maintain a temperature of 370C for the
fruits. The mace is peeled off carefully and the germination of the seed. Hot boxes are used in the
mace and nuts are dried separately in the sun. Belgian Congo and the heat is obtained by fermen­
tation of banana and papaya leaves mixed with
References foliage of creeping legumes. In Nigeria the fruits
are soaked in water for a few days so that the peri­
1. Ochse, Jj., et al. 1961. Tropical and Subtropical Horti­ carp can be removed by pounding. The seeds are
culture. The MacMillan Co. New York, N.Y. then planted in flats of charcoal and placed over a
2. Kennard, W.C. and HI. Winters. 1960. Some fruits and
water-heated germinator held at 360 to 37CC. It
nuts for the tropics. U S.D A. Misc. Pubbeation No. 801.
requires about four months for germination and
the germinated seeds are planted in nursery beds.
OIL PALM The seedlings are spaced about 10 to 15 cm. in the
bed and covered with palm leaves for a few days.
(Elaeisguineensis) The plants should be watered regularly for three
or four months if rain is not present. When the
Most of the oil from oil palms is produced in plants are four months old they can be planted in
West Africa, especially in Nigeria. The Belgian woven baskets or perforated polyethylene bags. The
Congo, Sierra Leone, The Republic of Guinea and plants will be ready for field planting when they
the Ivory Coast also produce a large quantity of have 10 leaves. The trees can be spaced 8 x 8 or
oil. A considerable quantity of oil is produced in 9 x 9 meters. The dead and diseased leaves should
Indonesia and Malaya. A few oil palm plantations be removed at regular intervals. If good hybrids
exist in the Western Hemisphere but the total are grown, a yield of 2,200 kilograms of oil and
production is low. Some plantations are in Costa 600 kilograms of kernels per hectare can be ex­
Rica, Ecuador, Honduras and Mexico. pected per year (1).
Elacis guineensis belongs to the tribe Ceroxyline During the early years the fruit clusters can
of the palm family. The trees reach a height of 60 be harvested from the ground but when the trees
feet or more. Male and female flowers are borne reach maturity ladders are necessary for harvesting.
separately on the same tree. The trees are propa­ In large plantations tractor-mounted platforms are
gated only by seeds. The most common types are used which are similar to those used by electric
Congo, Macrocarya, Dura, Tenera, Pisifora and light companies in the United States. It is im­
Diwakkawakka (I). portant not to bruise the fruit, since enzymatic
At the present time breeding work is being done activity in ripe fruits takes place with surprising
in oil palm at several experiment stations. The rapidity and releases unwanted free fatty acids.
seed of the best hybrids can be obtained from the The bunches are heated to 55oC in vats with steam
West African Institute for Oil Palm Research to destroy the enzymes. The fruits are then sepa­
(WAIFOR) in Tafo, Nigeria, the A.V.R.O.S. Ex­ rated from the branches. Hydraulic presses are
periment Station in Sumatra, the National Insti­ used to extract the oil from the fruits. The oil is
tute for the Study of Agronomy (INEAC) at the then clarified and filtered to remove impurities.
Experiment Station in Yangambi in the Belgian The kernels are dried to 10 per cent before they
Congo and the Federal Experiment Station "Ser­ are cracked with a centrifugal or roller type ma­
dang," Malaya (I). chine. The wet -kernels are dried to 6 to 7 per cent
Most of the oil palms are grown within 10 de­ moisture content by the sun or in hot air ovens,
grees of the equator in hot humid lowlands. A rain­ then the kernels are ready to be bagged for ship­
fall of 3,000 mm. (120 inches) is preferred, with ment (1). Both the kernel and pericarp produce
even distribution throughout the year. The trees edible oil.
require high temperatures throughout the year.
Oil palms are grown on red loams in West Africa Reference
and on volcanic soils in Sumatra: A porous, well 1. Ochse, JJ., et al. 1961. Tropical and Subtropical Horti­
drained soil is desirable with a pH of 5.5 to 7.0. culture. The MacMillan Co New York, N.Y.

46
 OLIVE bitterness in the fruit. In California this is ac­
complished with sodium hydroxide (lye) at 2 oz.
(0 lea europaea) per gal. of water. In home processing this is done
in earthenware crocks, leaving the fruit until the
Olives grow anywhere in the Tropics but for lye has penetrated to the pif. Then the fruit is kept
some reason not yet ascertained they do not pro­ in clear water which is changed daily for 3 days or
duce fruit at latitudes lower than 250 as the trees more to remove the lye, Afterwards, they are
do not bloom; however, they make good orna­ changed to a brine solution of up to 12 oz. of salt
mental trees. Whether this is due to day length or per gallon to be kept safely (2).
need for cool temperatures in the winter has not Olive scale (Parlatoriaoleae) is a problem in
been determined as far as the authors know. The California. In the Mediterranean area Dacus oleae
trees are long-lived and rarely killed by diseases. (Gmel.), the olive fruit fly, is the main pest. The
Olives need low humidity during the fruiting sea­ olive scale is effectively controlled with malathion
son for best results. This restricts their production (9). Dacus oleac is not easily controlled. Some dam­
to climates similar to the Mediterranean area (2). age can be avoided by harvesting early. Olive knot
Up to 2,000 hours below 45 0 F are reported to be is a bacterial disease that occurs in all olive areas.
necessary for good crops (7). Bordeaux at 8-8-10 is reported to be helpful as a
They usually are propagated from cuttings or winter spray but careful sanitation in pruning is
budded on wild seedlings. Leafy cuttings are rooted most important if pruning is done.
under spray or high humidity. Trees begin bearing
at 6 years. Cuttings 1 to 2 in. in diameter root References
fairly easily but are expensive (3). Grafting on
seedlings by whip and tongue method also is used 1. Brooks, R.M. and H.P. Olmo. 1957. New fruit and nut
(4). varities. List 12. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 70:557.
2. Chandler, W.H. 1950. Evergreen Orchards. Lea & Febi­
Spacing averages 36 trees per acre in Spain, 45 ger. Philadelphia, Pa.
per acre in Jordan and 60 in Greece. At least 35 ft. 3. Condit, IJ. 1947. Olive culture in California. Calif. Agr.
will be needed to get best yields and in dry regions Ext. Cir. 135.
much more (6). 4. Hartmann, H.T. 1948 The olive industry of California.
Econ. Bot. 2 (4):341-362.
Some early training is needed but any pruning 5. Hartmann, H.T. 1950. Effect of girdling on flower type,
retards growth. The least pruning gives the highest fruit set and yields in olive. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci.
yields, therefore any pruning is only for training 56:217-226.
or convenience (8). 6. Hartmann, H.T. 1958. Olive production in California.
Nitrogen appears to be needed on soils of low Calif. Agr. Ext. Manual 7.
7. Hartmann, H.T. 1954. Effect of winter chilling on fruit­
fertility and should be applied in the spring. About fulness and vegetative production in the olive. Proc.
1 lb. of actual nitrogen per tree per year would be Amer. Soc Hont. Sci. 62.184-190
sufficient. Phosphorus has not been found to be 8. Hartmann, H.T., et al. 1960. Pruning olives in Califor­
needed but on poor soils, potassium might be nia. Calif. Agr. Exp. Sla. Bul. 771.
needed. Boron deficiency has occurred in California 9. Stafford, E.M. 1948. Olive scale. Calif. Agr. 2 (4):8-9.
(2). Good nutrition is especially important for ob­
taining a good crop the following year. ORANGE - SOUR
Alteinate bearing is very common in olives. Fruit
thinning has been reported to be helpful but (Citrus aurantium)
pruning has not controlled alternate bearing. Gir­
dling has been reported to be helpful in increasing The sour, or Seville, orange is important in most
crops (5). Irrigation also is helpful. The Minerva areas for its extensive use as a rootstock. It is now
variety has been patented and released as an annual dropping in favor because of its susceptibility to
cropper (1). tristeza. It is grown commercially, particularly in
Harvesting should be postponed until late to Spain, for use in marmalade. It also is used in
get the highest oil yield. For processing or pickling drinks and as a substitute for lemon juice. In the
the fruit is hand-picked but for oil it is stripped or Tropics, seedlings are common and the fruit is
threshed. sold on local markets. Young seedlings may be de­
Processing is necessary to reduce or remove the tected by the stronger, acrid smell of the crushed

47
leaf as compared with sweet orange, also the leaf to obtain tolerance to lime, salt and nematodes.
has a broader wing on the petiole than sweet Cleopatra is more salt tolerant than sour orange
orange leaves. Some selections have been made for (8). It has fair resistance to high lime and will
rootstock purposes, all of which are propagated tolerate chlorine (9). However, no commercial root­
from seed since about 85 per cent of all seedlings stocks are completely resistant to citrus nematodes.
are nucellar and are like the parent tree. Selections of trifoliate and Carrizo citrange have
A subspecies, C. aurantiumvar. myrtifolia, called been found resistant (11). Sour oranges, rough
Chinotto, has clusters of smaller fruits which are lemon and Cleopatra resist drought better than
candied in Italy. A variety called Paraguay is other stocks (13).
sweeter than most strains and has higher total Although budded trees are usually less vigorous
solids (1). and smaller than seedling trees, they come into
bearing at least two years sooner. They are less
Reference thorny and fruits have fewer seeds than from the
seedling trees.
1. Webber, H.J. and LD, Batchelor. 1943. The Citrus In­ The best known variety for quality is the Wash­
dustry. Vol. I. U. of Calif. Press. Berkeley, Calif.
ington Navel, a seedless orange with an extra
growth or "navel" at the blossom end. Since mu­
tations occur, many of which have poor quality,
ORANGE - SWEET
it is important that budwood is derived from
(Citrus sinensis) known trees. Other varieties of Navels differing in
various characters and in adaptability have been
Sweet oranges do not tolerate temperatures be­ found. Robertson Navel is precocious and a more
low 20 0 F, but neither do they grow well where regular bearer. Texas Navel is better adapted to
temperatures exceed 100017 (12). Short days do not warm climates. Dream Navel and Paradise Navel
cause dormancy (17) but low soil temperatures ap­ are well adapted to Florida. In California, Trovita
pear to retard growth enough to provide- a partial ripens earlier than Washington, and Summernavel
dormancy. High daytime temperatures prevent later. Bahianinha is a smaller fruited mutation in
coloring of fruit and quality is never as good at Brazil.
low elevations in the Tropics as at high elevations The most widely planted variety, Valencia, is
with cooler temperatures. Washington Navel re­ found practically everywhere oranges are grown.
quires 3,200 degree days above 5501F for maturity It keeps especially well on the trees after maturity
(4) but Navel oranges are adversely affected by high which helps in marketing. It requires more heat
temperatures and quality is poor at elevations be­ units for ripening-than Navel.
low 600 meters in the Tropics. Navel oranges An important variety in the Near East is Sha­
never should be planted at low elevations in the mouti, a variety of high quality with few or no
Tropics. They produce well if properly cared for seeds; however, it does not seem to do as well in
but quality is not equal to mandarins, grapefruit other areas. Jaffa, or Joppa, grown in the U.S.
and tangelos. The Valencia or Joppa gives a more apparently is the same as Belladi in the Near East.
acceptable quality at low elevations. It is a regular producer with high yields. Fruits
Many of the older orange trees in the Tropics resemble Valencia but ripen earlier and have up to
are seedlings but because of Phytophthora gum­ 5 seeds per fruit. It is especially useful at low ele­
mosis or foot-root that attacks sweet oranges it has vations. Other varieties are Hamlin, Pineapple,
become necessary to bud on resistant rootstocks Truncana (Chile), Premier (South Africa), Marrs
such as sour orange or Cleopatra mandarin and (Texas) and Salustiana (Spain), the latter of which
others. Budding has to be "high" or about 12 to is a very early ripening seedless orange. The Blood
15 inches above the ground level in order to avoid oranges are popular in the Mediterranean area but
infestation of the sweet orange scion. Unfortunate­ are not generally grown in the Americas.
ly, since a virus disease called tristeza is especially In most areas oranges will bloom only once a
destructive to sour oranges when budded with in­ year. In temperate zones this occurs in the early
fected scions it is wise to use tristeza-resistant stock, spring, in tropical areas blooming occurs at the
of which Cleopatra mandarin is the most accept­ beginning of the rainy season. The prolonged dry
able. Other reasons for budding on rootstocks are periods favor bud formation when growth begins

48
again. Only a small percentage of orange flowers set during the dry season. Insufficient irrigation can
fruit, about 0.2 per cent of Navel and 1.0 per cent reduce yields as much as 30 to 40 per cent even
of Valencia (10). Ringing the branches during the when trees appear to be in good condition (14).
blossoming period will increase the fruit set but Allowing Bermuda grass to grow requires 79 per
may reduce the crop in the following year (6). cent more moisture than with clean culture (1).
Ringing is not recommended as a commercial prac­ Fruits usually color poorly in high temperatures,
tice. and at sea level in the Tropics may remain green
A light crop of citrus is usually lower in quality even when the pulp is ready to eat. Good color
than a heavy crop. Thinning has not proved eco­ occurs only at higher elevations where tempera­
nomical in oranges. Alternate bearing is fairly tures go below 60 0F.
common in some varieties but there seems to be a Generally the best storage is on the tree except
rootstock effect also. Washington Navel tends to for some varieties like Hamlin which dry out
bear in alternate years on sour orange stock but has rapidly after they reach maturity; however, tree
annual crops on trifoliate. storage may encourage bird problems. Sapsuckers
Planting space varies according to soil, available and related birds drill holes in the fruit which
moisture and whether machinery is used. In gen­ cause it to rot. Sapsuckers have been controlled by
eral, a spacing of 25 x 25 feet is best, but where all erecting a tall pole in each acre of fruit. When they
hand labor is used 20 x 20 feet may be used. are disturbed they almost always land at the top
Transplanting from commercial nurseries usually of the pole where they may be shot.
is effected with balled trees but where trees can be The most common disease in the Tropics is foot­
transplanted bare-root, quicker growth will be ob­ rot gummosis which, as mentioned previously, is
tained. At the same time a larger root system with best controlled by high budding on resistant root­
fewer weeds and soil diseases to be transferred to stocks. A copper paint of either Cuprocide or Bor­
the orchard are other advantages (18). deaux is helpful on seedling trees.
Pruning always reduces yields and should be The most dangerous disease is tristeza which is
used only for convenience in harvesting or spraying a virus occurring now in almost all citrus areas. It
or to remove broken or dead branches. Pruning is transmitted by budding or by aphids after feed­
to increase yields or thin the crop is a failure in ing 60 minutes or longer on diseased trees (5). The
oranges. Less training is required in oranges than best control is the use of certified budwood placed
in most fruits. Actually severe pruning will prevent on immune rootstocks such as Cleopatra mandarin.
blooming, encourage sucker growth and in the Symptoms are either gradual or rapid die-back of
Tropics there is the further possibility of spreading the branches.
Diplodia gummosis. A gummosis caused by Diplodia natalensis (P.
High application of fertilizers may cause trees Evans) is fairly common in tropical orchards that
to fail to flower. In most cases fertilizers are not are being pruned so that the fungus has a place to
needed before trees begin bearing and often may enter. A single spray with Captan at the beginning
be harmful. of the rainy season gave good control in El Sal­
Fertilizers on oranges should be used with care. vador.
Generally, an application of 2 lbs. of actual nitro­ Nematodes may cause symptoms closely resem­
gen at blooming time or just before will be suffi­ bling tristeza. Treatment of bare root trees in hot
cient. In some poorer soils other elements might be water at 113*F for 25 to 50 minutes eradicates both
needed. Soil temperatures may affect nutrition. nematodes and fungi (3); however, in Florida it is
The best root development occurs at 800 to 900 F not always effective and resistant stocks are best (15).
soil temperature. There is poor development below Consult Chapter 4 for insect control notes.
60'F and the roots die at 105 0F (16). Non-tillage
reduces the nitrogen requirements and the need References
for organic materials (7). The use of herbicides to
avoid cultivation spares the roots serious damage 1. Anonymous 1949. Probing mysteries of citrus Ariz.
from disking or cultivating as well as loss of organic Farm 28 (26):24-25.
2. Anonymous. 1956. The Mediterranean fruit fly: meth­
matter from the soil. ods of eradication, US. Dept. Agr. P. A. 301.
Citrus needs a constant supply of moisture and S. Baines, R.C., et al. 1949. New gummosis and nematode
irrigation about every two weeks will be needed treatment. Citrus Leaves 20 (6):24.

49
 4. Barnard, C. 1949. Temperatures for citrus. Calif. Citrog. Papayas usually have male and female flowers on
34 (4):182-184 (from Citrus News, Australia). separate plants and the sex cannot be determined
5. Bennett, C.W. and A.S. Costa. 1949. Tristeza disease of
citrus, Jour.Agr. Res. 78 (8):207-237.
until the plants flower, about 6 months after
6. Chandler, W.H. 1950. Evergreen Orchards. Lea & germination. Pure male crossed with pure female
Tebiger. Philadelphia, Pa. produces a progency of about half of each sex (12).
7. Chapman, H.D. 1950. Organics vs. inorganics. Calif. Any variety may be converted to hermaphroditic
Citrog. 35 (9):366, 386. (or perfect-flowered) by using only hermaphroditic
8 Cooper, W.C., et al. 1957. Evaluation of citrus varieties
as rootstocks for various scion valieties in the Lower
pollen and selecting. Apparently environment can
Rio Grande Valley of Texas. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. influence sex expression and it is important to pro­
Carib. Reg. 5:12-22. vide good growing conditions to avoid sterility in
9. Cooper, W.C. 1961. Toxicity and accumulation of salts hermaphroditic plants (1).
in citrus trees on various rootstocks in Texas Proc. Fla.
Some of the named hermaphroditic varieties are
State Hort Soc. 74:95-104.
10. Erickson, L.C. and B.L. Brannaman 1960. Abscission of Solo, Bluestem, Graham, Betty, Fairchild, Kissim­
reproductive structures and leaves of orange trees. Proc. mee and Hortus Gold (3). It is well to use varieties
Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 75:222-228. developed locally since papayas are sensitive to
11. Ford, H.W. and W.A. Feder. 1961. Additional citrus climatic changes (4). None of these are stable and
rootstock selections that tolerate burrowing nematodes sibbing is necessary to maintain them.
Proc.Fla. State Hort. Soc, 74:50-53.
12. Hilgeman, R.H., et al. 1959. Effect of temperature, pre­ Seeds can be sown in seed beds or directly in
cipitation, blossom date and yield upon the enlargement place. The best system would be to sow in seed
of Valencia oranges Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Scz. 74: beds at 15 gms. per square meter. These germinate
226-279. in 3 to 4 weeks. Sunshine until noon and shade in
13. Horanic, F.E. and F.E Gardner 1959, Relative wilting
of orange trees on various rootstocks. Proc. Fla. State
the afternoon increases germination (10). After­
Hort. Soc. 72-77-79. wards they may be transplanted in paper pots or
14 Huberty, MR. and Sj. Richards. 1954 Irrigation tests polyethylene bags, 3 to 4 plants per pot. When they
with oranges Calif. Agr. 8 (10) 8-15. are 6 to 8 inches tall they are set 3 x 3 meters apart
15 Knorr, L.C., et al 1957. Handbook of citrus diseases in in the orchard. Plants should be set at the same
Florida. Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 587.
level as in the seedbed (5).
16. North, C.P. and A. Wallace. 1955. Soil temperatures and
citrus. Calif. Agr. 9 (11):13. Flowering will begin in the first year and males
17. Piringer, A.A., et al. 1961. Effects of photoperiod and or pure females can be removed from each hill
kind of supplemental light on growth of three species leaving only one plant to bear fruit. If pure fe­
of citrus and Poncirus bifoliata. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. males are kept, one male for each 15 to 20 females
Sci. 77:202-210.
18. Webber, H J. 1948. Nursery methods. The Citrus Indus­
should be left. (Illus. page 8.)
try. Vol. 11:1-68. U. Calif. Press.
Virus is reported from all papaya areas. It has
been found to be related to cucurbit mosaic and is
transmitted by the green peach aphid (Myzus
PAPAYA persicae). It can be very destructive if not con­
trolled. It is very important that plants be grown
(Carica papaya)
in clean seedbeds and transplanted to well drained
This fruit is widely distributed in tropical reg­ land. Consult the chapter on diseases for further
ions, and is commonly eaten as a fresh fruit. It details.
appears to have the highest quality in Mexico and Papayas respond well to high nitrogen fertiliza­
Central America where it is thought to have orig­ tion and require a plentiful supply of good mois­
inated. The fruit is an excellent source of vitamin ture. Mulching helps conserve moisture and assist
C and contains some vitamins A and B. Papayas in weed control. Polyethylene mulching has given
can be cooked when green like summer squash or best results (9).
used as preserves, sauces or in pies (3). Acceptable Nematodes can be serious and DD (a nemato­
products have been made by dehydration, canning, cide) at 85 to 70 lbs. per acre may be needed to
pickling and preserving (6). Some interest has been obtain good production (8). DBCP is effective also.
shown in producing papain for use as a meat­ Consult Chapter 6 on nematodes for further in­
tenderizer. So far this has not become an important formation.
industry, probably because it requires special skills Some ripe fruit will be obtained about 9 to 10
in collecting and drying the latex (2). months after transplanting. Papaya fruit should

50
 be stored at 48 0 F. Handling and bruising should The passion fruit needs insect pollinators, mostly
be kept at a minimum. carpenter bees, in Hawaii (I). The honey bee is
Plantations need to be renewed every few years also helpful (6).
and should be rotated with other crops. Seed selected from vines producing good yields
In regions with especially high labor costs the of high quality fruit is planted at once from ripe
crop has become uneconomical. fruit and germinates in 2 weeks. Washed seeds may
be stored at room temperature for 3 months or
References more. They also may be propagated from newly
mature wood which roots in one month (1).
I. Awada, M. 1961. Soil moisture tension in relation to
fruit types of papaya plants. Hawaii Farm Sci. 10 (2):
The vines are set in rows at a minimum of 3
7-8. meters apart to permit cultivation. Since they are
2. Becker, S 1958. The production of papain-an agricul­ vigorous, a distance of 5 meters is probably better
tural industry for tropical Ameiica. Econ. Bot. 12 (1): between plants in the row (1). They are trained
62-79. on trellises about 7 feet high. The trellis may be a
3. Chandler, W.H. 1950. Evergreen Orchards. Lea &
Febiger. Philadelphia, Pa.
straight fence type with 2 or more wires. Others
4. Davey, J.B 1959. It's wise to grow papayas from local prefer the T-type with crossbars but they are more
strains. 2ld. Jour,Agr. 85 (2):115-11S. difficult to construct. Trellises require good bracing
5. Harkness, R.W. 1955. Papaya growing in Florida. Fla. at the ends to support the heavy growth and crop.
Agr. Ext. Cir. 133A. Windstorms also may cause breakage because of
6 Heid, J L. and A L. Curl. 1944. Papaya products Food
Proc.Jour.24 (2):41-44.
the resistance due to dense vine growth. Sturdy
7. Keeler, J.T., et a]. 1960. Economic factors affecting the posts will be needed and the portion in the ground
production of papayas in Waimanlo, Oahu, Hawaii. should be treated to prevent decay.
Agr. Exp. Sta. Res Rpt. 49. Pruning excess vine growth should be done after
8. Lange, A.H. 1960. The effect of fumigation on the the main crop is harvested. While it is necessary
papaya replant problem in two Hawaiian soils. Pioc.
Amer. Soc. Hort. Sc. 75:305-312.
to prune excess growth that tends to trail on the
9. Lange, A.H. 1951 Responses of Solo papaya to mulch­ ground, it probably is advisable to avoid severe
ing PRoc, Amer. Sac. Hort. Scz. 77:245-251. pruning.
10. Morada, E.K 1929. Papaya culture. Philip.Agr. Rev. 22 Fertilizing is apparently necessary. In Hawaii,
(2)*147-170. heavy applications of 10-5-20 are needed at 3 lbs.
11. Sherman, M. and M. Tamashiro. 1959. Toxicity of in­
secticides and acaricides to the papaya. Carica papaya.
per vine applied 4 times during the year (7).
Hawaii Agr. .Ep. Sta. Tech. Bu. 40. Harvesting is done by allowing the fruit to drop
12. Storey, W.B. 1987. Segregations of sex types in Solo to the ground. Fruits are collected once or twice a
papaya and their application to selection of seed. Proc. week. Fruits should be processed soon after harvest­
Amer. Soc Hort. Sc. 35:83-85. ing. Yellow passion fruit yields 12 to 25 tons per
acre and purple, from 2 to 5 tons in Hawaii. It is
PASSION FRUIT considered that a yield of 15 tons is needed to be
profitable.
(Passifloraedulis var. flavicarpa) For information on insects and diseases consult
Chapters 4 and 6.
Passion fruit produces vigorous vines which come
into bearing in about two years. The purple gran­ References
adilla is common in tropical markets and is eaten
fresh or as juice. The yellow granadilla, or passion 1. Akamine, E.K., et al. 1956. Passion fruit culture in Ha­
waii. Hawaii Agr. Ext. Cir. 845.
fruit, is too acid to be consumed fresh but makes a
2. Akamine, E.K. and G. Girolami. 1959. Pollination and
pleasantly flavored juice which is used in blending fruit set in the passion fruit. Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech.
with other fruit juices (e.g., Hawaiian punch) and Bul 39.
in sherbets and jellies. Passion fruit will withstand 3. Bowers, F.A.1 and RR Dedelph. 1959. Preliminary re­
a light frost and does best at 1,000 to 3,000 feet in port on the pruning of passion fruit. Hawaii Farm Sci.
the Tropics; however, it grows at sea level too. The 7 (4):6-.
4. Cox, J.E and T.B. Kiely. 1961. Fusarium resistant stocks
purple granadilla requires high elevations in tropi­ for passion vines. Agr. Gaz. N. S. W. 72 (6):314-318.
cal regions. A deep, light soil with plenty of or­ 5. Levitt, E.C. 1958. Growing of passion fruit. Agr. Gaz.
ganic matter is preferred (5). N. S. W. 69 (10)-518-524.

51
 6. Nishida, T. 1958. Pollination of passion fruit in Hawaii. tor in the Tropics too, thus eliminating almonds
Jour.Econ Enton. 51:146-149. which are susceptible, Extensive trials have found
7. Seale, P.E. and G.D. Sherman 1960. Commercial passion
fruit processing in, Hawaii. Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir. 58.
no peaches completely immune but satisfactory re­
sistance has been found in Dwarf, Shalil, Bokhara,
Yunnan, Okinawa, S-37, P.I. 61302, Quetta and
PEACHES Traveller nectarines. In choosing a variety for
rootstock purposes, the availability of seed, per­
centage of germination, ease of budding and dis­
(Prunus persica) ease resistance are important factors. Nemaguard
Peaches grow primarily in the temperate zones, is a new rootstock with resistance to two root knot
most varieties thriving best at 80 to 40 degrees nematode species.
latitude or where winter temperatures are sufficient­ Seeds need to be stratified before they are ready
ly low to satisfy the chilling requirements to per­ to germinate. Seeds should be removed from tree
mit normal leafing and flowering in the spring. ripe fruits, washed, dried at room temperature,
Some varieties of the Peento or Honey race, how­ then stored at 35 to 40oF in damp sawdust. After
ever, are able to produce with very low chilling 12 weeks the pits are cracked and kernels removed
requirements. Extensive breeding programs in and planted 1 inch deep in sandy soil. Soaking 20
California, Florida and Texas have originated hours in 3 per cent fermate before stratifying gives
varieties more suited to mild winters. Peaches grow better germination (3) . Germination at 770 F or
well at 5,000 to 7,000 feet in Guatemala, but will above during the first 9 days causes severe dwarfing
produce at an altitude of 3,500 feet. (15). Budding is usually possible 5 to 6 months
The dormancy of peaches is complex and a after germination. The best success is with buds
definite standard cannot be set that would be valid from new growth. Peaches prefer a deep, well­
under all conditions (23). Cloudy and foggy weath­ drained soil, free from alkali. A minimum of 20
er doubles the effectiveness of chilling (21). Sun­ inches of well distributed rainfall is necessary for
light and high temperature combined with low good growth. Peaches are easily transplanted bare
humidity increase the chilling requirement (14). root when dormant. Spacing is usually 20 x 20 or
The growth inhibitor has been identified as nar­ 25 x 25 feet.
ingenin, It decreases at the end of winter (11). Ap­ . Nitrogen has been the chief element needed. A
plications of aqueous solutions of naringenin to need for phosphate never has been shown in field
peach branches in New York, however, failed to de­ planting, to the knowledge of the authors. Oc­
lay flowering (7). Sprays to break dormancy have casionally there may be a need for potash when leaf
been only partially successful and breeding new scorch occurs (20). If a readily available nitrogen
varieties with low chilling requirements is the most is used the best time to apply is 3 weeks after full
reliable remedy (13). bloom (18). About 0.9 lb. per tree gives good
Varieties with very low chilling requirements returns (19).
are Red Ceylon, Okinawa, Peento (Saucer), St. Organic carbon is quickly destroyed by cultiva­
Helena, Transvaal, Sharbati, Pallas, Florida Gem, tion. The best yields under irrigation are obtained
Estella, Jewell, Dorothy N., Lejon, Rochon, from non-cultivation with chemical weed control
Luken's, Dwarf, Shalil, C. 0. Smith, Angel, Smith, or from clean cultivation with winter crops (17).
Waldo and Kakamas. Others with more or less re­ Sod cover crops are not generally satisfactory (10).
sistance to mild winters are Early Dawn, Boland, Maintaining readily available moisture gives best
Babcock, Bokhara, Bonita, Chadon, Curlew, Don­ results (12). Cover crops compete for moisture as
wel, Flamingo, Fontana, Frank, Frankie, Lucas, well as plant nutrients (6).
Meadow Lark, Melba, Redwing, Rosy, Rubidoux, Light pruning is recommended but severe prun­
Socala, Weldon, Flordawon and Flordahome. ing is harmful (22). Summer pruning in July has
In general, peaches are considered satisfactory given good results in- California (2).
stocks for peaches. Apricots are difficult to use for The important insects in the United States are
rootstocks and plums are usually unsuitable and San Jose scale, peach tree borer, peach twig borer,
short-lived, but Prunus besseyi is said to be a good and oriental fruit moth. The recommended con­
dwarfing stock. trol for the peach tree borer is DDT spray on the
Nematode resistance would be an important fac­ trunks at three consecutive times in the summer

52
Figure 60. BROWN ROT ON PEACH SHOWING MASSES OF SPORES. U.S.D.A. Photograph.

(5). Three early season sprays with carbaryl or years after fumigation (9). Better control, however,
D.D.T. have given good control of oriental fruit would be to use resistant peach stocks. Use of re­
moth (1). sistant cover crops is also helpful. Scab can be con­
The chief diseases of peach are brown rot, root trolled by using a sulfur spray or dust 2 to 4 weeks
knot, scab and mosaic. The brown rot can be con­ after the petals fall, Mosaic has been controlled
trolled by successive sprays with wettable sulfur (8). only by quarantine.
Root knot can be controlled by applying 8 gal. per Peaches bear at 3 to 5 years of age and reach
acre of Nemagon which remains effective for 2 peak production at 9 to 12 years of age.

53
Figure 61. SCAR SPOTS ON PEACH. U.SD.A. Photograph.

54
 References 23. Yarnell, S.H. 1939. Texas studies on cold requirements
of peaches. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hart. Sd. 37:349-352.
1. Allen, N.W. 1958. Oriental fruit moth, US. Dept. Agr.
Info. But. 182.
2. Brown, D.S. and R.W. Harris. 1958. Summer pruning PEARS
trees of early maturing peach varieties. Proc. Amer. Soc.
Hort. Sci. 72:29-84.
3. Carlson, R.F. 1946. Treatment of peach seed with fungi­ (Pyrus spp.)
cides for increased germination and improved stand of
peach seedlings in the nursery. Proc. A ner. Soc. Hart.
Pear varieties of the Pyrus communis have a high
Sci. 48:105-113. chilling requirement for dormancy so are not suited
4. Chandler, S. 1950. Dormant spray for scales, mites and for mild winter climates; however, varieties with
aphids. Down to Earth 5 (4):14. Pyrus pyrifolia and Pyrus serolina relationship
5. Cooper, T.P. 1950. Peach tree borer controlled with
have lower chilling requirements. Frequently, they
DDT. Ky. Agr. Exp. Sta. An. Rpt. 63:61.
6. Cullinan, F.P. and J.H. Weinberger. 1936. Four years of
have low quality also but at least can be grown at
cover crops in a young peach orchard. Proc. Amer. Soc. the higher elevations in the Tropics.
Hart. Sci, 34:242-246. In southern California pears grow well at ele,
7. Dennis, F.G. and LJ. Edgerton. 1961. The relationship vations of 2,000 ft. or higher (5). In Guatemala
between an inhibitor and rest period in peach flower
pears are grown at elevations of 5,000 ft. or more,
buds. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort.Sci. 17:107-116.
8. Foster, N.H. 1949. Peach spray experiments for brown
often being found at elevations of 6,500 ft. or
rot control in S. C. in 1948. Plant Dis. Rep. 33 (12): higher (I).
471-478. Some of the varieties recommended for mild
9. Foster, NH. and D.F. Cohoon. 1958. Post-plant fumiga­ areas are: Kieffer, LeGonte, Garber, Douglas.
tion for the control of peach root-knot in South Caro­
Wilder Early and Pineapple in Texas; Kieffer,
lina. Phytopath 48:342 (abstract).
10. Havis, L. 1946. Effect of cover crops in a peach orchard.
Packham's Triumph and Beurre Bosc in South
Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 48:27-36.
Africa (2); Baldwin, Orient, Hood and Richard
1I. Hendershott,
C.H. and D.R. Walker. 1959. Identifica­ Peters in Mississippi (7). Blight resistance is im­
tion of a growth inhibitor from extracts of dormant portant in warm areas. The varieties Douglas,
peach flower buds. science 130:798-799. Baldwin, Richard Peters, Campas, Pontoto, and
12. Hendrickson, A.H. and F.J. Veihmeyer. 1934. Size of
peaches as affected by soil moisture. Proc. Amer. Soc.
Pineapple have considerable blight resistance (6),
Hart. Sci. 32:384. (8).
13. Hill, A.G.G. and G.K.C. Campbell. 1949. Prolonged In the subtropical zones fire blight appears to be
dormancy of deciduous fruit trees in warm climates. the most damaging disease on pears. The varieties
Empire Jour.Exp. Agr. 17 (68)259-264. Kieffer, Orient, Pineapple, Garber and Richard
14. Horne, WI., et al. 1926. Resistance of peach varieties
to an obscure disease in California. Jour. Hered. 17
Peters have partial resistance to fire blight. Cedar­
(3):99-104. apple rust also may attack pears. The varieties
15. Pollock, B.M. 1962. Temperature control of physiologi­ Bosc and Waite are susceptible to stony pit and
cal dwarfing in peach seedlings. Plant Physiol. 37 (2): should not be grown where the disease is prevalent.
190-197.
16. Proebsting, E.L.
Many pear varieties are self-unfruitful and will
1958. Fertilizers and covercrops for
California orchards. Calif. Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir. 466. need other varieties for cross-pollination. These
17. Proebsting, EL. 1958. Yield, growth and date of ma­ should be not more than 3 trees away. Spacing is
turity of Elberta peaches as influenced by soil manage­ 25 to 30 feet apart each way. Pruning is not needed
ment systems. Proc. Amer. Sac. Hart. Sci. 72:92-101. for production, but may be needed to keep the
18. Rom, R.C. and E.H. Arrington. 1961. Effect of time of trees low enough for harvesting. Some varieties
nitrogen application on peach trees. Ark. Farm. Res. 10
(1):5.
are improved by pruning but in general light to
19. Schneider, G.W. and A.C. McClung. 1958. Prune lightly moderate pruning gives best yields.
and fertilize. N. C. Res. and Farm. 16 (!):12. Fertilizers are not generally needed as much as
20. Weinberger, J.H. 1949. Some effects of nitrogen on yield in other fruits. Too much nitrogen encourages
and maturity of Elberta peaches. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hart. vigorous growth and greater susceptibility to fire
Sci. 53:57-61.
21. Weinberger, J.H. 1961. Seeds. U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook. blight.
22. Westwood, M.N. and R.K. Gerber. 1958. Seasonal light Irrigation to avoid moisture stress is recom­
intensity and fruit quality factors as related to the mended and the late season period is critical be­
method of pruning peach trees. Proc. Amer. Sac. Hart. cause water use is greatly increased at this time (4).
Sc. 72:85-91. Pear thrips attack the fruit buds and small fruits

55
0~
"4

4,
-4

-4

C-)

'-C
['C,

-i
['C,

0
4-,
C

-I
['C,
-4
-c
0

I -
0
C-

V
V
in the spring and may ruin the pears. They can be their length in planting holes which are 2 x 2 x 2
effectively controlled with DDT sprays (5). ft. in size, and spaced 6 x 6 ft. apart. Tall-growing
trees or posts are set near the planting holes to
References give the vines support. After the cuttings are 4.5
ft. tall they are laid in shallow trenches to pro­
1. Benitez, J.M. 1962 The behavior of temperate zone fruits mote stooling. The vines are later thinned to 12 to
in the Central American highlands. Proc. Amer. Soc.
Hort. Sci. Carib. Sec.
15 shoots. Flowers should appear after 18 months
2. Black, M.W. 1943. Uneconomical deciduous fiuit vari­ and the first spikes should be removed as soon as
eties. Fing. So. Afr. 18 (207).382-387. they are formed (3).
3. Chandler, W.H 1947. Deciduous Orchards Lea & Febi­ The vines come into mature production when
get. Philadelphia, Pa. they are five to six years old and continue to pro­
4. Hendrickson, A.H. and FJ. Veihmeyer 1942. Irrigation
experiment with pears and apples. Calif. Agr. Exp. Sta.
duce for about 15 years. The average yield varies
Bul. 667. from I to 9 lbs. per plant per year. Since nematodes
5. Howard, W L. Revised by R.M. Brooks. 1947. Home fruit may be a problem in some areas, it is best to use
growing in California. Calif. Agr. Ext. Ser. Czr. 117. plant material free of nematodes and only land
6. Lamb, R.C. 1960, Resistance to fire blight of pear vari­ known to be free of nematodes should be used for
eties Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 75:85-88.
7. Overcash, J.P. and N.H Loomis 1959. Prolonged dor­
planting.
mancy of pear varieties following mild winteris in Mis­ Only ripe fruits should be harvested and they
sissippi. Proc. Amer Soc. Hort. Sci 73 91-98. should be piled in heaps for fermentation. When
8. Roberts, J.W. 1939. Blight of pears, apples and quinces. berries turn back, they can be separated from their
U. S. Dept. Agr. L.187, spikes. The fruits are dried on mats in the sun.
One hundred pounds of berries yield about 35
PEPPER pounds of black pepper.
The best and ripest berries are used to produce
white pepper. These are bagged and submerged
(Piper nigrum) in running water for one or two weeks to allow
Most of the pepper in the world is produced in them to soften. The berries are then scarified to
India, Sarawak, Indonesia and Ceylon. Pepper is remove the flesh and are dried. One hundred
a climbing woody perennial vine. The flowers are pounds of fresh berries will produce only about lZ
small and usually unisexual (dioecious) but fre­ pounds of white pepper; however, the price of
quently polygamous. The fruiting spikes are 5 to white pepper is higher than that of black pepper
20 cm. long and the berries are red when ripe and (3).
black when dry and about 0.8 to 0.6 cm. in diam­
eter (3). References
It is necessary to conduct variety trials to de­ 1. Greech, J.L. 1955. Propagation of black peppers. Econ.
termine what varieties are best in a given environ­ Bot. Vol. 9, No. 3:233.
ment. Lada Iorintji, Lada Djambi and Lada 2. Greene, Laurenz. 1951. Abstracts of some articles per­
taining to the cultivation of black pepper. Office of For.
Belantung are varieties grown in Sumatra, and Agr. Relations 1-46.
Lampong and Muntok are varieties grown on the 3. Ochse, J J., et al. 1961. Tropical and Subtropical Fruits.
islands of Bangka and Biliton (3). Balamcotta pro­ The MacMillan Co. New York, N. Y.
duced well in Puerto Rico but was subject to root 4. Winters, H.F. and T.J. Muzik. 1968. Rooting and growth
rot. Kalluvalli and Kal-Balamcotta are varieties of fruiting branches of black pepper. Trop. Agr. 40 (3):
247.
grown in India.
The Sumatran varieties are grown for black
pepper and the Bangkan varieties for white pepper. PERSIMMON (JAPANESE) KAKI
Other varieties that should be tried are British
Indian, Cambodia and Atjeh. (Diospyruskaki)
Pepper prefers good soil that is well drained.
High rainfall, well distributed throughout the year, The kaki is common in China and Japan where
is necessary for good yields. it is native. It has been introduced in cool sub­
Cuttings about 2 feet long are used for planting tropical and tropical highland regions throughout
material. They are buried for about two-thirds of the world.

57
 The kaki is a slow growing shrub from 10 to 50 of astringency. Seedless fruits are less likely to be
feet high with a short trunk from 5 to 14 in. in astringent than those with seeds if picked a bit
diameter. The flowers are unisexual-dioecious and immature.
sometimes bisexual. The fruit is ovate or obtusely The fruits are eaten fresh or served as a dessert
quadrangular-globose in shape; yellowish-green, yel­ fruit. They are sometimes made into a puree and
low, orange or red-colored, with sweet flesh. The used for topping ice cream or cakes. Kaki also makes
seeds are often abortive; or there may be two to excellent jam and marmalade. The Chinese make
eight, ovoid-oblong and flattened on one side. Some dried kaki fruits called kaki "figs." The fruits are
varieties are astringent until the fruits are .fully steamed until they become soft and are then dried
ripe. They require pollination and fertilization for in tne sun (4).
proper development of the fruits. Seedless varieties
have golden yellow or orange-colored firm flesh References
with a flavor similar to that of apricots. These
forms produce normal-sized fruits without pollina­ 1. Camp, A.F. and H. Mowry. 1945. The cultivated per­
tion and are more commonly grown than seeded simmon in Florida. Fla, Agr, Exp. Sta. Bul. 124:1-36,
varieties. Hachiya is the important seedless variety 2 Condit, I J. 1919. The Kaki or Oriental Persimmon.
Unv. of Calif, Bul, 316:231-267.
in California where Fuyu is also grown. In Florida
3. Gould, H.P. 1940. The Oriental Persimmon. USJ.DA.
Tane Nashi is the important seedless variety. Per­ Leaflet No. 194-1-8.
simmons should be soft ripe before eating to attain 4. Ochse, JJ., et al. 1961. Tropical and Subtropical Agricul­
the highest quality. Fuyu and other non-astringent ture. The MacMillan Co. New York, N.Y.
varieties can be eaten when firm but are best when 5. Ryerson, K. 1927. Culture of the Oriental Persimmon.
Univ. of Calif. Bul. 416:1-63.
soft-ripe. The seedless varieties when cut in half
can be eaten with a spoon and are especially good
when chilled. The male trees are necessary for pol­
PILI NUT
len and both should flower at the same time for
good pollination (4).
Kaki is planted as far north as 320 N. latitude and (Canarium ovatum)
some varieties withstand a temperature of O'F (1). The Pili nut tree usually grows to a height of
When grown in tropical areas an elevation of 1,000
about 65 feet. It is a tropical tree that does not
meters or higher is required. A good loose, rich,
tolerate even slight frost. It thrives in the Philip­
well-drained soil having ample organic matter is de­
pines only below 1,000 feet elevation. A closely re­
sirable. If rainfall is insufficient, irrigation is
lated species, Canarium commune, is known as Java
necessary.
almond. Although seedlings appear to be highly
Propation is by means of root suckers, budding variable there are no commercial varieties propa­
and grafting. Root-stocks of kaki, American per­ gated as yet (1).
simmon or date-plum can be used. The date-plum The tree may be propagated by budding and
is preferred for dry areas, but D. kaki is preferred grafting but usually is grown from seed. Cracking
in California. The seedlings should be planted in the shell hastens germination but the viability is
polyethylene bags for budding or the budding reduced,
should be done at stake. The trees should be The species is dioecious and flowers in terminal
planted 25 x 25 feet in the field. The best varieties clusters over a long period. The ovary has 6 ovules,
bear in 3 or 4 years (4). only one of which develops a nut. About 12 to 16
Pruning should be started early to shape the trees per cent of the whole fruit is kernel which is high
but later pruning should consist only of removing in fats (75 per cent or more). Pili nuts seem more
dead wood and crossed-over branches. It is impor­ digestible than some other nuts. The shell is thick
tant to dean weed the trees and fertilize them. and hard to crack. The edible outer pulp is re­
Fertilizer trials are needed to determine the most moved by dipping in hot water 104o to 122 0 F. (1).
economical application of fertilizer.
Fruits are best when harvested at full maturity Reference
and must be stored in a refrigerator. They can be
harvested a few days earlier than full maturity and 1. Chandler, W.H. 1950. Evergreen Orchards. Lea &
soaked for 24 hours in dilute lime-water to rid them Febiger. Philadelphia, Pa.

58
 PINEAPPLE Flowering can be influenced by hormones sprayed
on the crown of the plant at 8 to 12 months after
(Ananas comosus) planting (9).
Pineapples are widely grown in the Tropics and References
often on a large commercial scale. Pineapples are I Alvarez Garcia, LA. and L Lopez. 1956. Influencia de
high in sugars and provide a good source of vita­ los nenatodos que causa hernias en las raices de las
mins A, B and C. They also contain bromelin piias. Rev. Agr. P.R. 44 (1):38-44.
which aids in digesting meats. Plants are herbaceous 2. Alvarez Garcia, L.A. 1956 Problems fito-patologicas en
la produccion de picas en Puerto Rico. Rev. Agr. P.R.
and mutations are frequent. The six leading varie­
44 (1) 83-86.
ties are: Cayenne, with large fruits, the main variety 3. Cannon, R.C. 1957. Pineapples need plenty of potas­
in Mexico and Hawaii; Cabezona, the largest, sium. Qld. Agt. Jour.86 (8)818-816.
grown in Puerto Rico; Queen, small (2 to 3 lbs.), 4. Cannon, R.C. 1960. Spraying weeds in pineapples. QGd.
and has high quality for the fresh market; Red- Agr. Jour. 86 (3) :181-184.
Spanish, white-fleshed, acid and intermediate in 5. Collins, J.L. and H.R. Hagan. 1932. Nematode resistance
of pineapples. Jour. Hered. 28 (11):459-465, 28 (12):
size; Pernambuco, mild flavored, small, with pale 503-511.
yellow flesh; Monte Lirio, white-fleshed and has 6. Collins, J.L. 1940. History, taxonomy and culture of the
smooth leaves (6). Other varieties are Abachi, Sugar pineapple. Econ. Bot. 3 (4):335-359.
Loaf, Andina, and Francesca (7). 7. Coulter, J.W., et at, 1950 La pifia. Un. Panamericana
Propagation is by suckers which are removed after Pub. Agr. 134, 135, 136.
8. Diaz, H.G. and G. Samuels. 1958. Cultive y claboracion
fruiting and allowed to dry one week or more before de la pifia en Puerto Rico. P. H. Agr Evp. Sta. Bul. 145.
planting to prevent rotting. Summer is the best 9 Evans, H.R. 1959. Influence of growth-promoting sub­
time to plant in Puerto Rico. Aldrin is used at 2 to stances on pineapples. Trop. Agr (Trinidad) 86 (2):
6 lbs. per acre in 100 to 150 gallons of water to 108-117.
control white grubs. The ground should be har­ 10. Mathews, W.H. 1959. Pineapples in Florida. Fla. Agr
Ext Git. 195.
rowed after treatment and plants should be spaced 1I. Samuels, C. and H.G. Diaz. 1958. Influence of the num­
12 inches apart in double rows 2 ft. apart with a ber of fertilizer applications on pineapple yields. Jour.
3 ft. alley between (8). Agr. P. R. 42 (1).7-11.
A single application of fertilizer per year is better
in Puerto Rico than split applications when 800 lbs. PLUMS
of N and 100 lbs. of K are used. More than 56 lbs.
per acre of phosphate reduces yield and lowers (Prunus spp.)
quality (11). Australia recommends a 10-6-10 Of the several plum species, the oriental or Japa­
fertilizer for pineapples (3). nese plum, Prunus salcina, has the least chilling
Pineapples are very sensitive to nematodes. requirement and will produce after mild winters.
Longer rboted varieties such as Natal, Pernambuco They do need some cold and should be grown at
and Hilo are more tolerant (5). It is estimated that higher elevations in the Tropics. In Guatemala
yields of both fruits and shoots would be doubled plums do very well at elevations ranging from 5,400
by the use of nematocides in Puerto Rico (1). ft. to 7,500 ft. above sea level (2). Other species
Weed control is a serious problem in pineapples from mild climates are Prunus cerasifera, P. occi­
because of the spines which makes hand weeding dentalis and P. texana (1).
difficult. Broadleaved weeds can be controlled for Some promising varieties for warm areas are
3 to 6 months by spraying with Pentachlorophenate Santa Rosa, Mariposa, Hollywood, Brilliant, Mar­
(PCP) at 10 lbs. active ingredient per 200 gal. water vel, Oxheart, Redbud, Bruce, Methley, Bests Hy­
per acre. Grasses can be controlled with 100 lbs. of brid, Wickson, Kelsey, Satsuma, Beauty, Burmosa,
TCA or 40 lbs. of Dalapon per acre but either of Duarte, Redheart, Shiro and Inca (8) (4). Most of
those will injure pineapple plants and are best used these set better if they have cross-pollination. Al­
between crops (4). most all plums require cross-pollination with an­
A leaf blight is caused by a scale Dysmicoccus other variety for good fruit production. Only
brevipes (Ckll.) which is carried by ants. The ants Beauty, Methley and Santa Rosa are self-fertile (8).
may be controlled by chlordane. The scale is con­ The species P. texana is well adapted to mild winter
trolled with Malathion (2). This should be applied and may be of value in the Tropics. The fruit is
only by experienced personnel. small and sometimes strong-flavored but it crosses

59
readily with other species and should be of value especially in the Mediterranean region and in
in breeding varieties for subtropical regions (5). South America.
Plums usually are budded on peach stocks, pref­ The plant is a shrub which ranges in height
erably nematode resistant varieties. Marianna is a from 1 to 5 meters. The leaves are opposite, often
good nematode resistant plum stock. Shalil, P.I. densely crowded on small axillary twigs. The fruit
61302, S-37, Okinawa or Yunnan peaches are good is a large globose berry, shiny red, yellowish-green
nematode resistant stocks. Plums usually are budded or whitish when ripe, crowned by the calyx, 2 to 3
on root-stocks of nematode resistant varieties of in. in diameter. The fruit is filled with angular
peaches or on the Marianna plum. hard seeds which are covered with a juicy, red,
Planting is done bare-rooted in the dormant sea­ pink or yellowish-white, astringent acid pulp (2).
son at a spacing of 25 x 25 feet for the larger The pomegranate thrives best in the Tropics be­
varieties. Kelsey and smaller trees may be spaced low an elevation of 3,300 feet. It -will thrive in
20 x 20 feet Normally the oriental plum may be areas with long, hot, dry summers and cool winters
spaced at distances of 20 x 20 feet. or those which are continuously warm and dry.
Nitrogen should be applied soon after blossoming. High temperatures should accompany the ripening
A rate of 8 to 4 lbs. per tree of ammonium sulfate season. Minimum temperatures of 15'F may not in­
or equivalent rate of other nitrogen fertilizers is jure the plant severely.
suggested when trees begin to bear (7). It grows best on deep, rather heavy loams. It
Irrigation should be moderate throughout the can grow on soils with a pH near 7. The bushes
season. Cover crops can be used during the dormant should be spaced 12 to 18 feet apart, but when
season but would compete for moisture and nutri­ planted in a hedgerow a close spacing of 6 to 8 feet
ents during the growing season (6). can be used. When the plant is set it should be
Red spiders attacking the leaves of the plum can cut back to a whip at about 24 to 30 inches from
be effectively controlled with malathion. the ground. As shoots are produced they should be
Plums are usually harvested in the early ripe selected and thinned out to three or five scaffold
stage. Santa Rosa and other varieties will ripen branches which should be pinched back to make
satisfactorily when harvested at the straw pink them stocky. The main stem and frame limbs should
stage. This enables the fruit to be sent to distant be kept free from suckers at all times. Pruning
markets before they become fully ripe. after the third year should be confined to a regular
removal of all sucker growth arising from the root,
References and interfering branches as well as dead limbs. This
1. Baley, L.H. 1928 Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. should be done after the leaves fall.
The MacMillan Co. New York, N.Y. Propagation is effected by means of seeds, cuttings
2. Benitez, J.M 1962, The behavior of temperate zone and layers. It is best to use cuttings or layers to
fiuits in the Central American highlands. Proc. Amer.
obtain high yielding trees. The most populhr varie­
Soc. Hoart Sd. Carib. Sec.
3 Chandler, W H. 1947. Deciduous Orchaids. Lea &± Febiger. ties are Wonderful, with large fruits that have a
Philadelphia, Pa. diameter of five inches; Paper-Shell, which has a
4. Hesse, C.O. 1952. Burmosa and Redheart, two new very thin rind; Spanish Ruby, which is juicy with a
plum varieties. Calif. Agr. Exp. Sta But 735. sweet aromatic flavor; and Purple or Purple seeded,
5. Mason, S.C. 1913. The pubescent fruited species of which is not too important commercially (I).
Prunus of the southwestern states. Jour. Agr, Res. 1 (2):
147-177. The trees come into bearing at three or four
6. Proebstng, E.L. 1943. Fertilizers and overcrops for years of age. A properly grown tree of mature size
deciduous orchards. Calif. Agr. Exp. Sta Cir. 354. may yield 200 to 400 pounds of fruit annually if
7. Proebsting, E.L. 1949. Effect of nitrogen on non-irri­ properly pruned.
gated prunes. Proc. Amer Soc. Hort. Sci. 53:49-56.
8. Weinberger, J H 1961. Seeds U.S. Dept. of Agr. Year­ The fruit of most varieties must be picked
book, before fully matured to prevent splitting. The fruits
always should be clipped with pruning shears and
POMEGRANATE never pulled off. The fruits are graded for size and
wrapped in tissue paper before packing (1).
(Punicagranatum) The pomegranate is one of those fruits which,
The pomegranate is a very popular sub-tropical after reaching a certain degree of maturity, con­
fruit. It is grown in many subtropical countries, tinues to ripen in cold storage, where it will keep

60
for six months. The quality is improved in storage RASPBERRIES
with the flavor becoming richer.
(Rubus albescens)
References
1. Chandler, W.H. 1950. Evergreen Orchards. Lea & Raspberries are cool weather plants but one va­
Febiger. Philadelphia, Pa. riety, Mysore, does well in tropical areas at medium
2. Ochse, J J., et al 1961. Tropical and Subtropical Crops. elevations. Mysore is from India and has black
The MacMillan Co. New York, N.Y. fruits, sifall seeds and is disease resistant (1).
Rubus albescens is reported to have 200 fruits per
RAMBUTAN pint at Homestead, Florida, where it grows well
(3). The Queensland raspberry does well in Puerto
(Nephelium lappaceum) Rico (2). These would be useful for home use or
local market.
The rambutan is sometimes called the "hairy
lychee" because of the small hair-like projections
protruding from the fruit. The rambutan is a tree References
ranging from 50 to 80 feet in height. The flowers 1. Brooks, R.M. and H.P. Olmo. 1960. New fruit and nut
are dioecious with five to eight stamens in the male varieties. List 15. Proc.Amer. Soc. Hort. Sc. 76:732.
flowers and with five to seven staminodes in the 2. Griffith, J.P. 1925. The Queensland raspberry: Rubus
probus a species adapted to tropical conditions. Jour.
female flowers. The fruit consists of a drupe rep­
Hered. 16 (9):328-334.
resented by a tubercle at the base. They vary from 3. Ledin, R.B. 1953. Tropical black raspberry for Florida.
I to 2 in. in diameter and are red or yellow with Fla Agr Exp Sta. Cir.S--56.
soft spines all over the fruit. The rambutan can be
grown in lowlands where lychee will not produce
MI. ROSELLE
The most common varieties in the Far East are
Lebakbooloos, Seematjan, Seenjonja, Seetangkoo­ (Hibiscussabdariffa)
weh, Seelengkeng and Seekonto. Since the trees are
dioecious, propagation should be by asexual means.
Roselle is a good home garden plant in the
The seed for stock should be planted in a black
Tropics and serves as a substitute for cranberries.
polyethylene bag. Two weeks before budding the
The calyx is bright red and acid, and can be
budwood should be trimmed by removing the leaf­
used in preserves, jelly and juice. The leaves are
lets and leaving well-healed leaf scars. The budding
used as greens. The fiber is used like kenaf.
should be done during the rainy season and before
Roselle is subject to nematodes. Propagation is
the crop is harvested from the scion parent or a from seed.
month or two after harvest (1). When the root­
stock is one year old, budding should be done with References
nonpetioled wood. 1. Beattie, W.R. 1987. Production of roselle. U.S. Dept. Agr.
The budded trees should be carried to the field L. 139.
in the polyethylene bags and planted 30 to 40 2. crane, J.C. 1949. Roselle-a potentially important plant
feet apart. The polyethylene bags should be re­ fiber. Econ. Bot. 8 (1):89-108.
moved before planting. If the plants are watered
heavily two hours before planting the soil will ad­ RUBBER
here to the roots. The use of nitrogen fertilizer may
be desirable but trials will be necessary to determine (Hevea brasiliensis)
if it is economical.
The fresh fruits are excellent and are sometimes Rubber is a member of the Spurge family and is
stewed or preserved. In flavor it compares favorably fairly exacting in its requirements for good growth.
with mangosteen. Before starting any rubber project it would be well
to study carefully the world market for rubber.
Reference Natural rubber will have to compete with the new
1. Ochse, J.J., et al. 1961. Tropical and Subtropical Crops. so-called natural synthetics. It is possible for natural
The MacMillan Co. New York, N.Y. rubber to compete with synthetic rubber at the

61
 present time if it is grown at the right location with or so after budding they are ready for topping and
efficient plantation management and by using the planting in the field.
highest yielding planting material available pres­ Budwood garden spacing is 3 feet by 4 feet and
ently in the rubber world. It is important to con­ the first year stumps are allowed to shoot only one
sider that it requires seven years before the trees are tip, but after the first cut back of budding material,
ready for tapping. two or three tips can be allowed to grow.
Rubber trees require a minimum of 80 inches of The skill of budding is acquired only by practice
well distributed rainfall per year for good produc­ and a man learning how to bud should work with
tion. The rains should come in the afternoon and at an experienced budder for several weeks to learn all
night so as not to interfere with the tapping of the the tricks of the trade. A good budder can bud
trees. Rubber should be grown in areas with a 100 to 150 trees per day with a usual budding suc­
0 0
temperature range of 68 F to 82 F. The land should cess of 80 to 90 per cent.
be well drained and above flooding at all times. When the budded trees are ready to be trans­
Flat or gently rolling land is preferred. Rubber will planted to the field, planting holes 2 x 2 feet at the
not grow in land which has a high water table; surface 16" x 16" at the bottom and a depth of 2
therefore, land with a water table less than two feet should be dug. The holes should be filled with
meters below the surface of the land should be good topsoil when the budded stumps are planted.
avoided. A tree density of 400 per hectare is usually recom­
The soil for rubber trees should be fertile, friable, mended. Experiments on closer spacings may give
deep, well oxidized and acid in reaction (pH 4.5 to some interesting results. For a tree density of 450
6.5). It is best not to plant rubber in areas of trees per hectare a spacing 11 x 22 feet should be
high winds. Locations exposed to moderate winds used.
can be planted if windbreaks are planted as pro­ In immature stands of rubber, it is desirable to
tection around the rubber trees. plant Puerariajavanica during the first rainy season
Only high yielding clones of rubber should be after the rubber has been planted. About 20 seeds
used as they yield much more than seedlings or hy­ should be planted in a 3-foot ring in the center of
brids. In order to determine the best yielding clone every four trees. A pound of Pueraria javanica
for a given area, clonal trails are necessary. Clones should be sufficient to plant 12 acres in this manner
GU-31 and GT-711 are yielding well in Guate­ (2).
mala and should be tried. The following clones For rubber trees under two inches in diameter, a
should be tested in all new areas: GA-308, G-26, four-foot ring should be kept cleared around each
GU-49, Harbel 1, and Harbel 2, RRI-501, RRI­ tree. The woody growth between the trees should be
502, RRI-503, RRI-504, RRI-505, RRI-506, RRI­ slashed down low enough so that the cover crop can
507, RRI-508, RRI-509, RRI-513, RRI-526, RRI­ grow over it. In rubber trees over two inches in
527, RRI-600, RRI-605, RRI-606, RRI-607, RRI­ diameter, the maintenance work will be the same,
614, and RRI-628- The clones mentioned can be with the exception that the ringweeding can be dis­
obtained from the United States Plant Introduction continued as the cover crop will cover the ring
Station at Miami, Florida. Some areas are free of except for a portion at the base of the tree. It will
the South American leaf blight, caused by Dothi­ be necessary to pull the cover crop away from this
della ulei (P. Henn.) and all precautions should be area frequently to prevent it from climbing the tree.
taken to see that this disease does not spread into Generally the laborer working in a rubber planta­
areas free of the disease. Other outstanding clones tion is put on a task basis. If this is not done the
are available in Guatemala and Brazil. operation may become uneconomical. The environ­
In order to establish a source of material, bud­ mental conditions for growing rubber vary in differ­
wood gardens must be started in areas where the ent parts of the world. A task example follows for
young trees are to be budded. It would be desirable conditions in Liberia (2).
to produce budded stumps in nurseries. The germi­ 1. One man can fell one acre of bush in 10 days.
nated seedlings are planted on beds in nurseries at 2. One man can slash and ringweed 160 trees
a spacing of 6" x 12" with 3 feet between beds, and per day-
are allowed to grow until the bases measure 4" or S. One man can plant 77 trees per day.
more in diameter. The seedlings are then budded 4. One man can prune 4 acres a day.
with high yielding clonal material, and one month 5. One man can dig 15-30 holes per day.

62
 6. One man can budgraft 100 trees per day. trials, which require a long period of time. In
7. One man can backfill 25-50 holes per day. Guatemala four ounces of 20-15-15 are applied
On clonal trees all seedling shoots must be kept every six months for the first two years. Soil analy­
pruned off so as to force the bud to grow. The sis may help in starting a fertilizer program. The
lateral shoots are kept pruned off for a height of fertilizer should be applied about nine inches from
84 inches. During the rainy months it is necessary the base of the tree the first year and about 12 to
to increase the size of the pruning crew to a point 15 inches the second year. The fertilizer should be
where a stand of young rubber may be covered two worked into the soil with a hoe to prevent it from
or three times in a month. washing away due to rain action.
In order to determine the fertilizer practice for The tapping methods are not described in detail
a given area it is necessary to conduct fertilizer since the only way to learn how to tap rubber is

Figure 63. THE ONE-HALF SPIRAL SYSTEM OF TAPPING RUBBER TREES.

63
 from demonstrations and actual practice with the for the fruit to soften after picking (5). They grow
aid of an experienced individual. to be handsome trees up to 60 feet or more, in
When rubber trees are young (6 to 9 years), the frost-free areas. The fruits are round to oblate or
tapping system used should be less intensive. The ovate with a light brown peel.
tapping and rest periods should be short in the The sapodilla will thrive on a variety of soils
young planting and gradually prolonged as the provided the soil is well drained (3). It will grow
trees grow older. Over-tapping may result in brown­ near the seashore, showing considerable tolerance
bark disease. A one-half spiral every other day or to salt spray (5).
every third day may be tried. A tapping system The sapodilla is a tropical plant but mature trees
needs to be worked out for each done under the may withstand cold temperatures down to 26 0 F for
different environmental conditions. several hours with only moderate damage (3); how­
The manufacturers insist on uniformity in the ever, young trees may be killed at 300 F (3) (5). Op­
rubber purchased. The large factories handling the timum conditions for the growth of the sapodilla
production of 2,000 to 4,000 hectares are in a posi­ are a warm, humid, frost-free climate with a well­
tion to turn out quality rubber. The small growers distributed rainfall pattern. Young trees need ample
must take all precautions necessary to compete with irrigation in dry seasons. Trees 3 to 4 years old are
the large commercial companies. more drought resistant and can withstand extended
Cleanliness is very important from the time the dry seasons (5). The sapodilla may be found at ele­
latex is tapped until it reaches the manufacturer. vations ranging from sea level to as high as 10,000
The collecting cups, spouts and buckets must be feet (1).
kept clean at all times and free of bark particles The common method of propagation is by highly
and old latex. The latex is carried from the trees to variable seedlings. It is therefore desirable to propa­
collecting stations and later transported to the pro­
gate improved varieties vegetatively. Suggested va­
cessing plant. rieties for propagation are: Prolific, Russell, Betawi,
The processing of high quality rubber is exact­ Koolon, Apel Benar, and Apel Leelin (3). The va­
ing and can be learned only by observing the pro­ rieties Prolific and Russell were developed in
cess at a plant known for producing high quality Florida, the Russell variety bearing somewhat fewer
rubber. Cooperative processing plants for small fruits than the Prolific variety, but has a larger
growers may be the answer to producing high fruit of excellent quality (5). The Brown Sugar
quality rubber from small holdings. In some areas variety is sweet and of very good quality. In India
the small growers sell their latex to the larger com­ sapodilla has been found to graft on Bassia
panies in the area for processing. This system is en­ longifolia, B. latifolia and Mimusops hexandra, of
couraged by the larger companies since it reduces which the latter is considered the most promising.
the overhead in plantation management.
The seedlings should be planted just prior to the
rainy season and care should be taken to see that
References they are watered frequently until well established
I. Ochse, JJ., et al. 1961. Tropical and Subtropical Agri­ (5). Sapodilla can be propagated vegetatively by
culture. The MacMillan Co. New York, NY. marcottage, budding or grafting. For budding or
2. Vass, W.L. 1956. Plantation Rubber. Special Pamphlet grafting one-year-old sapodilla stocks I cm. in diam­
#1. Mimeographed. Firestone Plantation. Liberia. eter used for rootstocks are usually conditioned
prior to grafting by drawing a knife through the
SAPODILLA bark across the stem just above the proposed graft­
ing site allowing the latex to bleed out prior to
(Achras zapota) grafting. This requires only a few minutes and
greatly increases the chance of a successful graft
The sapodilla, Achras zapota L. is native to union (3). The scion also should be conditioned
Mexico and Central America (4). At present it is prior to graft by girdling the branch 6 to 12 weeks
cultivated in most tropical and subtropical and sub­ before removing the scion. The girdling allows
tropical countries (3). The milky latex of sapodilla starch to accumulate in the scion (5). Another
is the principal source of chicle, the basic ingredient means of conditioning the scion is to remove the
of chewing gum (2) (5); however, the fruit may be leaves on the scion 7 to 10 days before grafting (3).
eaten as fresh fruit after allowing 14 days or less A veneer graft below this cut is then made. Scions

64
usually start to grow in 30 days. A take of 33 per 3. Naik, K.C. 1949. South India Fruits and Their Culture.
cent is considered good (6). In Central America Varadachy & Co. Madras.
4. Ochse, JJ., M.S. Soule, Jr., M.S. Dijkman, and C. Wehl­
following the method above a take of 60 to 80 per
burg. 1961. Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture. Vol. I.
cent was secured. The sapodilla usually requires The MacMillan Co. New York, N.Y.
6 to 8 years to reach bearing age (4). 5. Popenoc, W. 1920. Manual of Tropical and Subtropical
The nursery trees are difficult to transplant bare­ Fruits. The MacMillan Co. New York, N.Y,
rooted and should be balled. Spacing of the trees 6. Ruehle, GD. 1951 The Sapodilla in Florida. Fla. Agr.
depends upon the variety and the soil. Ordinarily Exp. Sta. Bul. S.34.
7 to 9 meters is adequate; however, for spreading
varieties a spacing of 40 to 45 feet is recommended SAPOTE
(3).
Very little information is available on the fertili­ (Calocarpum sp.)
zation of the sapodilla. The tree responds to fertil­
izers and in Florida it is suggested that the The sapote, Calocarpum sapota (Jacq.) Merr. or
sapodilla should be given 3 applications per year of Calocarpum mammosum (L.) Pierre, often also
twice as many pounds of a low analysis fertilizer, called the mamey sapote, is native to Central
such as 4-7-5, as the tree is years old (5). America (1) (3). The tree is tropical in its re­
Little or no information is available on any quirements and produces brown fruit 3 to 6 inches
serious diseases attacking the sapodilla. In Florida long (3). The fruit is eaten fresh or made into
it is reported that a rust identified as Scopella preserves.
sapotae (Mains ex. Cumm.) Uredo sapotae (Arth. The sapote does well in hot, humid lowlands, re­
and J.R. Johnston) attacks the sapodilla but can quiring a heavy soil (4). It is found at elevations
be controlled by monthly applications of ferbam at from sea level up to 4,000 feet above sea level (4).
the rate of 2 pounds per 100 gallons of water (5). Mature trees can withstand 28oF for a few hours
A leaf spot from which a species of Septoria has with only a slight amount of damage; however,
been isolated, has been observed causing defoliation young trees are more susceptible to cold and would
of trees in Florida (5). be damaged more severely (3). Flooding for several
Fruit flies often attack sapodilla. The most dam­ days will seriously damage or kill the sapote (3).
aging are the Mediterranean fruit fly, Gerattis Propagation of the sapote is by seed; however,
capitata (Wied.) and the Mexican fruit fly, Ana­ their heterogeneity results in variable seedlings (4).
strepha ludens (Lw.) (4). The larvae of a tiny Vegetative propagation of desirable types is there­
grayish colored moth, Eucosmophora sp. have been fore preferable. The seeds require about one month
observed feeding between the young leaves (5). The for germination (3). The seeds are shortlived but
mining scale, Howardia biclavis (Comst.), the green germinate more readily if the thick husk is removed
shield scale, Pulvinariapsidii (Mask.), the pustule before planting (4). When the seedlings reach a
scale, Asterolecanium pustulans (Ckl1.), and others height of 6 to 8 inches they should be transplanted
may infest the sapodilla (5) . Malathion applied no (4). Vegetative propagation of desired types is pos­
less than 30 days before harvest effectively controls sible by side grafting or by air layering or marcot­
these insects but great caution should be observed tage (3). The sapote requires 7 to' 8 years to reach
in working with this toxic compound (5). production (2) (4).
The grafted trees begin to bear in 4 or 5 years. Young trees may be attacked by one or more
Fruits are harvested when the first fruits begin to species of bark-infesting scale insects, which inust be
drop. It takes up to 14 days to soften so that it can controlled if the vigor of the trees is to be main­
be eaten. tained (3). Malathion or carbaryl could be tried
to control the insects.
References
References
1. Chandler, W.H. 1950. Evergreen Orchards. Lea & 1 Chandler, W.H. 1950. Evergreen Orchards. Lea &
Febiger. Philadelphia, Pa. Febiger. Philadelphia, Pa.
2. Leonard, L.Y. and P.G. Sylvain. 1931. Trait6 de culture 2. Leonard, L.Y. and P.G. Sylvain. 1931. Trait6 de Culture
fruitrie. Service technique du Dpartment de lAgricul­ Fruitire. Service Technique du D6partment de I'Agri­
ture et de I'Enseignement Professionnel. Port-au-Prince, culture et de I'Enseignement Professionnel. Port-au-
Haiti. Prince, Haiti.

65
 8. Mowry, H., L.R. Toy, and H.S Wolfe. Revised by taste. The fruit is commonly used to make a drink
Ruehle, G.D. 1953 Miscellaneous tropical and subtropi­ in tropical countries. It is also used to flavor sher­
cal Florida fruits. Fla. Ext. Ser. Bul. 156.
4. Popenoe, W. 1920. Manual of Tropical and Subtropical
bets and ice cream as well as for jelly and preserves
Fruits The MacMillan Co. New York, N.Y. (2).
Named clones are not known and most trees are
seedlings. It may be grafted successfully onto An­
SAPUCAIA NUT nona retzculataand Annonaglabra (1).

(Lecythis elliptica)
References
Trees are small and spreading, bearing fruit near
1. Chandler, W.H. 1950. Evergreen Orchards. Lea &
the ground. They have been cultivated to a small Febiger. Philadelphia, Pa.
extent in Trinidad and Central America. Because 2. Kennard, W.C. and H.F. Winters. 1960. Some fruits and
they are close to the ground and easier to handle nuts for the tropics. U.SD.A. Misc. Pub. No. 801.
than Brazil nuts, they have received some attention.
Another factor is that Brazil nuts can be harvested
from wild trees but Sapucaia is seldom gathered in STAR-APPLE
the wild due to the fact that the urn-shaped fruits
hang downward and the cap falls out at maturity (Chrysophyllum cainito)
releasing the nuts.
The Paradise Nut, Lecythis zabucajo Aubl. is The star-apple is native to the American Tropics
produced by a large forest tree in Brazil and Guiana and is grown both for its value as an ornamental
and produces edible nuts. The nuts have an excel­ and for its fruit (2). The tree may reach a height
lent flavor and are similar to Brazil nuts but the of 50 feet or more. The fruit is green or purplish
shell is softer. on the outside depending upon the race, and
whitish on the inside. Fruits are from 2 to 4 inches
References in diameter and if cut transversely the seeds appear
to be arranged in a star-like pattern. The fruit
1. Chandler, W.H. 1950. Evergicen Orchards Lea & usually is eaten as fresh fruit.
Febiger. Philadelphia, Pa. The star-apple is tropical in its requirements and
2. Kennard, W.C and H.P. Winters. 1960. Some fruits and
nuts for the Tropics. U.SDA. Misc. Pub. No. 801.
slow to recover from damaging low temperatures.
Young trees are more susceptible to frost injury
and may be killed at SlOF. Mature trees may with­
SOURSOP stand temperatures as low as 29oF for several hours
with only moderate damage (3).
(Annona muricata) The propagation of the star-apple is commonly by
seed. This has resulted in a variety of forms. The
Soursop, also known as guanabana, is a common two most common forms are a green-fruited and a
tropical fruit which grows on a small tree usually reddish purple-fruited form. Due to seedling vari­
less than 20 feet tall. The leaves are leathery and ability there is large variance in fruit yields. If the
four to six inches long. The flowers are large and star-apple is to be grown for its fruit, high yielding
are produced on short stems on the branches. In trees may be propagated vegetatively.
order to assure a high yield of fruit, it is desirable The seeds of the star-apple require about six
to use hand pollination since the stigma of each weeks for germination (8). Desired varieties may be
flower is not receptive until after the pollen has propagated vegetatively by the following means:
been shed (2). marcottage, cleft grafting, inarching, and cuttings
The dark-green fruits are usually ovoid or oblong­ (1) (3) (4). When grafting, conditioning of the
conical in shape and may weigh 4 to 5 pounds (1). scion by removal of the leaves a week prior to
The surface is covered with numerous, recurved grafting enhances the success of the graft (1).
fleshy spines. The trees fruit throughout the year To produce the most desirable texture and taste,
but there is usually a heavier cropping period the fruit should be tree-ripened. Mummification of
which depends on the environmental conditions in immature fruits by a fungal infection has been
different areas. The flesh is white and has a pleasant observed in Florida (3).

66
 References seems to be Missionary; however, it would be well
to try several others which have shown promise in
1. Chandler, W.H. 1950. Evergreen Orchards. Lea &
mild climates: Florida 90, Blakemore, Texas
Febiger. Philadelphia, Pa.
2 Leonard, L.Y. and P.G. Sylvain, 1931. Trait6 de Culture Ranger, Lassen, Solana, Fresno, Torrey, Armore,
Fruitire. Service Technique du Ddpartment de lAgri­ Daybreak, Klondike, Brightmore, Klonmore (7) (8).
culture et de I'Enseignement Professionnel. Port-au- Best yields are obtained by setting new plants
Prince, Haiti. each year at the rate of 30,000 plants per acre.
3. Mowry, H., Toy, L R. and Wolfe, H S. Revised by G.G.
Strawberry plants should be set in the field at the
Ruehle 1953. Miscellaneous tropical and subtropical
Florida fruits. Fla. Ext. Ser. Bul. 156. same level as they were grown. The crown is very
4. Popenoe, W. 1920. Manual of Tropical and Subtropical short and will not tolerate deep planting. Roots
Fruits, The MacMillan Co. New York, N.Y. should not dry out and should be carefully spread.
This can be done by setting with a spade, opening
the soil enough to permit the roots to extend to full
STRAWBERRIES length. The soil is firmed with the foot and irri­
gated immediately to prevent drying.
(Fragariaspp.) Fertilizers are not often needed. Usually phos­
phate shows the best response (1). Use of ammonium
Strawberries have been grown near Ambato,
phosphate at 150 lbs. per acre is sometimes satis­
Ecuador, at an altitude of 7,000 to 9,000 feet for
factory and has been reported to give a better flavor
many years. They were erroneously called frutilla
but most investigators have not found that fertil­
and had fruits 2 to 3 times the size of the European
izers affect quality. In Florida soils up to 2,000
types. These plants were used to develop the hybrids
lbs. of 6-8-6 fertilizer increase yields (9).
of today.
Weed control is very important. DNBP at 8 lbs.
Strawberries are popular and some are grown in
per acre was the best preplanting treatment and
favorable locations in almost all countries. In tropi­
may control weeds for 30 to 60 days (14). Black
cal regions it is necessary to plant them at the
polyethylene mulch is sometimes used to control
higher elevations, 3,000 feet or higher, where tem­
weeds, conserve moisture and prevent berries from
peratures are cooler. Varieties adapted to short days
touching the soil.
and mild winters are essential. The optimum day­
Harvesting should be done in the mornings and
light temperature average is 73oF (4). Short day
fruit should be protected from the sun. Fruits,
varieties are Missionary, Klondike, Ettersburg 121
when harvested greenish white to 10 per cent pink
and Marshall (5). Additional varieties are Florida
and placed in the dark at 85 0 F, ripened to full
90 and Texas Ranger. The European species, Fra­
color in 48 hours with total solids content com­
garia vesca, which is grown from seeds, also can be parable to field ripened fruit. Color develops more
grown successfully in the Tropics. Regardless of slowly at lower temperatures and good coloring is
the temperature, short days favor fruit bud produc­ not obtained at 550 F (3). Glass jars have been
tion and inhibit runner production (6). Therefore, found better than polyethylene or cellophane as
in the Tropics strawberries are likely to bear fruit containers for freezing. The berries are cleaned and
the year round and not produce as many runners stemmed and put up with sugar.
as in regions with longer days. Leaf spot is the most common disease. Nematodes
By keeping the soil temperature below 95F0 cause heavy damage and it may be necessary to use
strawberries can be kept alive and growing through Nemagon or a similar nematocide before plantings.
the summer months with frequent irrigations. To The use of DD before planting and followed with
have a good flavor, daytime temperatures above Nemagon side dressing at 68 gal. per acre gives
500 F are needed (16). Chilling strawberry plants good control (12). Unusual diseases may occur, par­
for 6 to 7 months at 28 0 F before planting gives ticularly viruses (10) (13) (17).
maximum fruiting and growth response (15). Sandy Consult Chapter 6 for insect control recommen­
soils with a pH of 5.7 to 6.8 are best but straw­ dations.
berries will tolerate a wide range if temperatures
are not high. A good water supply should be avail­ References
able for the dry periods. Strawberries do not toler­ 1. Agricultural Research Service. 1961. Strawberry culture
ate drought or saline soils. in eastern United States U. S. Dept. Agr. Farm Bul.
The most promising variety for tropical regions 1028.

67
 2. Allen, M.W. 1959. Strawberry pests in California. Calif. extent that cherimoya does (2). In Cuba a seedless
Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir. 484. clone has been found which is highly desirable as a
3. Austin, M.E., et al. 1960. Color changes in harvested
strawberry fruits. Proc. Amer, Soc. Hort. Sd. 75:382-886. dessert fruit.
4. Darrow, G.M. 1930. Experimental studies on the growth It grafts or buds easily on Annona cherimola or
and development of the strawberry plant. Jour. Agr. A. reticulata.Buds on A. cherimola seedlings come
Res. 41 (4):307-325. into bearing in one year and buds on A. reticulata
5. Darrow, G.M. and G.F. Waldo. 1984. Responseq of also come into bearing much earlier than seedlings.
strawberry varieties and species to duration of the daily
light period. U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bul. 453.
In India, Annona reticulata is the best stock (3).
6 Darrow, G.M. 1936. Interrelation of temperature and
photoperiodisn in the production of fruit buds and References
runners in the strawberry. Pro. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. . Chandler, W.H. 1950. Evergreen Orchards. Lea &
34:359. Febiger Philadelphia, Pa.
7. Darrow, G.M. 1953. Strawberries in Central America, 2. Ochse, J., et al. 1961. Tropical and Subtropical Agri­
Colombia and Ecuador. Corba 3:179-185. culture. The MacMillan Co. New York, N.Y.
8. Hawthorne, P.L., et al. 1961. Daybreak, a new straw­ 3. Sriram, T.A. and J.S. Sundararaj. 1956. An optimum
berry variety. La. Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir. 71. rootstock for custard apple (Annona Squamosa). South
9. Locascio, SJ. and B D. Thompson. 1960. Strawberry Indian Hott. 4:134.
yield and soil nutrient levels as affected by fertilizer
rate, type of mulch and time of application. Proc. Fla.
State Hort. Soc. 73.172-179. TANGELOS AND OTHER CITRUS
10. Maishall, G.E. 1952. Strawberry insects and their con­
trol. Ind. Agr. Ext. But. 344. HYBRIDS
11. McGrew, J.R. 1959. Strawberry diseases. U. S. Dept. Agr.
Farm But. 2140. A number of hybrids between citrus species
12. Morgan, O.D. and W.F. Jeffers. 1957, Effects of fumiga­ have been developed artificially and released under
tion and heat treatment on root-knot nematodes of the names tangelo (tangerine crossed with grape­
strawberries. Plant.Dis. Rep. 4 (10):825-831. fruit), tangors (tangerine crossed with orange),
13. Plakidas, A.G. 1955. Virus diseases of strawberry. a re­ limequat (lime with kumquat), etc. Some also have
view. Plant Dis. Rep. 89 (7):525-541.
14. Scott, D.H., et al. 1954. Evaluation of several chemicals
been found that obviously arose from natural
for weed control in strawberry fields Weeds 3 (2):192­ crosses.
207. 'One of the most important hybrids in the United
15. Voth, V. and R.S. Bringhurst. 1954. Fruiting and vege­ States is the Temple which is a tangor but the
tative response of Lassen strawberries in Southern Cali­ exact parentage is unknown. It was introduced from
fornia as influenced by nursery source, time of planting
and plant chilling history. Proc. Amer. Soc. Rlot. Sc. Jamaica in 1894 (3) . Fruits are a deep reddish­
72:186-197. orange color, resembling a large mandarin, with the
16 Went, F.W. 1957. Climate and agriculture. Sci. Amer. peel separating more easily than oranges. The flesh
196 (6):83-94. is very tender and juicy with a rich pleasant flavor
17. Wilhelm, S 1961, Strawberry diseases, a guide for the different from either mandarins or oranges. It is be­
commiercial grower. Calif. Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir. 494.
coming increasingly popular in Florida. So far it has
not been grown much in tropical areas but should
SWEETSOP-SUGAR APPLE-
succeed as well as mandarins. Temple oranges do
CUSTARD APPLE
not keep well on the tree,
A considerable number of hybrids between tan­
(Annona squamosa) gerine and grapefruit have been introduced. These
are being marketed as tangelos and are becoming
This species is native to the West Indies. It seems better known in the larger markets. They mostly
to be more popular in India than elsewhere and is have a rich flavor, tender pulp, abundant juice with
called the custard apple there. The tree may reach variations to suit any taste. Some are firm and ship
a height of 20 feet; the fruit is heart-shaped but well while others are for home use only. Three
smaller than cherimoya and the white flesh is varieties with commercial promise are Minneola, Or­
sweeter than cherimoya. The fruit is eaten fresh or lando and Seminole. All three have richly flavored,
the pulp can be strained and mixed with wine, ice dark orange-colored juice and smooth orange red
cream or milk (1). It tolerates hot weather and pro­ skin.
duces fruit even in the Nile and Jordan Valleys. It Minneola is comparatively large and bell-shaped
does not seem to require hand pollination to the with a neck at the stem end. Orlando resembles a

68
tangerine in shape and size. Seminole is larger and 4. Harding, P L. 1959. Seasonal changes in Florida tan­
mandarin shaped. Orlando is the earliest, Minneola gelos. U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bul. 1205.
5. Johnston, J.C. 1956. Citrus fruit for the home orchard.
intermediate and Seminole late in Florida. They do
Calif. Agr. ExP. Sta. Cb. 409.
best on Cleopatra rootstock (4). Minneola and Or­ 6. Kretchman, D.W. 1959. Chemical control of perennial
lando do not set fruit when self-pollinated. Semi­ grasses in citrus groves. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 7Z:
nole is a good pollinator for Minneola (9). Temple 21-29
and Dancy are the only recommended pollinators 7. Krezdoin, A.H. and F.A. Robinson. 1958 Unfruitful­
ness in the Orlando tangelo, Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc.
for Orlando (7). Pollinators should be planted
71.86-91.
every third or fourth row. Girdling at full bloom 8. Moscoso, G.G. 1958. The Puerto Rican Chironja, a new
will increase set when pollinators are not avail­ all purpose citrus fruit. Econ. Rot. 12 (1) 87-94.
able (7). 9 Mustard, M.J 1961. Progress report on the unfruitful­
Thornton is one of the older releases and is grown ness of the Minneola tangelo. Cetba 9 (1):54-48.

commercially. It is about the size of Orlando but 10. Reece, P.C., et al. 1959. Robinson, Osceola and Lee­
new early maturing tangerine hybrids. Proc. Fla. State
not as rich in flavor. It has a light colored juice. Hort. Soc. 72.49-51.
Wekiwa is a mild spicy flavored, very sweet tangelo 11. Swingle, W.T. 1931. New citrus hybrids. U. S. Dept. Agr.
preferred by many. A very early variety of high Cir. 181.
quality is the Webber which is the size and shape 12 Swingle, W.T 1943. The botany of citrus and its wild
of a grapefruit. The Pearl and San Jacinto tangelos relatives of the orange sub family. Univ. of Calif. Press
Berkley and Los Angeles: 1-1021.
are used in California (5).
Robinson, Osceola and Lee are new varieties with
rich flavor and good quality. Robinson sets well TEA
with Orlando as a pollinator. Osceola does not need
a pollinator (10). (Thea sinensis)
The Puerto Rican Chironja appears to be from an
orange-grapefruit cross and comes true from seed (8). Tea is grown in India, Ceylon, Japan, Indonesia,
Murcott is probably a tangor and is an excellent Pakistan, Kenya, Mozambique, Uganda, Tangan­
fresh fruit in Florida (1). yika and the U.S.S.R. There are some tea plantings
Tangelos succeed in the Subtropics where oranges in Brazil near Santos and in the Andean region of
grow and probably would be well adapted to tropi­ Chile and Peru (1).
cal areas where grapefruit thrives. Tropical horti­ Tea is divided into two major groups: the Chi­
culturists would do well to consider these in nese teas, called variety bohea, and the Assam teas,
developing plantings at lower elevations. called variety assamica. These two varieties cross
In general a steady growth is desirable to obtain and Chinese-Assam hybrids are grown around
good quality fruit. Avoiding soil temperatures Darjeeling near the Nepal border in India and in
above 95 0F is important to maintain good growth. Ceylon. Tea shrubs are usually less than 6 feet high
The most favorable soil temperatures for citrus when pruned but if they are unpruned they could
growth are 640 to 88 0 F (2)_ reach a height of 50 feet. The Chinese type produces
Dowpon at 2 lbs. per acre will control Bermuda small leaves about 3 in. long and the Assam type
grass and cause little or no injury to citrus (6). Oil produces large leaves up to 14 in. long. The flowers
sprays also may be used when weeds are small. are white or pink and the fruit has 5 seeds about
Tangelos are not well known on world markets 1/2 in. in diameter. The Chinese types are noted for
but popularity is certain to increase as they be­ their highly developed aroma and the Assam types
come more widely planted. for their large leaf size. The quality of tea is based
on leaf color, flexibility of the leaf, hairiness of the
References terminal bud, aroma, tint of the infusion and
flavor. Strains having light colored foliage are pre­
1. Destyck, EJ and S.V. Teng. 1960. Processed products ferred since they result in a deeper tint of infusion.
from Murcott orange. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 73: They tend to be thinner and more flexible so that
276-279. they are easier to roll in processing. The dark­
2. Haas, A.R.C. 1936 Growth and water losses in citrus as leaved types tend to possess superior aroma and
affected by soil temperatures. Calif. Agr 21 (12): 267,
479.
astringency (1).
3. Harding, P.L. 1959. Importance and early history of Tea grows best in subtropical regions and can
Temple orange. Proc. Fla State Hoil. Soc. 72:93-96. withstand temperatures below freezing in the dor­

69
 mant stage. Tea should be planted at elevations of can be taken from the nursery when they are 20
3,800 feet or higher in tropical areas but in cooler inches high, with a ball of earth around them, and
climates such as China and Japan it can be grown transplanted or if the seedlings are grown in poly­
at sea level. Tea prefers a deep, friable, well-drained ethylene bags they can be taken directly to the field
soil with a pH of 5 to 6. in the bags. Stumps are plants which have been in
Tea is propagated by seeds, cuttings and bud­ the nursery for a year and then cut back to 8 inches
dings. Clonal tea is-preferred since the planting before they are planted. The planting holes should
material is genetically alike; however, the cost of be 18 inches square and 16 inches deep. The seed­
producing the planting material is more costly due ling plants are cut back to 5 to 6 inches when
to the budding or rooting of the cuttings. The fol­ they have a diameter of I to 1.5 inches at 6 inches
lowing clones are recommended in Indonesia: PS above the ground.
1, PS 87, Mal 11, KP 4 and Pam 5. Clones PS 1, The planting can be made in single rows or in a
KP 3 and SA 40 have good resistance to blister hedgerow system. For single rows a spacing of 4 x 5
blight caused by Exobasidium vexams Massee (1). or 4 x 6 or 5 x 5 feet can be used. If a hedgerow is
Tea cuttings can be rooted with a success of 60 used it will consist of 2 or 3 rows close together with
per cent where 2 per cent indole--8-butyric acid­ a wider alley between the hedge. The plants in the
talc powder is used. A tea budder can make 100 to hedge can be spaced 12 x 12 inches and the alley be­
150 buddings a day with a success of 75 per cent. tween hedges may be 7 to 10 feet wide (1).
The Forkert method with small leafy scion or leaf­ In order to determine the fertilizer practices it is
less scions can be used as well as the V-method. necessary to conduct fertilizer trials as the rates will
The methods of rooting cuttings or budding can be depend on the environment. A production of 2,200
learned only by actually working with experienced lbs. of tea leaves per hectare will remove about 99
personnel in the field, therefore the methods are not lbs. of nitrogen, 20 lbs. of phosphate and 55 lbs. of
described here. potash. Leaf tissue analyses should be correlated
Tea seed can be obtained throughout the year with the fertilizer trials. Mulch should be used
but it is planted only at the beginning of the rainy when available. When the shade trees are thinned
season unless irrigation is available in the nursery. out the material can be cut and used for mulch as
The seeds should be stored in tightly closed cans well as the refuse from pruning the tea.
and kept in a cool place. The poor seeds should The pruning of tea can be learned only by work­
be discarded before planting. This can be done by ing with experienced tea pruners. The Assam and
putting them in water so that the floaters cdn be Chinese-Assam hybrids require much more pruning
eliminated. The germination time which usually is than the Chinese types due to the fact that shrubby
2 to 3 months can be reduced by peeling off the trees reach a height of 50 feet if they go unpruned
seedcoats or by soaking the seeds in water for 12 and this makes harvesting very difficult. The first
hours and then placing them in the sun (1). pruning is designated as "stem pruning" which
The seeds are planted 1.5 x 1.5 inches in germina­ consists of cutting back the main stem or leaders of
tion beds. They are set 1 inch deep with the eye young shrubs. "Shape pruning" involves heading
down in order to obtain straight taproots. The nur­ back and thinning of the lateral shoots. Weak and
sery beds are 2 to 3 feet wide, with a 11/2 foot path crossed-over branches also are removed. "Produc­
between beds. The seedings are spaced 8 x 8 tion pruning" is carried on throughout the life of
inches in the beds. Shade trees such as Leucaena the shrub in order to keep the tree within a fairly
glauca, Albizzia falcata, Derris microphylla and low plucking height.
Erythrina subumbrans are used for shade in the Plucking consists of the removal of young tender
nursery, as well as for field plantings. shoots which have developed one or two large
Since tea usually is planted on hillsides, erosion stipules, three or four partially to fully grown leaves
control is very important. It is necessary to make and a terminal bud. The best quality tea comes
contour plantings, dikes, silt pits and terraces in from the youngest leaves and terminals in flush
some areas. Cover crops such as Vigna hoset, In­ growth. The usual method is to pluck the terminal
digofera endecaphylla, Centrosema pubescens, Pue­ bud and two or three leaves per shoot while leaving
raria phaseoloides and Calopogonium mucunoides at least one leaf and the stipules. The period of time
can be used to help prevent erosion (1). between harvests will vary with the environmental
Seedlings or stumps can be planted. The seedlings conditions under which the tea is grown. In Indo­

70
nesia a seven to ten day cycle has proved to be most TUNG
economical. Women commonly harvest tea and they
carry two or three baskets so that they can grade (Aleurites fordii)
the tea as it is harvested. Mechanical harvesting has
been done in Japan and the U.S.S.R. but where Tung trees produce a high quality drying oil used
high quality teas are grown hand picking is neces­ in the manufacture of paint and other materials.
sary for selectivity (1). China produces about 80 per cent of the world
The leaves are carried to weighing stations and crop. Tung is also produced in the United States,
Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Australia, Burma, Viet­
then to the factory for processing. The processing
nam, Cambodia, Laos and the US.S.R. (1).
consists of withering, rolling and sorting of fresh
Tung belongs to the Spurge family and is a small
leaves, fermentation, drying and sorting of dried
deciduous tree that grows to 39 feet in height. The
leaves. This process requires about 48 hours. The
fresh shoots have a water content of 75 to 80 per inflorescences are monoecious and commonly syn­
oecious. The fruit is 1.5 to 3.0 in, in diameter and
cent. The leaves are spread out on trays to wilt.
green when immature but turns brown at maturity.
The trays are stacked under special sheds with con­
The seeds are 0.5 to 3 in, long and have a brown,
trolled heating and ventilating facilities. The leaves
are exposed to 86 0F for 20 hours. The .moisture hard, rough, thin coat and white flesh which con­
content of the leaves drops to 57 to 67 per cent. The tains toxic substances poisonous to man and warm
blooded animals (1).
foliage is then rolled under pressure to separate the
Tung grows well in warm temperate regions and
leaves from the tips and to crush them sufficiently
is not a tropical crop but may produce at higher
for good distribution of the sap. Fermentation
elevations. A period of complete dormancy is es­
starts as soon as the leaves enter the rollers. The
sential during the months that the tree is deciduous
foliage is usually rolled three or four times in roller
but the winter temperatures should not go below
machines. The rolled pieces are screened after each
21 0 F. Tung requires a few hundred hours of chilling
rolling by using swinging screens or compound
below 41 0 F to flower and fruit well. The trees need
shakers. The pieces are separated into about five
at least 30 inches of rairifall annually. Tung per­
grades. The graded pieces are kept separately and
are put on racks, then placed in the fermentation forms best on slightly acid, sandy loams or clay
loams with a pH of 6.0 to 6.5. Good drainage is
chamber. The fermentation rooms have a tempera­
important for tung trees.
ture between 700 and 77 0F with a relative humidity
It is important to use high yielding clonal
of 90 per cent with forced air circulation. The
material for planting. A clonal trial would be neces­
period of fermentation depends on the type of plant
sary to determine the best clone for a specific loca­
material and the aroma, taste and color desired.
tion. Experimental plant material can be obtained
The fermented leaves are dried for 20 to 25 minutes
at 900 to 1000C in drying ovens and then sorted to from the University of Mississippi. Dwarf, early
bearing varieties can be spaced 17 x 17 feet and
the market requirements. The moisture content of
large, late bearing varieties can be spaced 23 x 23
the dried leaves is between 3 to 6 per cent. Some­
feet. The budded trees can be set out when one to
times the tea is dried a second time at 1760 to 194 0 F
two years old. The trees are topped so that the
for a few minutes just before it is packed.
main branches will arise from the trunk around 6
The tea is sorted with rotating or vibrating
to 12 in. above the ground. When the trees are 6
screens and sometimes blowers are used. Hand sort­
to 7 years old, only dead and diseased wood should
ing is necessary to remove trash and pieces of
be pruned. Clean weeding is recommended but a
petioles. The main grades are divided into three
cover crop can be used if erosion is a problem (1).
large groups. The leaf teas include orange pekoe,
Trees yield between 1.5 to 2.5 tons per acre.
pekoe, pekoe souchon and souchon. The broken tea
The fertilizer practices can be determined by a
group includes broken orange pekoe, broken pekoe
fertilizer trial correlated with tissue analysis. Minor
and broken tea, the lower grades consist of fan­
elements such as copper, zinc, manganese and iron
nings, dust and Bohea (1).
may be deficient in some areas. In Mississippi tung
responds to nitrogen and potash in a 1-0-1 ratio.
Reference Anhydrous ammonia is as good as ammonium ni­
1. Ochse, JJ, et a]. 1961. Tropical and Subtropical Agri­ trate as a source of fertilizer.
culture. The MacMillan Co. New York, N.Y. The tung nuts fall to the ground when they are

71
ripe and are allowed to dry there, for a few weeks by the fractional distillation of clove oil and since
before they are collected. They are collected by this is much cheaper than natural vanilla it would
hand or machine-drawn rakes and stored in well­ be desirable to make a study of the world market
ventilated bins. They are allowed to dry for two on vanilla before any projects are undertaken.
months in order to reduce the moisture content to Vanilla is produced in Malagasy Rep., Mexico,
15 to 20 per cent. French Oceania, Reunion, Java and Guadaloupe at
A ball-bearing disk hulling machine is used to the present time. Vanilla belongs to the Orchid
remove the hulls. Hulled seeds are ground to meal family and the plants produce capsules 6 to 10
and then preheated to about 176 0 F and passed into inches long which are fleshy and nondehiscent or
a screw-type press. The air dried fruits contain seldom dehiscent. The Bourbon and Javanese va­
from 15 to 20 per cent lung oil. The pressed cake nilla beans produce the highest percentage of va­
can be used as fertilizer but cannot be fed to nillin (4).
livestock since it is toxic (1). Vanilla requires a rainy season of 80 inches and
a dry period of at least three months to ripen the
fruits. A temperature of 77 0 F and a relative hu­
MU OIL (MU-YU-SHU)
midity of 80 per cent are ideal for the growth of
the plant. Vanilla requires a soil high in organic
(Aleurites mdntana)
matter.
Since tung trees require a chilling temperature Vanilla is planted from stem cuttings about 20
below 41 0 F they will not grow in tropical regions. inches long. Shade trees such as Gliricidia, Eiy­
In cool subtropical regions the Mu oil tree should thrna,Leucaena.and Albizziz are used for support
be tried as it does not require as low temperatures and shade for the vanilla plants. Hand-pollinations
for chilling as the tung trees. are made to insure a high fruit set, A period of
Ma oil differs in chemical structure from that nine months is required between pollination and
of tung oil, but it is equal in value and usually harvest. The beans are placed on racks for twenty­
is sold as tung oil. About 10 per cent of the entire four hours before they are wrapped in mats for
tung oil from China is estimated to come from Mu­ fermentation. The beans turn brown in color after
oil trees. Mu oil is also produced in Vietnam, Cam­ several days. After the beans are fermented they are
bodia, Laos, Belgian Congo, East Africa, Malagasy dried for eight to twelve days, depending on the
Rep., South Africa, India and the U.S.S.R. (1). humidity. The pods are then packed in tins and
The cultural practices are similar to those for sealed for shipment (4).
tung but a wider spacing may be necessary since
the tree is larger than the tung oil tree. References
1. Arana, F C. 1945. Vanilla curing. Fed. Exp. Sta. Cir.No.
Reference 25. U.S D.A. Mayaguez, Puerto Rico. 1-20
2. Childers, N.F. and H.R. Cibes, 1948. Vanilla culture in
1. Ochse, J J., C al. 1961. Tropical and Subtropical Agri­
Puerto Rico. Fed. Exp. Sta. in Puerto Rico. Cir. No. 28.
culture. The MacMillan Co New York, N.Y
1-94.
3. McClelland, T.B. 1919. Vanilla: A promising new crop
for Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico Agr. Exp. Sta Bul. No. 26.
VANILLA
4. Ochse, J.J., et al. 1961. Tropical and Subtropical Agri­
(Vanilla planifolia) culture. The MacMillan Co. New York, N.Y.
5. Tucker, C.M. 1928. Vanilla root rot four. of Agr. Res.
Synthetic vanilla is made from eugenol obtained Vol. 35. No. 12 1121-1136.

72
 Chapter 3

VEGETABLE CROPS

Many of the temperate zone vegetables can be ture in the Tropics, they lose their viability rapidly
grown in the Tropics but some of them require due to high respiration rate of the seeds. Since the
special climatic conditions such as cool tempera­ temperature and humidity in tropical areas are
tures which can be attained only during the winter usually higher than in temperate zone regions, the
months and at high altitudes. length of time the seeds are viable is greatly re­
The day length has an effect on many vegetable duced.
crops and this must be considered in selecting the Most seed companies sell seed in sealed containers
right varieties to be grown under tropical condi­ and it is desirable to specify that seeds be sent
tions. Onions and soybeans are examples of crops in these containers for use in the Tropics. Small
that are affected by day length. If the proper varie­ amounts of seeds, usually under four ounces, are
ties are grown in tropical areas, high yields can be not generally put up in cans and special care should
obtained. be used in storing seeds. Some vegetable seeds re­
This book includes vegetable crops that will grow main viable up to five years if stored properly.
in tropical regions. All of the crops .are described The moisture content of seeds should be low
separately and listed alphabetically for easy refer­ when they are stored in the Tropics. They can be
ence. forced air dried at 1100 F from one to three hours
Most of the plant breeding work on vegetables depending on the size of the seed. Small lots of seeds
has been done in the temperate zone, but in the can be dried in an airtight can with a desiccant
future more plant breeding work may be under­ such as calcium chloride or silica gel. The desiccant
taken in the Tropics. Vegetable varieties are con­ never should come in contact with the seeds.
stantly being improved and the varieties suggested Beans and okra sometimes develop hard seeds
in this book are the ones available at the time of at a moisture content of 7 per cent or below. The
publication. It is important to check the seed cata­ white-seeded beans become hard even at 10 per cent,
logues for newer varieties that have been released which results in poor germination; however, the
since the publication of this book. dark seeded beans are affected at 7 per cent moisture
The use of local varieties never should be over­ or below (1).
looked. Through natural selection some of the local All vegetable seeds in the Tropics should be
varieties may be highly resistant to local pest prob­ stored at 400 F and 60 per cent relative humidity
lems. The local varieties always should be compared when the moisture content is low as shown in Table
with imported varieties in replicated variety trials 2. If refrigeration facilities are not available the
before the imported varieties are recommended. moisture content of the seeds should be reduced to
Information on soil pH, temperature require­ 4 or 5 per cent except for okra and beans, and
ments, spacing and seed requirements are listed in placed in airtight containers. They can then be
Table 4 for the most important vegetable crops. stored for 1 year at 700 F.
In a few cases some of the information was not When seeds are removed from a refrigerator they
available and has been omitted. should be used soon afterwards since moisture con­
Insect and disease control are considered as sep­ denses on the seeds when moved to a warmer tem­
arate chapters for easy reference to specific con­ perature. This can be avoided if the seeds are
trol measures for each insect or disease. They are enclosed in an airtight can in the refrigerator.
listed alphabetically by crops and by diseases or
insects under each crop. Weeds also are considered References
separately as a chapter for easy reference. I. Knott, J.E. 1960. Handbook for Vegetable Growers. John
When vegetable seeds are stored at air tempera­ Wiley and Sons,-Inc., New York, N.Y.

78
 Table 2. MAXIMUM SEED-MOISTURE CONTENT FOR STORAGE 1

Kind of Seed Moisture Content for Temperature of Storage

40*-500 F. 700 F. 800 F.

Bean 15% 11% 8%
Bean, lima 15 11
8
Beet 14 11
9
Cabbage 9 7
5
Carrot 13 9
7
Celery 13 9
7
Corn 14 10
&
Cucumber II 9
8
Lettuce 10 7
5
Okra 14 12
10
Onion 11 8
6
Pea 15 13
9
Pepper 10- 9
7
Spinach 13 11
9
Tomato 13 11
9
Turnip 10 8
6
Watermelon 10 8
7
1Adapted from United States Department of Agriculture Leaflet 920, Storagf of Vegetable Seeds. 1942.

Tropical vegetable crops may be classified as Brassica oleracea. Cauliflower.

follows: Brassica oleracea. Broccoli.
Cajanus indicus. Pigeon pea.
CLASS I. Of wide commercial importance. Cicer arietinum. Chickpea.
CLASS II. Of limited commercial impor- Colocasia antiquorum. Taro.
tance. Colocasia esculenta. Dasheen, Malanga.
CLASS III. Usually grown for local market Dolichos lablab. Hyacinth bean.
only. Glycine max. Soybean.
CLASS IV. Minor crops not often marketed. Helianthus annuus. Sunflower.
Lactuca sativa. Lettuce.
CLASS I Lens esculenta. Lentil.
A Ilium cepa. Onion. Luffa spp.
Sponge gourd.
Arachis hypogaea. Peanut. Phaseolusaureus.
Mung bean.
Brassica oleracea. Cabbage. Phaseolus lunatus.
Lima bean.
Capsicum annuum. Sweet pepper. Pisum sativum.
Peas.
Capsicum frutescens, Pepper (Hot), Sesamum indicum.
Sesame.
Citrullus vulgaris. Watermelon. Solanum tuberosum.
Potato.
Cucumis melo. Cantaloupe, Musk- Vica faba.
Broad bean.
melon.
Cucumis sativus. Cucumber. CLASS III
Dioscorea alata. Yam.
Allium ascalonicum. Shallot.

Sweet potato. Allium forrum.

Leeks.

Ipomoea batatas.
Lycopersicon esculentum. Tomato.
Amaranthus gangeticus. Chinese spinach.

Manihot utilissima. Cassava, Yuca,

Barbarea vulgaris.
Upland cress.

Manioc. Beta vulgaris.

Beet.

Phaseolus vulgaris. Beans. Beta vulgaris. Chard.

Solanum melongena. Eggplant. Brassica campestris. Turnip.

Brassica chinensis. Chinese cabbage.

CLASS II Brassica juncea. Mustard.

Allium sativum. Garlic. Brassica oleracea. Kale.

Apium graveolens. Celery. Brassica oleracea. Brussels sprouts.

74
CLASS III (Cont'd) Voandzeia subterranea. Bambarra
Brassica oleracea. Kohlrabi.
groundnut.
Chenopodium quinoa. Quinoa. Seeds and
Zea mays. Popcorn.
greens.
Cechorium endivia. Endive.
Cichorium intybus. Chicory. ARTICHOKE
Corchorusolitorius. jute for greens,
Cucurbita spp. Squash and (Cynara scolymus)
pumpkins.
Gynara scolymus. Globe artichoke. The globe artichoke is a perennial vegetable
Daucus carota. Carrot. grown for its flower bud or head. These heads
Foeniculum vulgare. Sweet fennel. are harvested before they open and the fleshy por­
Helianthus tuberosus. Jerusalem artichoke. tion at the center is eaten. The heads usually are
Hibiscus esculentus, Okra.
boiled after cutting off the tough portion with a
Pachythizus erosus. Yam bean.
sharp knife. The base of the petals are sometimes
Petroselinum crispum. Parsley.
dipped in a butter sauce before eating.
Physalis pubescens. Husk tomato.
Hot weather causes the flowers to open and in­
Pzmpinella anisum. Anise.
creases the fiber and toughness, hence the artichoke
Raphanus satvas. Radish.
does best in cooler temperatures at 3,000 icet or
Roripa above in elevation.
nasturtium-aquaticum. Water cress.
They are propagated originally from seed but
Sechium edulc. Chayote.
to obtain the best production, offshoots or divisions
Spinacia oleracea. Spinach.
from old crowns of high producing plants are
Tetragonza expansa. New Zealand
used (1). A period of two years is required for
spinach. production from seed.
Vigna sinensis. Cowpeas. Artichokes will withstand some dry weather but
Xanthosoma sagttalfolium.Yautia. should be irrigated during the dry season for best
Zea mays. Sweet corn or field results. Nitrogen fertilizer at the rate of 60 to 80
corn. lbs. of nitrogen per acre is used just before harvest­
ing begins (2). (Illus. page 8.)
CLASS IV
Allium schoenoprasum. Chives. References
Amarantusspp. Chinese spinach.
Anethum graveolens. Dill. 1. Tavernetti, A A. 1954. Artichokes, how to grow them in
Anthrscus cerefolium. Chervil. California. Calif. Agr. Ext. Leaflet 37.
Armoracia rusticana. 2. Thompson, H.C. and W.C. Kelly. 1957. Vegetable Crops.
Horse-radish.
McGraw-Hill Co. New York, N.Y.
Arracaciaxanthorrhiza. Arracacha.
Asparagus ofiicinalis. Asparagus.
Basella alba. Malabar spinach. ASPARAGUS
Basella rubra. Ceylon spinach.
Canavalia ensiformis. Jack bean. (Asparagus officinalis)
Cucurbita ficifolia. Chilacayote.
Hibiscus sabdariffa. Roselle. Asparagus is rare in tropical regions but is popu­
Maranta arundinacea. Arrowroot. lar where it is known. It is a perennial with male
Ocemum basilicum. Basil. and female flowers on separate plants.
Pastinaca sativa. Parsnip. A neutral or slightly alkaline soil that is loose
Plectranthus ternata. Coleus tubers. and deep enough to permit development of good
Portulaca oleracea. Purslane. shoots is preferred. The chief problem in the
Rheum rhaponticum. Rhubarb. Tropics is the dormancy necessary to produce shoots
Sicana odorifera. Curuba. of sufficient size for the market. It may not be a
Solanum commersonii. Uruguay potato. very profitable commercial crop as without a dor­
Tragopogon porrifolius. Salsify. mant period the shoots are very slender.
Tropaeolum tuberosum. Cubio. Seeds are planted in nursery rows where they

75
 Table 3. ESTIMATED YIELDS PER ACRE OF VEGETABLE CROPS IN THE UNITED STATES.'

Average Yield Good Yield

Crop in Lbs. per Acre in Lbs. per Acre

Artichoke - 4,000 6,000

Asparagus -Market 2,700 6,000
-Processing 2,000 4,000
Bean-snap-Market 3,300 6,000
-Processing 4,000 7,000
Beets -Market 10,400 20,800
-Processing
20,000 24,000
Broccoli
5,040 8,400
Brussels sprouts
9,000 10,000
Cabbage
16,000 24,000
Carrot
27,000 33,750
Cauliflower
15,540 22,200
Celery
38,400 90,000
Chard, Swiss
10,000
Corn
5,250 15,000
Cucumbers
7,440 24,000
Eggplant
9,900 16,500
Endive
12,500 17,500
Garlic
6,000 8,000
Lettuce
12,600 21,000
Muskmelon
7,700 14,000
Okra
10,000
Onion
18,000 35,000
Peas in pods
3,150 4,500
Pepper, bell
6,125 12,500
Pepper, chili-dried
2,000 3,000
Potato
15,000 24.000
Pumpkin
20,000
Radish
20.000 bunches
Rutabaga
20,000
Shallot
3,000 3,750
Spinach
6,250 12,500
Squash, summer
18,000
Squash, winter
20.000
Sweet potato
5,225 11,000
Tomato
20,000 30,000
Turnip-bunched
10,000
Watermelon
7,000 12,500

1 Permission to use this information has been granted by Dr. James Edward Knott. "Handbook for Vegetable Growers." 1962. John Wiley
and Sons, Inc. New York, N. Y.

are grown for about a year. They are transplanted necessary. In most areas a complete fertilizer with a
when the plants are dormant. Smaller crowns should 1-1-1 ratio would be satisfactory.
be discarded since they have proved to be un­ Plants usually are spaced 18 to 24 inches in rows
profitable (1). Crowns are planted about 2 inches 4 to 6 feet apart in the field. Recent spacing ex­
deep in furrows which eventually may be covered periments have shown high yields from 6 inch
6 or 8 inches deep. Male plants produce better spacings in 5 foot rows (2). In the seedbed 30 to
than female plants but it has not been found 36 inch rows are used with plants 3 to 4 inches
profitable to separate them. apart.
Weeds must be controlled for good results, either Harvesting usually is done once a year, beginning
with a chemical herbicide or by cultivation. Fertil­ when the planting has had two seasons of growth
izer usually is needed but in the rich soils of the (3). The shoots are cut during a period of 2 to 8
Sacramento Valley they have not been shown to be weeks depending on the strength of the plants.

76
 Table 4. SUGGESTED PLANTING AND TEMPERATURE REQUIREMENTS FOR
VEGETABLES.'

QUANTITY OF APPROXIMATE SPACING IN SPACING

CROP SOIL pH TEMPERATURE SEEDS TO NO. OF SEEDS THE ROW BETWEEN
REQUIREMENT PLANT AN PER OUNCE IN INCHES ROWS IN
ACRE IN LBS. INCHES
1. Artichoke 60'-650 F 907-1,089 700 72 96
root section
2. Asparagus 6.0-6.8 30* F 2.5- 4 700 12-18 3644:
3. Bean-broad 5.5-6.8 60*-650 F 50-100 20-50 8-10 20-48
4. Bean-common 5.5-6 8 60'-700 F 40- 80 100 2- 4 18-36
5. Bean Lima 55-6.8 600-700 F 50-100 20-70 6-S8 18-36
6. Bean-snap 55-6.8 609-700 F 40- 80 100 2- 4 18-36
7. Beet 60-6.8 600-650 F 8- 10 1,600 2- 4 18-36
S. Cabbage 6.0-6.8 60-65. V 1.5- 2 8,500 16-30 24-40
9. Cantaloupe 6.0-6.8 650-750 F 1.5- 2 1,200 12 60-96
10. Carrot 5.5-68 60o-65 F 2.5- 3 23,000 1- 3 16-36
11 Corn-field 5.5-6.8 60'-75' F 8- 10 100-150 12-18 36-48
12. Corn-sweet 5.5-6.8 606-75o F 10- 15 100-200 9-15 36-48
13. Cowpea 600-750 F 20- 40 125 5- 6 36-48
14. Cucumber 5.5-68 650-750 F 2 1,000 12 36-72
15. Dasheen 70o-850 F 200-1,200 tubers 24-30 42-48
16. Eggplant 55-6.8 70-850 F 2 6,000 18-36 24-54
17. Garlic 55-6.8 550-75 F 800-1,000 cloves 2-3 18-24
18. Leek 60-6.8 550-75 F 4 11,000 2-6 12-36
19. Lettuce-head 6.0-6.8 600-650 F 1.5-8 25,000 10-15 18-24
20. Lettuce-leaf 6.0-6.8 600-650 F 1.5-3 25,000 10-12 18-24
21. Okra 6.0-6.8 700-850 F 500 12-24 24-60
22. Onion 6.0-6.8 550-750 F 3-4 9,500 2-4 18-6
23. Pea 5.5-6 8 60*-650 F 60-100 50-250 1-3 24-48
24. Pepper-hot 55-6.8 700-850 F 2-4 4,500 12-24 18-36
25. Pepper-sweet 5.5-68 700-750 F 2-4 4,500 12-24 18-86
26. Potato-Irish 5.0-68 600_650 F 1200-2200 tubers 9-12 30-42
27. Potato-sweet 5.0-6.8 700-850 F 9,680 vine 10-18 36-48
cuttings
28 Pumpkin 55-6.8 65--75- F 2-S 110 36-60 96-144
29. Radish 5.5-6.8 600-65* F 10-12 2.000 1 12-18
30. Spinach 6.0-6 8 60'-65' F 10-15 2,800 2-6 12-36
31. Spinach-New
Zealand 6.0-6.8 600-750 F 15 350 10-20 36-60
32. Soybean 6.0-6.8 65-750 F 40-80 175-350 1-2 18-24
33. Squash­
summer 5.5-6.8 630_g7g0 ? 4-6 300 24-48 36-48
34. Squash­
winter 5.5-6 8 650-75o F 3-4 100 86-120 72-120
35. Tomato 5.5-6.8 70*-750 TF 05-1.5 11,000 18-48 36-72
86. Watermelon 5 0-6.8 700-850 r 1-2 225-300 24-86 72-96
'Permission to use this information has been granted by Dr James Edward Knott. "Handbook for Vegetable Growers" 1962. John Wuley and
Sons, Inc. New York, N. Y.

Shoots ordinarily are cut every day during the References

harvest period. Care in harvesting is essential and
this is done with a special asparagus knife to avoid 1. Hanna, G C. 1947. Asparagus production in California.
injuring the crown or roots. If blanched shoots are Calif. Agr. Ext. Cir. 91.
desired it is necessary to mound up earth on the 2 Moran, C.H. and R.L Isaacs. Effect of crown spacing on
the yield of asparagus Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 75:
shoots several inches and harvest as the shoots ap­ 416-418.
pear above the surface to prevent them from be­ 3. Thompson, H.C. and W.C Kelley. 1957. Vegetable Crops.
coming green. Beds usually last 10 to 15 years. McGraw-Hill Co. New York, N.Y.

77
00 Table 5. PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF VEGETABLES 1
Amount per 100-gram fresh edible portion
Approximate
Refus. household Average Vitamins Minerals
No. Vegetable rood gVater Proton, Fat "I'otal Other
A p4 equivalent sugar CHOb A ThiamineRobo-
(100 gm=3 oz) energy A Thijmine Havin Niacin C Ca Fe Mg P K Na

Jier cent units Calories International

grarns
".$Is
milligrams malhgrams
I ARTICHOKE, GLOBE 60 I small or 1/2
large 20 83 2.7 0.2 1.8 0.50 160 0.08 0.06 0.8 11 53 1.5 48 78 340 110
Large bud, 200 gin
2 BIacts 60 20 82 2.6 0.1 1.8 0.6 220 0.09 0.07 0.7 12 57 2.1 39 70 270 70
3 Receptacle 20 20 84 2.8 0.2 1.4 0.6 100 0.08 0.04 0.8 10 44 1.4 50 80 340 110
Small bud, 100 gin
4 Bracts .. 60 21 85 2.7 0.2 2.2 0.4c 220 0.07 0.09 0.8 11 37 1.5 89 75 310 56
5 Receptacle ... 30 22 81 2.5 0.3 1.4 0.60 100 0.07 0.04 0.7 10 47 1.7 60 83 370 110
ASPARAGUS
6 Green, shoots 40 6 5-inch spears
1/2- to 5/8­
inch diameter 27 92 2.8 0.2 1.9 0.3 980 0.23 0.15 2.2 48 24 1.5
7 White, shoots 30 6 5-inch spears
1/2- to 5/8­
inch diameter 25 93 1.9 0.2 2.3 0.2 50 0.11 0.08 1.1 28 16 1.1 52 .. ...
ASPARAGUS BEAN
(See 15)
BEANS
8 Blackeye pea
(Cowpea) . I . 6 3/4 cup 40 85 3.3 0.3 3.0 3.3 634 0.37 0.06 1.3 38 32 1.7 54 78 220 5
9 Fava, immature ... 70 2/3 cup 53 81 5.0 0.6 2.8 3.8 350 0.17 0.11 1.5 33 22 1.9 38 95 250 50
10 Lima, baby 60 2/3 cup 90 69 7.1 1.4 3.1 9.2 390 0.27 0.13 1.6 31 62 3.3 175
11 Lima, Fordhook 60 2/3 cup 80 71 6.3 1.8 2.5 7.5 250 0.29 0.11 1.4 27 28 2.5 30 145 260 5
12 Snap, bush 3/4 cup 34 86 2.7 0.2 2.1 3.6 540 0.09 0.08 0.9 21 35 12 51 78 330 9
18 Snap, pole 5 3/4 cup 21 91 1.6 0.1 2.3 1.2 450 0.21 0.07 0.6 16 50 0.8 37 41 200 4
14 Soybean * . 40 5/8 cup 106 73 9.0 5.0 2.8 4.1 640 0.57 0.14 1.6 33 66 2.5 .. 178.....
15 Yard-long 3/4 cup 30 89 2.8 0.4 3.1 0.7 1,400 0.13 0.11 1.0 32 50 1.0 51 59 210 4
16 BEAN SPROUTS
(Mung bean) 0 1 1/8 cups 25 92 2.7 0.1 2.1 1.4 25 0.11 0.03 0.6 12 20 0.6 16 35 130 2
17 BEETS, TABLE 65 3/4 cap, 2 roots
2-inch diameter 34 89 1.9 0.1 5.9 0.4 Trace 0.05 0.02 0.4 11 13 05 19 55 290 130
BELL PEPPERS (See
82-83)
18 BORAGE ,. ... .20 1 1/8 cups 17 93 1.8 0.7 0.9 0.2 4,200 0.06 0.15 0.9 35 93 3.3 52 53 470 80
BRASCHETTE (See 59)
19 BROCCOLI, SPROUTING 20 3/4 cup or 2 1/2
stalks 23 90 3,6 0.3 1.6 0.4 3,800 0.11 0.10 0.6 110 78 1.0 39 74 360 40
20 BRUSSELS SPROUTS . 5 5 to 7'sprouts 26 88 3.5 0.2 2.2 0.5 950 0.13 0.04 0.6 85 39 0.9 23 69 890 30
21 BURDOCK ROOT ..... 10 1 cup 40 72 L (0.1)a 1.9 4.8 0 0.01 0.03 0.3 3 41 0.8 .. 51
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 SQUASH (WINTER)
AND PUMPKIN
107 Acorn, Table Queen .... 40 5/4 cup 35 86 0.8 0.1 7.0 1.0 340 0.14 0.01 0.7 11 33 0.7 32 36 520 6
108 Pink Banana ..... ...... 15 3/4 cup 20 91 2.0 0.2 3.0 0.3 2,700 0.08 0.04 0.8 6 27 0.5 16 38 350 7
109 Butternut I . .... . ....... 25 3/4 cup
41 85 1.0 0.1 4.5 4.0 7,800 0.10 0.02 1.2 21 48 0.7 34 33 400
35 3/4 cup 34 88 2.0 0.5 5.0 1.3 5,400 0.07 0.04 0.5 11 14 0.4 19 21 320 7
110 Hubbard . .. .. .....
Ill Chinese winter­
melon .......... .. 25 Slice, l x 5
inches 9 96
0.2 0.1 1.9 0.2 Trace 0.02 0.05 0.5 14 14 0.4 16 7 200 2
SWEET ANISE (See 51)

SWEET POTATO

112 Jersey .. .... . ........ 15 3/4 cup 11i 67 2.0 0.2 6.0 21.0
1,500 0.10 0.02 0.8 32 60 0.9 34 57 $90 40
113 Puerto (Porto) Rico ........ 15 3/4 cup 101 70 2.0 0.2 4.4 8,800 0.20 0.03 0.5 18 36 0.9 30 71 430 60

114 Velvet .... 15 3/4 cup 93 69 1.4 0.2 5.8 16,3 14,000 0.10 0.04 0.2 21 37 0.7 28 65 290 80
SWISS CHARD (See $9)
TARO (Dasheen)
115 Pink .... .. ... ........... 15 3/4 cup 52 80 1.0 0.2 0.7 11.0 0 0.10 0.03 06 5 60 0.7 46 107 560 4
116 W hite ...... .............. 15 3/4 cup 54 82 2.0 0.2 1.0 10.0 0 0.09 0.02 0.6 4 26 0.4 25 60 710 7
TOMATO
117 Pearson ... 5 1 of 3-inch
diameter 19 94 0.9 0.1 3.5 0.2 1,700 0.10 0.02 0.6 21 6 0.3 10 16 220 5
118 San Marnano
(Pear tomato) ....... .. 5 1 medium 15 94 0.9 0.1 3.0 0.5 770 0.10 0.01 0.7 23 9 0.1 11 20 230 3
TOMATO, HUSK­
(See 56)
TURNIP
119 Greens . ....... ... ...... 10 2 cups 14 91 1.5 0.5 1.3 0.1 3,400 0.07 0.10 0.6 60 190 1.1 31 42 250 40
120 Roots (mature) ..... . . 55 3/4 cup 18 92 0.9 0.1 3.8 0.2 0 0.04 0.03 0.4 21 80 0.3 I 27 170 40
121 Tops and roots
(immature)
(Rappini) ......... 20 2 to 4 plants 18 92 1.8 0.2 1.7 0.2 2.700 0.05 0.07 0.5 70 125 1.5 45 45 250 40
VEGETABLE OYSTER

(See 95)

122 WATER-CHESTN UT ........ 35 15 to 20 corms 56 82 1.4 0.1 4.8 8.0 0

0.14 0.20 1.0 10 11 3.5 12 63 500 20
123 WATER-CONVOLVULUS 0 1 1/2 cups 25 92 2.6 0.2 0.3 3.1 3,500 0.03 0.10 0.9 55 95 2.2 49 40 370 6
124 WATER-CRESS ... ......... 0 2 1/2 cups 11 95 2.3 0.1 0.2 0.2 4,700 0.09 0.12 0.2 43 120 0.2 13 60 270 32
WATERMELON (See 69)
125 WONDERBERRY . ........... 0 1 cup 24 89 2.0 1.0 1.0 0.1 570 0.10 0.06 0.7 12 24 0.6 40 42 510 2
. ..... ............. 20 3/4 cup 88 74 1.8 0.5 0.5 19.0 0 0.08 0.01 0.4 6 28 0.6 29 85 600 14
126 YA M
YARD-LONG BEAN
(See 15)
a As purchased. (Per cent refuse will vary according to quality and method of preparation.)

b Carbohydrates.

The carbohydrate fraction of artichoke contains inial, which is reportedly not

metabolized by man and is not included in these figues.
a Estimated value.

* Fructosans nnt included.

D. Howard, John H. Macillivray and
' Reproduced
Masatashi from California Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 788. Nutrient Composition of Fresh California-Grown Vegtables bykrederick
Yamaguchi.
 BEANS

Beans provide an essential part of the diet for

the people of many tropical areas. A favorite dish
in several Latin American countries is that of rice
and beans. In some of the Arabic countries the
broad bean, which is sometimes called the horse
bean, Vicia faba, is cooked as a breakfast food and
is considered delicious.
The most important beans in the Tropics are the
broad-bean, Vicia faba; dry or field bean, Phaseo­
his vulgaris; Hyacinth bean, Dolichos lablab; lima
bean, P. lunatus; mung bean, P. aureus; snap bean,
P. vulgaris; and soybean, Glycine max.
Figure 66. DRY BEANS WITH SYMPTOMS OF YELLOW
BEAN MOSAIC.
BROAD BEAN

(Vicia faba) strains of P. coccineus are resistant to the yellow

bean mosaic. A cross between the P. coccineus and
The broad bean is grown in most of the tropical P. vulgaris has been made at the University of Ore­
and subtropical areas. It is generally grown during
gon and segregations of this cross have resistance
the winter months and at a higher altitude in the
to the disease under the growing conditions in
tropical areas. The broad bean is more resistant
Oregon. Where yellow bean mosaic is a problem it
than the dry bean to many of the bean diseases.
would be well to request a few seeds for trial from
Broad beans are moderately salt tolerant. A good
Dr. J. R. Baggett of the Department of Horticulture
spacing in 3-foot rows would be about 4 inches.
at the State University of Oregon.
A number of varieties have been developed in
Variety trials should be conducted to determine
local areas but unless they are constantly selected
the best variety for any given location, and fertil­
they tend to become variable.
izer trials are needed to determine the type and
Mildew is serious in the warmer areas. Sulfur
amount of fertilizer required to give economic
sprays have some benefit but karathane has no
yields. Local varieties often are best since day length
effect, (Illus. page 8.)
is an important factor. Phosphorous is the element
most commonly lacking in bean soils. The best re­
DRY BEAN turns are from I10,000 plants per acre or spacings
of 2 to 3 inches in rows 20 inches apart. The seed­
(Phaseolus vulgaris) ing rate can be obtained from Table 4. Seeds should
be stored at 450 to 60'F to avoid loss of germina­
The dry beans consist of pea, medium, marrow tion.
and kidney types. The red kidney type of bean is
preferred in some Latin American countries; how­
ever, in Central America, the black beans are pre­ HYACINTH BEAN
ferred. Pinto beans also have a good market but
many of the varieties are susceptible to rust. Where (Dolichos lablab)
rust is a problem it might be desirable to try the
resistant varieties such as Pinto 5, Pinto 14, Colum­ The hyacinth bean is cultivated in southern Asia
bia Pinto, and Rico 23. and Africa. The ripe seeds as well as the green pods
The red kidney beans are susceptible to several are used for food. The bean is an annual outside of
virus diseases in the Tropics which are transmitted tropical areas but will persist for two years or more
by aphids and leaf-hoppers. Common bean mosaic in the Tropics if it is not killed by pests. The hya­
and yellow bean mosaic probably are the most cinth bean is similar to the cowpea but the stems
serious of these diseases. The U.S. No. 5 Refugee are harder and the plant more viny. When the plant
variety is resistant to the common bean mosaic and is supported it often has a vine 20 to 25 feet long.

84
The infloresences have a sweet scent and are 4 to 6 and in Africa. It is grown mainly for the seed
inches long. The compressed pods are shaped like a which is used for food. This type of bean is used
broad scimitar and the seeds have a white caruncle for bean sprouts which are commonly used in Chi­
extending one-third of their circumference. nese foods. In India the straw is used as forage for
There are many varieties and they differ in earli­ livestock.
ness, color and foliage, which is green or purple; The habit of the mung bean is similar to that of
flower color, which may be white, pink or purple; the cowpeas, but the plants are less viny and some
size, shape and color of the pods and seeds which are strictly bushy-type. They grow under the same
may be white, reddish, black or speckled. Selections environmental conditions as the cowpeas. It is
should be made for yield among the local varieties known in the United States as the Chickasaw pea
in any given location. and as the Oregon pea.
The adaptations of the hyacinth bean are practi­ The seeds are attacked by the cowpea weevil and
cally identical with those of the cowpea and it may control measures may be required if the attack is
be cultivated as cowpeas. Some varieties yield about severe. For control of this insect consult the table
the same as cowpeas. on insect control.
The hyacinth bean is susceptible to root-knot The culture of the mung bean is the same as that
nematodes and wilt. Local strains may be resistant for cowpeas but weed control is very important
in some areas due to survival of the fittest through since the young plants do not compete with weeds
natural selection. as well as does the cowpea. The mung beans always
Variety and fertilizer trials are needed in each should be planted in rows so that they can be
area to determine the best variety and the right weeded easily. Seeding rate is 20 lbs. per acre and
kind and amount of fertilizer to use. average yields are 300 to 500 lbs. per acre (3).
There are many varieties and the local varieties
LIMA BEAN should be compared with imported varieties. The
varieties differ in plant size, habit, earliness and
(Phaseolus lunatus)
the shape and color of the seed. The seeds are
The large seeded lima beans are classified as spherical in most varieties, green, brown or mar­
Phaseolus limensis and the small seeded types as bled. The Newman variety is the same as the old
P. lunatus (2). Lima beans are eaten freshly cooked, Chickasaw pea. This variety is late and reaches a
canned, frozen and dry. There are pole and bush height of 3.5 feet.
varieties and the pole varieties require a longer
period of time to mature. Some of the large seeded
varieties do not set pods well in hot weather and SNAP BEAN
should be grown during the winter months or at (Phaseolusvulgaris)
high altitudes in tropical areas. Limas are not af­
fected by length of day. Some varieties are more Snap beans will grow on sandy loams to heavy
tolerant to heat than others and it is important to clays. Beans do not respond readily to fertilizers
conduct variety trials in all new areas of production. but fertilizer trials should be conducted in new
Some of the more promising varieties are Fordhook areas or in areas under intensive cultivation of ro­
242, Wilbur, Westan, Baby Fordhook, and Tri­ tation crops. Since beans set a higher percentage of
umph. fruit in cooler weather it is best to grow them at
Loam and silt loam soils are recommended in high altitudes or during the winter months in tropi­
tropical and subtropical areas. Fertilizer trials must cal areas.
be conducted to determine the correct fertilizer Kano pole bean is a good white seeded bean in
program for each location. It may be found that Nigeria. Goa bean (Psophocarpustetragonolobus)is
lima beans respond to higher levels of nitrogen than a climbing bean suited to poor soils in regions of
snap beans. high rainfall where green beans do not thrive. Pods
of Goa bean should be harvested while tender (2).
MUNG BEAN New varieties of interest for the Tropics include
Dade pole bean, a rust resistant, high yielding
(Phaseolus aureus) variety; Alabama No. 1, Coffee Wonder, Isbell's
The mung bean is native to southern Asia and is Nematode Resistant, and Springwater are nematode
grown in this area as well as the Malayan Islands resistant varieties (1).

85
 Beans are classified according to color, such as References
green podded or yellow podded, and according to 1. Blazey, D.A. et al. 1964. Nematode resistance in common
bush or climbing varieties. The snap bean is not beans. Jour. Hered. 55 (1):20-22.
as widely grown in the Tropics as the dry bean 2. Gibberd, A.V. and Gibberd, V.L. 1959. A gardening
and there is not a great deal of information on handbook for the tropics. Longman's Green. London.
variety performance. Suggested varieties are Wade, 184 pp.
3. Ochse, JJ., et al. 1961. Tropical and Subtropical Agri­
Contender, Corneli 14, Extender, Blue Lake 231, culture. The MacMillan Co. New York, N.Y.
Harvester, Top Crop, Florigreen, Seminole and Ken­ 4. Thompson, H.C. and W.C. Kelly. 1957. Vegetable Crops.
tucky Wonder. Information on herbicides, insecti­ McGraw-Hill Co., Inc. New York, N.Y.
cides and fungicides can be found in Tables 12, 18 5. Wood, R.C. 1957. A handbook of tropical horticulture.
and 8 respectively. Imperial Col. Agr. Trinidad. 256 pp.

BEETS
SOYBEANS
(Beta vulgaris)
(Glycine max)
Most beet varieties do well in the Tropics but
Soybeans are grown in many parts of the world high temperatures will prevent development of
and at the present time the United States, China good quality roots, hence, it is essentially a cool
and Manchuria account for the highest production. weather crop. It develops satisfactorily at medium
Soybeans also are grown in Central and South to high elevations. It is mainly grown for local
America as well as the Near East, Far East and markets. Beets are sensitive to length of day and
Africa. Since soybeans can be produced over such a remain in vegetative condition under medium or
wide range of environmental conditions it is very high temperatures.
important to grow the right variety for any given Detroit Dark Red is considered a good quality
location as soybeans are very sensitive to day length. beet but since the tops often are used for greens,
Variety trials are necessary in order to find varieties varieties such as Long Season and Early Wonder
adapted to a particular environment. The varieties Tall Top might be preferred.
selected for trial should come from areas that have Planting is done by sowing rows 18 to 24 inches
similar day length and climatic conditions. Lee, apart. Thinning I to 4 inches is recommended but
Hardee, and Improved Pelican should be tried. seldom is practiced. Roots are harvested when they
Soybeans grow best in a humid climate with are one to three inches in diameter.
plenty of rain during the growing season but re­ Beets are subject to boron deficiency which is
quire dry weather during the period of ripening. demonstrated by internal black spots in the roots.
Soybeans do well on deep, mellow, fertile, slightly Application of about 40 pounds of borax per acre
acid soils. A commercial inoculum is usually used is useful for correcting this. This trouble is associ­
to treat the seeds before planting and it is impor­ ated with high calcium levels in the soils (2).
tant to use the proper species of Rhizobium as the References
organisms are specific as to host (1).
I. Beattie, J.H. 1958. Culture of table beets. U.S. Dept. Agr.
Soybeans are considered here as a food crop but Leaflet. 360.
they can serve as a source of raw material for widely 2. Kelly, J.F. and W.H. Gableman. 1960. Variability in min­
diversified chemical industry. As a food crop they eral composition of red beet varieties in relation to boron
are baked, broiled, roasted and are used to make nutrition. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hart. Sci. 76:416-424.
grits, soy sauce, cooking oil, shortening, salad oils, 3. Thompson, H.C. and W.C. Kelly. 1957. Vegetable Crops.
McGraw-Hill Co. New York, N.Y.
margarine, medicinal oil and vegetable milk (1). In
Hawaii, they are cooked when seeds are plump in
the green pod in fairly salty water. They are then BROCCOLI
eaten by putting the pods in the mouth and eating
only the seeds. They have a high protein content (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis)
(40-50%). Breeding to develop more suitable va­
rieties for the Tropics is in progress at the Hawaii Sprouting broccoli was relatively unknown in
Agricultural Experiment Station. America until the advent of quick freezing. It is

86
now an important quick frozen vegetable. It has best yields. They matured in 90 days in the moun­
a high vitamin C content as indicated in Table 5 tains and 76 days in the lowlands. Heads are
as well as other vitamins and minerals (2). It is smaller in the lowlands (1). In Central America,
particularly valuable for tropical areas where the Wisconsin Allseason, Badger Market and Ditmarch
diet is likely to be low in green or leafy vegetables gave good results. In Venezuela, Marion Market,
(1). Adding some leaves to the heads increases the Copenhagen Market and Early Flat Dutch have
carotene value. been successful (2). It has been reported that Wis­
Seed can be sown in nursery beds. One pound will consin Copenhagen and Bonanza have resistance to
grow enough plants for 4 acres. Plants are set in tipburn while other varieties are susceptible to this
rows 40 to 48 inches apart and 8 to 12 inches in non-parasitic disease (5). Premium Late Flat Dutch
the row. Wider spacing gives lower yields (3). and Marion Market have produced well in Haiti.
The best varieties in the Tropics have been De Cabbage seed can be sown in open beds in the
Cicco and Texas 107. Plantings have been harvested Tropics. It is possible that protection from the hot
continuously for as long as 4 months and it is quite sun would be needed as the plants first emerge. Dur­
feasible to produce sprouting broccoli the year ing the rainy season protection from heavy rains
round at the medium elevations in the Tropics. may be necessary to prevent washing out of the
Nitrogen is needed for good crops, especially seeds or small plants.
after the first harvest. Good results have been ob­ Transplanting is done in rows 3 feet apart, using
tained with diammonium phosphate (18.5-50-0) at a spacing of 12 inches. Larger heads can be ob­
the rate of 200 lbs. per acre. This can be used as a tained with wider spacing but there is a loss of
side-dressing with irrigation. Irrigation will be yield per acre and a greater likelihood of splitting.
needed during the dry season. Cabbage responds well to starter solution at trans­
planting time. Nitrogen is the most important ele­
References ment but an excess may cause internal breakdown
(3). It also may increase burst heads unless plants
I. Childers, N.F., et al. 1950. Vegetable gardening in the are spaced closely, 8 to 10 inches (4).
tropics, P. R. Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir. 52 (Mayaguez) . Seeds are perishable in a hot climate and should
2. Thompson, R.C. 1961. Cauliflower and broccoli varieties be kept in refrigeration at 450 F.
and culture. U. S. Dept. Agr. F. B. 1957.
Cabbageworms are the main problem in tropical
3. Zink, F.W. and D.A. Akana. 1951. Effect of spacing on
growth of sprouting broccoli. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. plantings and may be controlled with DDT or
58:16164. lindane. Cabbage loopers are not affected by mala­
thion sprays,

CABBAGE

(Brassicaoleracea var. capitata)

Cabbage is the most important member of the

genus Brassica grown in tropical regions. Since it
can withstand rough transport it often is grown at
higher elevations and brought to market by
donkeys. It is successful at moderately cool tempera­
tures at any elevation but seldom makes good heads
at sea level within the Tropics. Surprisingly good
yields are obtained at elevations as low as 2,000
ft. in the tropical areas.
Many excellent disease-resistant varieties are
available now. In the Philippines, O-S Cross,
Succession, Perfection Drumhead, Wisconsin Hol­
lander and Premium Flat Dutch have given the

Out of print. superseded by: Winters. H. F. and G. W. Miskinen. Figure 67. THE ALL SEASON CABBAGE VARIETY
1967. Vegetable Gardening in the Caribbean Area. U. S. Dep. Agr. DOES WELL IN THE TROPICS.
Handh. 323, 114 pp., illus.

87
 with red cores, stronger tops, etc. Farmers of heavy
clay soils such as the highlands of Central America
prefer the Oxheart for its ease in harvesting. Gener­
ally yields are higher from Danvers or Chantenay.
Seeding is done in 18 to 24 inch rows at a depth
of / to s/4 inch. Spreading thh seed in a band 3 to 4
inches wide will allow room for growth without
thinning. A "spoon" attachment on the seeder helps
to accomplish this. From 2 to 4 lbs. of seed per acre
are needed depending on the seed size. About 25
seeds per foot of row is suggested. They require 75
to 85 days before harvest (2). Because carrots take
up to 14 days to germinate, it is highly important to
keep the soil surface moist until the seedlings
emerge.
Figure 68. CABBAGE WORMS CAN DO A LOT OF Fertilizers usually are needed for American or
DAMAGE IF NOT CONTROLLED WHEN THE PLANTS
European varieties, About 40 lbs. of nitrogen per
ARE YOUNG,
acre and 80 lbs. of phosphate have given best results
in Arizona (6). Reports from Texas indicate that 40
References lb5. of nitrogen and 40 lbs. of phosphate per acre
1. Acosta, J.C., et al. 1957. Cabbage variety studies. Philip. produce the best yields (3). Urea will cause branch­
Agr. 41 (7):392-401. ing of the roots (7).
2. Anonymous. 1958. Ensayo de variedades de repollo en Irrigation should provide constant moisture to
los Valles de Aragua. Noticias Agr. Ser. Shell 1 (33)
prevent cracking of the roots (8). Quick growth gives
Mimeographed.
3. Shafer, J. and C.B. Sayre. 1946. Internal breakdown of higher quality carrots (5).
cabbages as related to nitrogen fertilizer and yield. Proc. Harvesting too soon will cause the roots to shrivel
A ner. Soc. Hort. Sci. 47:340-342. on the market, therefore roots should be reason­
4. Vittum, MT. and N.H. Peck. 1956. Response of cabbage ably mature. The highest quality is from the early
as related to nitrogen fertilizer and yield, N.Y. Agr. Exp. harvests. Carrots usually are bunched for local mar­
Sta. But. 777 (Geneva).
5, Walker, J.C., et al. 1961. Cabbage varieties in relation to
kets but commercial shipments are now packed in
dpburn. Plant Dis. Rep. 45 (l):29. cellophane bags without the tops.
Carrots store very well in the ground. Bunched
carrots will keep 2 weeks at 820 F and 90 to 95 per
CARROTS
cent humidity (9).
(Daucus carotta) The worst diseases in the Tropics are Cercospora
and Alternaria for which weekly sprays with Cap­
Carrots have been grown every month of the tain or Dithane M45 after emergence are recom­
year at both high and low elevations in Puerto mended. Treating with 3 grams of either Semesan
'ico but they perform best at 600 to 750 F (4). At or Ceresan per kilogram of seeds, agitated for 10
igh temperatures they become tough and low in minutes is also valuable (1). In the Subtropics car­
quality. Carrots are rich in vitamins and high in rot yellows is especially destructive.
sugar and are palatable to nearly all people. They
also keep longer than some crops and are more References
easily marketed. 1. Anonymous. 1958. Recomnmerdaciones para cultivar
There are many named varieties but only a few zanahorias de invierno. Noticias Agr. Serv. Shell I (32).
really distinct types. The long cylindrical-rooted 2. Boswell, V.R. 1954. Commercial growing of carrots. U. S.
Dept. Agr. Leaflet 353.
varieties such as imperator, Gold Spike, and Gold
3. Buffington, GA. and DA. Paterson. 1959. Sources of
Pak are most in demand but are not easily grown un­ nitrogen and placement of fertilizer for carrots in the
less the soil can be kept loose with deep cultivation Winter Garden region. Texas Agr. Exp. Sta. P. R. 2070.
which requires tractors. For most tropical areas the 4. Childers, NJ. et al. 1950. Vegetable gardening in the
Danvers Half Long or Chantenay will give best re­ tropics. U. S. Dept. Agr. P. R. Cir. 32 (Mayaguez) .
sults. For home use the highest quality carrot is 'Out of print. Superseded by: Winters, H. F. and G. W. Miskimen.
1967. Vegetable Gardening i the Caribbean Area. U. S. Dep. Agr.
Nantes. There are several strains of each of these Handb. , 114 pp., ila.

88
5. Chipman. EW. 1959. Influence of length of growing All of these diseases except whiptail and browning
season on root type of carrot varieties. Proc. Amer. Soc. are indicated in Table 8 under cabbage. Brown­
Hort. Sci. 74:588-586.
6. Pew, W.D. 1957. Carrots in Arizona. Ariz. Agr. Exp. Sta.
ing has been discussed under the section on fertil­
But. 285. izers; whiptail appears to be due to a lack of
7. Raleigh, GJ. 1942. Effect of manures, nitrogen com­ calcium or molybdenum and is associated with low
pounds and growth promoting substances on the produc­ acidity. Applications of lime reduce or eliminate the
tion of branch roots of carrots. Proc. Amer. Sac. Hort. disease.
Sri. 41:347-352. The most prevalent insects are listed in Table 18
8. Whitaker, T.W,, et al. 1946. Carrot production in the
west and southwest. U. S. Dept. Agr. Cir. 750. on insect control.
9. Wright, R.C. 1954. Conmercial storage of fruits and The narket prefers a pure white head of cauli­
vegetables. U. S. Dept. Agr. HbA. 66. flower. To obtain a white head, it is necessary to
exclude the light. When the cauliflower head still
is too immature to cut, the outer leaves should be
CAULIFLOWER tied around the curd until it is ready to harvest.
Different color rubber bands can be used so that the
(Brassicaoleracea var. botrytis) first heads tied can be distinguished from heads tied
later for the purpose of harvesting (1).
Cauliflower thrives best in a cool, moist climate The heads are cut when they are 5 to 8 inches in
and will not withstand as much heat as cabbage. diameter, depending on the variety. The medium­
Since the heads do not develop well in hot weather, sized heads are preferred. The plant is cut well be­
cauliflower does not seem to have much place in
low the head with a sharp knife and trimmed so
the tropics. It can be grown only during the winter that 1/2 to I inch of leaves project above the head
months at high elevations. There is usually not for protection in shipping. Cauliflower can be
much of a market for cauliflower in tropical areas stored for 30 days at 32' F.
since many people are not familiar with the plant.
Two varieties which have been grown successfully
in some areas are Sutton's Early Patna from India
Reference
and Pua Kea from Hawaii, which mature in 55 1. Thompson, H.C. and W.C. Kelly, 1957. Vegetable Crops.
days. McGraw-Hill Co,, Inc. New York, N.Y.
Sandy loams and silt loarns are preferred for
cauliflower. The soil should be well supplied with
organic matter and well drained. Cauliflower is CELERY
sensitive to highly acid soils and prefers a pH of
5.5 to 6.6. Lime must be used if the pH is below (Apium gravelens)
5.5. A lime containing magnesium is preferred since
this element may be lacking in the soil. Celery thrives best in cool weather with a moder­
Cauliflower usually responds to fertilizer and ate, well-distributed rainfall during the growing
heavy applications are used in temperate regions. season. Celery can be grown only in the winter
Fertilizer trails will show the amount and type of season or at high elevations in tropical regions. Ir­
fertilizer to use. In some areas I to I1/4 tons of rigation can be used if there is not sufficient rain­
5-10--5 are used. Boron is deficient in some areas fall, especially if diseases are a problem.
and results in hollow stem and brown spots on the A sandy-loam soil, well supplied with humus, is
head. This can be corrected by applying 5 to 10 preferred to any other type of mineral soil. A cover
pounds of borax per acre. Large amounts of borax crop should be grown before celery and plowed un­
can injure the plants (1). der if possible. The soil should be deeply plowed
The seed is sown in seed beds and the seedlings in order to hold as much moisture as possible in
are later transplanted to the field. They are handled the surface, since celery is not a deep-rooted plant
in the same way as cabbage. They should be planted (1).
so that they will be growing in the coldest part of The fertilizer requirements will depend on the
the year in the Tropics. The plants are set 18 to 30 environment and local trials can demonstrate the
inches apart in the row with a row spacing of 3 feet. amount and kind of fertilizers to use. It would be
The most important diseases of cauliflower are desirable to conduct fertilizer trials with N, P, and
blackleg, blackrot, clubroot, whiptail and browning. K ranging up to 150 pounds per acre. Generally

89
 celery is a heavy feeder on nitrogen and potash. It does not thrive in excessively hot areas but
The yellow type varieties such as Michigan should succeed at 1,000 feet or higher. It does not
Golden, Cornell 19, and Florida Golden Self tolerate frost. It will do better with light shade in
Blanching do not perform too well in the Tropics. hot areas. The white form seems more heat resis­
It probably would be best to try the green types tant than the green.
such as Florida Green Pascal (which is probably the The whole fruit is planted in place and the vines
same as Summer Pascal), Emerson Pascal, Utah 52­ begin bearing in 3 to 4 months after planting. Pro­
70, Emerald Green Light and Smallage. duction is continuous or nearly so and continues
Soaking the seeds before planting hastens germi­ until plants are killed by diseases.
nation. The seeds are planted in seedbeds and trans­
planted about two months after sowing. The plants Reference
are set 6 to 8 inches apart in rows 18 to 24 inches 1. MacMillan, HF. 1954. Tropical Planting and Gardening.
apart. The plants can be set by machine or by The MacMillan Co. New York, N.Y.
hand. Clean cultivation is necessary as the celery
plant grows slowly and is readily injured by weeds. CHICK-PEAS
The insect and disease problems are mentioned
in Tables 18 and 8. Cracked stem is caused by a (Cicer arietinum)
deficiency of boron. The first symptom of the trou­
ble is a brownish mottling of the leaf, appearing on Chick-peas are cultivated extensively in Asia,
the margins of the younger leaves. This mottling is Spain and Mexico where they are also called gram
associated with a brittleness of the petiole and by and garbanzo. The plant is a branched annual with
brown stripes in the epidermis over the vascular pinnate leaves growing to a height of I or 2 feet.
bundles. The tissue becomes brown in color. This Pods are thin, inflated, short, with only I or 2
can be controlled by applying 10 pounds of borax seeds. The crop thrives in the cooler season and is
per acre to the soil near the base of the plants about grown at the same time as wheat and in much the
two weeks after they are set in the field. The borax same way. Yields may vary from 15 to 35 bushels per
can be mixed with the fertilizer application. acre. The seeds are free from attack by weevils (2).
The plants are cut below the surface of the soil, Semi-aridity and mild temperatures are required
leaving a portion of the roots attached. This can for successful production (1). In areas without
be done with a sharp knife or by special machines winter rainfall, irrigation at least once may be
made for this purpose. Generally, the celery is necessary. About 18 lbs. of seed are planted per acre
washed and hydro-cooled before shipping. A tem­ but more may be used when broadcasted. Seed can
perature of 33' F usually is used for hydro-cooling be saved from the crop for sowing next season.
and a storage temperature of 320 F is recommended. Many varieties are popular but the most com­
monly grown type has large straw-colored seeds
Reference similar to the Spanish variety. A short season variety
in Mexico named Breve can be planted as late as
I. Thompson, H.C. and W.C. Kelly. 1957. Vegetable Crops.
McGraw Hill Co., Inc. New York, N.Y.
January.
Seed is graded for size for selling, the smaller
sizes bringing lower prices.
CHAYOTE
References
(Sechium edule) 1. Anonymous. 1947. Mexican chick-peas in the export
market. Mex-U.S. Agr. Comm. Rp. 1.
Chayote is a favorite home garden vegetable in 2. Piper, C.V. 1919. Forage Plants and Their Culture. The
tropical countries and is nearly always available on MacMillan Co. New York, N.Y.
local markets. It is a perennial cucurbit vine
usually grown on fences, trellises or arbors.
CORN
Fruits are rough or smooth with protuberances
on the surface. The outside color may be white to (Zea mays)
deep green. The flesh is firm, white and the seed
is large and soft. The fruit is cooked like squash Garden corn in the U.S.A. is nearly always sweet
but lacks the flavor of winter squash. corn which is a sweet form of the well known field

90
 Some varieties have been developed for the Trop­
ics and Subtropics, such as U. S. 34 in Puerto Rico,
Honey June in Texas and field corn varieties in
Mexico have been developed by the Rockefeller
Foundation. Sweet corn hybrids developed for
Florida and Cuba do quite well in Central America.
Deep Gold, Sweerangold, Golden Security, Asgrow
Golden, Calumet and Surecrop also are suggested
for trial. Two corn plantings in Central America
were severely attacked by a virus ("achaparrami­
ento") which causes stunt and sterility and yellow­
ing of the leaves which may also turn reddish.
Sweet corn is very susceptible to this disease (1).
Where "achaparramiento" is serious, P.R. 50 and
Pajamaca should be tried. In periods of continous
rainfall, known as "temporal" in Central America,
Figure 69. ROCOMEX H-507 IS A HIGH YIELDING the sweet corn is unable to pollinate properly; how­
WHITE FIELD CORN DEVELOPED IN MEXICO FOR ever, since these occur infrequently sweet corn may
THE TROPICS.
be planted the year round at low or medium eleva­
tions (2). Temperatures above 950 F and low hu­
midity are unfavorable for pollination.
Two or three kernels are planted at intervals of
one foot in rows three feet apart. Later the hills
may be thinned to one stalk. Removing the tillers or
suckers is of no value and reduces yields (6). Corn
generally responds well to fertilizers and local trials
should be initiated. Up to 100 lbs. of nitrogen per
acre (500 lbs. ammonium sulfate) for 15,000 plants
per acre can be tolerated (3). Phosphates reduced
ear worm damage in Florida while nitrogen in­
creased it (4). In calcareous soil, corn is especially
susceptible to zinc deficiency (5). Symptoms of yel­
low interveinal streaks with the midrib and margin
green and stunted plants may be confused with
those of the corn stunt virus, This can be deter­
mined only by careful tests.
The corn earworm is the worst insect pest. It at­
tacks the bud area and later the ear at silking time.
Figure 70. POEY 54 ORIGINALLY WAS CALLED COR- Many of the best varieties have tight shucks and
NELI 54. IT IS .4 HIGH YIELDING YELLOW FIELD resist damage to the ear but it may be necessary
CORN DEVELOPED FOR THE TROPICS. to dust or spray to prevent damage to the plant.
Other insects that may cause damage when corn
corn, or maize. Most varieties of sweet corn have plants newly emerge are lesser cornstalk borer and
been developed for northern latitudes and do not
flea beetles. Dusting with toxaphene, dieldrin or
thrive in the shorter days of the Tropics; however,
chlordane is effective. The most important diseases
are corn stunt virus and Helminthosporium leaf
several hybrids now available can be grown with
disease which can be especially severe in the rainy
reasonable success.
Field corn is commonly used as roasting-ears or for season.
making various dishes and in the milk stage is made Sweet corn should be harvested in the milk stage
into a drink in some localities. For eating in the before the kernels become firm. Most varieties keep
fresh state the sweet corn has much higher quality their quality only a short time after harvesting.
and therefore would be preferable. Field corn is more common than sweet corn in

91
the Tropics. The field corn seems to be more Poey T-23, T-46, T-61 and Armarillo Salvadoreno
tolerant to insect attack than sweet corn and this No. I also are tolerant or resistant. Rocomex H-503
may be due to the long tight husks which cover is susceptible. Rocomex H-507 is a white corn that
the end of the ear. Most of the field corn types in has yielded well in several countries.
tropical areas are open-pollinated varieties but
there is a trend toward using double cross hybrids. References
It is desirable to purchase the hybrid seed each
time the corn is planted so as not to lose vigor; 1. Ancalmo, 0. and W.C. Davis, 1961. Achaparramiento
(corn stunt). Plant Dis. Rep. 45 (4):281.
usually double cross hybrids perform well in a
2. Childers, N.F., et al. 1950. Vegetable gardening in the
limited environmental area. Synthetic varieties are a tropics. U.S. Dept. Agr. (P.R.) Exp. Sta. Cir. 32 (Maya­
combination of several inbred lines and the seed guz} .J
can be saved year after year for replanting without 3. Evans, D.D., et al. 1960. Soil moisture, nitrogen and
appreciable loss of vigor. They usually are adapted stand density effects on growth and yield of sweet corn.
to a wider range of environmental conditions than Ore. Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 53.
4. Gausman, H.W. and G.P. Wene. 1954. Effect of fertilizer
double cross hybrids.
treatments on earworm damage and on yield of sweet
The best yielding double cross hybrids in corn corn. Proc. Aner. Soc. Hort. Sci. 63:304:308.
trials conducted at the Damien Experiment Station 5. Lingle, J.C. and D.M. Holmberg. 1957. The response of
in Haiti, 1961 and 1962, were Poey T-65, Poey sweet corn to foliar and soil zinc applications on a zinc
T-66, Corneli 54 and Semi Flint White Hybrid deficient soil. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 70:308-315.
6. MacGillivray, J.H., et al. 1955. Studies on sweet corn
2088 x 2085. The Semi Flint White Hybrid 2088
suckering and spacing. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 65:
x 2085 is a white kerneled field corn from the Rocke­ 331-334.
feller Foundation in Mexico. The other hybrids
had yellow kernels and were from the Poey Seed
Company in Louisiana. The highest yielding syn­ WATER CRESS
thetic varieties were Tuxpeno Synthetic, White-
Yellow Synthetic Tuxpeno, VS-2 and Tuxpeno (Roripa nasturtium-aquaticum)
Yellow Synthetic from the Rockefeller Foundation
in Mexico and the Tropical Experiment Station, Pi­ Water cress is common on markets in the Tropics
chilingue, Ecuador. It would be desirable to try but comes from plantings along running water or
these hybrids and varieties under different tropical rivers. It is perennial and trailing in habit. It is
environments as they seem to be more tolerant to used for making salads. It does best at higher eleva­
virus stunt which is also called "achaparramiento". tions.

CUCUMBER

(Cucumis sativus)

Cucumbers are very popular in all tropical coun­

tries but until the new downy mildew resistant
varieties were introduced there was considerable
danger of crop failure. Introduction of high quality,
disease resistant varieties is needed in most tropical
areas, Cucumbers should be planted in low rainfall
areas and grown under irrigation to reduce disease
problems.
In recent years several disease resistant varieties
have been made available. Downy mildew resis­
tance is available in Ashe, Fletcher (4), Barclay, P.
51, Polaris, Pixie (2), Palmetto (6), Ashley, Stono
Figure 71. A SYNTHETIC CORN DEVELOPED IN and Palomar. Powdery mildew resistance is re-
PICHILINGUE, ECUADOR. THE MAIN ADVANTAGE
OF A SYNTHETIC CORN IS THAT THE FARMER CAN I Out of print. Superseded by: Winte, H. F. and G. W. Miskimen.
SAVE HIS OWN CORN SEED FOR REPLANTING. 1967. Vegetable Gardening in the Caribbean Area. U. S. Dep. Agr.
Handb. 323, 114 pp., illus.

92
ported for Table Green (1) and Pixie (2). Mosaic 6. Barnes, W.C. 1948, Performance of Palmetto, a new
resistance is available in Table Green, Jet (1), SMR downy mildew resistant cucumber variety. Proc. Amer.
Soc. Hort. Sci, 51:437-441.
15 and SMR 18 (16). Anthracnose resistance is re­
7. Colmenares, C.S. 1962. Pruebas de variedades de algunos
ported for Polaris and Pixie (2). Other good varie­ cultivos horticolas. Fund. Shell Serv. Agr. Mimeograph.
ties but with no particular disease resistance are 8. McLean. D.M. and H.M. Meyer. 1961. A survey of
Smoothie, Straight 8 and Coolgreen. Many of these cucurbit viruses in Lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas.
varieties have been tried in El Salvador and Vene­ Plant Dis, Rep. 45 (2);137-139.
9. Michelbacher, A.E., et al. 1953. Cucumber beetle con­
zuela where only the downy mildew resistant varie­
trol. Calif. Agr. 7 (7):7.
ties are successful (4). 10. Mollett, J.A. 1960. Cost of producing cucumbers in
Seeding never should be more than I inch deep; Hawaii. Haw. Agr. Exp. Sta. Econ. Rpt. 44.
spacing at I x 5 feet or I x 4 feet is recommended 11. Reid, W.J. and F.P. Cuthbert. 1960. The pickleworm
(13). One plant per hill is best at these spacings. (DiaphaniaNitida) and how to control it on cucumber,
squash, cantaloupe and other cucurbits. U. S. Dept. Agr.
Two plants per hill may be left in hills 2 ft. apart.
L. 455.
Phosphates are valuable for cucumbers. Am­ 12. Ries, S.K. and R.L. Carolus. 1958. The effect of nutrient
monium phosphate gives good results. Some experi­ level on the growth of pickling cucumbers. Mich. Agr.
ments report 20 lbs. N, 100 lbs. P20 and 80 lbs. Exp. Sa. Quar. Bul. 40:659-688.
K2O give good results (12). About 150 to 200 lbs. IS. Ries, S.10. 1960. Double your cucumber yield. Amer.
of 181/-50-0 has given good yields in Central Veg. Grow. 8 (5):12, 38.
14. Roberts, J.E. and Z.E. Anderson. 1960. Pickleworn con­
America. trol with malathion and phosdrin. Jour. Econ. Entom.
Yields may be increased in some areas by placing 53 (3):482.
bees in or near the field (17). 15. Simons, J.N. 1955. Some plant vector relationships of
The main insect pest is the cucumber beetle. southern cucumber mosaic virus. Phytapath. 45:217-219.
Those may be controlled with 10 per cent chlor­ 16. Walker, J.C. 1958. Two new cucumber varieties resistant
to scab and mosaic. Phytopath. 42 (12):1337-1338.
dane dust or 3 per cent DDT dust or equivalent 17. Warren, L.C. 1961. Pollinating cucumbers with honey­
spray (9). Pickleworms are common in the Tropics. bees. Ark. Farm. Res. 10 (2):7.
Malathion dust at weekly intervals controls pickle­ 18. Whitaker, T.W. and G.N. Davis. 1962. Cucurbits, bot­
worms and leaves no harmful residue after 21/ any, cultivation and utilization. Interscience. John Wiley
hours (14). Lindane and Sevin also are effective and Sons. New York, N.Y.

(11). Aphids also are likely to cause damage but are

controlled with malathion if sprayed before they EGGPLANT
are too numerous. Both aphids and cucumber bee­
tles transmit cucumber mosaic (15). (Solanum melongena)
Diseases most commonly found in tropical areas
The eggplant is especially well adapted to warm
are downy mildew, mosaic and anthracnose. In drier
climates and easily grown in the Tropics. It will
regions powdery mildew may be a problem. Resis­
grow year round at sea level unless temperatures
tant varieties should be used if available, otherwise
much above 1000 F occur. Plants may continue to
a regular spray program should be followed.
bear for a year or more (4). At 3,000 feet or higher,
Weekly sprays of zineb, captan, Phygon XL or other
they are not successful in Puerto Rico.
fungicide will be needed (3). Tobacco ringspot
Some of the better producing varieties such as
virus is most common in South Texas while true
Florida Market and Fort Myers Market are suscep­
cucumber mosaic is relatively rare (8).
tible to bacterial wilt. The varieties, Matale from
Ceylon and Kopek from Java, are resistant to bac­
References terial wilt (10). The Rosita variety is resistant to
bacterial wilt in Puerto Rico (4). Of 25 varieties
1. Anonymous. 1961. Improved vegetable varieties for 1961­
1962. Asgrow Farmer 21E:I. tried in Venezuela, Florida High Bush performed
2. Anonymous. 1962. What's new. Your Crops i (2). best (1). The Purple Thornless was the best variety
3. Atkins, J.G., et al. Fungicide tests on fall cucumbers in tried in Netherlands Antilles (7). Since fruit average
Louisiana 1938-1951. La. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 472. 2,500 seeds each, hybrid varieties for planting are
4. Banadyga, A.A. 1959. Double your cucumber yields.
feasible and several are available.
Amer. Veg. Grower 7 (5):12-13, 42-43.
5. Barham, W.S. and N.N. Winstead. 1959. Ashe and Natural crossing averages 6 to 7 per cent in
Fletcher: two new downy mildew and scab resistant regular plantings but at a distance of 50 meters no
cucumbers, N. C, Agr. Exp. Sta. Bu, 409, crossing is found (8).

93
 3. Campbell, J.S. and G.E. Hartnett. 1961. The effect of
spacing on the yield of eggplant. TTop. Agr. (Trinidad)
38 (1):83-86.
4. Childers, NY, et al. 1950. Vegetable gardening in the
tropics. P. R. FederalExp. Sta. Cir. 32.
5. Jones. S.E. 1942. Control of eggplant yellows. Texas
Agr. Exp. Sta. But. 623.
6. Lall, B.S. and .Q. Ahmad, 1965. Biology and control
of brinjal (eggplant) fruit and shoot borer, Leucinodes
orbonalls. Jour. Econ. Entom. 58 (3):448-45L
7. Mullison, E.G. and W.R. Mullison. 1949. Vegetable
varieties for the tropics. Proc. Amer. Soc. Ho. Sci.
54:452-458.
8. Sambandam, C.N. 1964. Natural cross-pollination of egg­
plant (Solanum melongena). Econ. Bot. 18 (2):138-131.
bibl, 8.
9. Staffeldr, E.E. and PJ. Leyendecker. 1955. Verticillium
wilt on two vegetable hosts in southern New Mexico.
Figure 72. EGGPLANTS FROM AN EGGPLANT TRIAL Plant Dis. Rep. 39 (7):389-390.
AT THE DAMIEN EXPERIMENT STATION IN HAITI 10. Winstead, N.N. and A. Kelman. 1960. Resistance to
ARE BEING WEIGHED. bacterial wilt in eggplant in North Carolina. Plant Dis.
Rep. 44 (6):432-434.

The Aushey variety was found to be highly re­

sistant to fruit and shoot borer (Letcinodes or­ ENDIVE OR ESCAROLE
bonalis), serious insect pest in India. This insect
has 10 generations a year and occurs in many parts (Cichorium endivia)
of Europe and Asia (6).
Seeds are sown in seedbeds in the same manner Endive is more tolerant to heat than lettuce and
as tomatoes. Transplanting is done when plants are could be tried in areas where lettuce will not form
6 to 8 inches tall. Starter solution including I heads. Endive should be grown in the winter
tablespoon of zineb per gallon should be used. months and at high altitudes. The general methods
Spacing is usually 4 x 2 feet although 3 x 21/2 feet of culture of endive are the same as for lettuce. Rec­
also has been recommended (2). In Trinidad the ommended varieties for tropical areas are Florida
most profitable spacing was IS x 18 inches (3). Deep Heart and Green Curled Ruffec. Endive
A good fertilizer is diammonium phosphate at 200 should be planted in rows 15 to 18 inches apart
lbs. per acre. Otherwise a fertilizer providing about and should be thinned to 6 to 10 inches apart in
40 lbs. nitrogen and 100 lbs. phosphate usually the row. Any soil suitable for lettuce will produce
would be good. If harvesting is continued over a endive. The fertilizer practices are the same as for
long period, side dressings will be needed. Fertil­ lettuce.
izer trials are necessary to determine the most eco­ Blanching is sometimes done to reduce the bitter­
nomical application. ness of the leaves and render them more tender.
It is wise to dust the seedbed with sulfur in areas This requires 2 to 3 weeks. The most common
where the yellow virus occurs (5)_ Verticillium wilt method of blanching is to gather all the leaves into
causes stunting, mottling and defoliation (9), but a bunch and tic them near the top. If rains follow
is not as general as bacterial wilt. it is important to examine the crowns frequently to
Fruits should be harvested while they still have see that they are not decaying. After the inner leaves
an attractive color. If allowed to mature fully, the are blanched they should be harvested quickly to
yields will be reduced. prevent decay.

Reference
References
1. Thompson. H.C. and W.C. Kelly. 1957. Vegetable Crops.
1. Anonymous. 1961. Variedades de berenjenas recom­ McGraw-Hill Co. Inc. New York, N.Y.
endables. Noticias Agr. Serv. Shell 2 (1).

2. Boswell, V.R. 1966. Growing eggplant. U.S. Dept. Agr. 'Out of print. Superseded by: Winters, H. F. and G. W. Miekimen.
L. 351. 1967. Vegetable Gardening in the Garibbean Area. U. S. Dep. Agr.
Handb. 323, 114 pp., itlus.

94
 GREEN VEGETABLES
It is highly productive and more agreeable to most
tastes than most of the other greens. It also is used
Lack of green vegetables is often serious in tropi­ as salad where lettuce is scarce. Chihli or Michihli
cal markets and undoubtedly is a contributing fac­ generally are preferred but Chefoo is reported to
tor to malnutrition. This is partly due to the fact tolerate heat better. Other varieties are Pe-tsai and
that the commonly known greens such as spinach, Wong Eok.
collards and kale are not well adapted to hot cli­ Seed may be sown directly in the field and thinned
mates. Plants like Amaranthus (Chinese spinach), to 12 inches apart. It also can be transplanted like
Basella (Malabar spinach), jute mallow, purslane, cabbage.
New Zealand spinach and chard usually can be
grown successfully. Mustard and Chinese cabbage MUSTARDS
will grow at moderate temperatures. Cool tempera­
tures usually found only at the higher elevations The best of the mustards for a hot climate is
(above 2,500 feet) in the Tropics are needed for Brassica juncea (Chinese mustard). Normally they
spinach, beets, turnips and chicory. do better in the cooler season but in areas with
moderate temperatures they may be grown the year­
round. Seeds are sown in rows 12 to 16 inches apart
AMARANTHUS - (Chinese spinach)
or they may be planted broadcast and thinned.
Amaranthus (Chinese spinach) is an old culti­ Leaves can be harvested in a month after planting
vated crop in Asia. It has good vitamin content but and successive cuttings can be made. The Chinese
is lacking in flavor. Only the young tender plants or mustard and Tendergreen are mild.
leaves are used. The American Indians used at least
7 species for greens, and 2 or more were used for JUTE MALLOW
their seeds which were ground to flour to make
cakes (4). Amaranthus gangeticus, also called tam­ Corchorus olitorius is normally grown for fiber
pala, is sold in bundles when in the seedling stage but during the hot summer months is commonly
4 to 12 inches high. A recipe from Hawaii says: used as a green in the Middle East. It grows easily
"Wash thoroughly, remove roots; put in heated pot and rapidly. The whole stem is cut when about 4
with 1 2 teaspoon peanut oil, a little garlic, 1 feet long and is thus marketed. The customer re­
teaspoon salt. Stir and add 1/2 cup water and cook moves the leaves for cooking. The greens from this
15 minutes. Serve hot" (2). are more palatable than most of the Amaranths.
Amaranths are common weeds in the tropical Seed usually is obtainable locally in South Asia.
regions but selected varieties might be found.
PURSLANE
CHARD Portulaca ocleracea is a weed in many of the
Chard (Beta vulgarts) probably is the best green tropical and subtropical regions, but in the summer
vegetable in the Tropics (3). The leaves are cut months in the Mediterranean area is commonly
and bunched and successive cuttings can be ob­ found in the markets. It is used in salads or as a pot
tained if the area has sufficient moisture. There are herb. In tropical America, purslane is called "ver­
several varieties but Lucullus is probably the best. duga" and is used as a pot-herb. Some improved se­
Rhubarb is a variety with bright red petioles like lections are found in the Mediterranean area but
the crop rhubarb which may be used in salads or not generally cultivated.
for garnishing.
Chard will withstand fairly high temperatures. It MALABAR SPINAGH
is also tolerant of saline soils. In most tropical areas
Malabar spinach (Basella alba) is a coarse vine
it will grow throughout the year. Culture is the
that grows well at low elevations in the Tropics
same as for beets except that plants are thinned to
(1). It is grown from seed or cuttings and should be
6 inches apart.
trellised and given sufficient space. A few plants
will supply enough leaves and tender shoots for a
CHINESE CABBAGE
family. With fertilizer and irrigation better yield
Chinese cabbage will tolerate moderately warm and quality will be obtained. Ceylon spinach (Ba­
temperatures but is less tolerant to heat than chard. sella rubra)is similar in culture and use.

95
 NEw ZEALAND SPINACH Since lettuce plants have a small root system the
surface soil should be well supplied with nutrients.
New Zealand spinach (Tetragoniaexpansa) is the
"spinach" sometimes found in tropical American
Soil-improving crops and manure should be used,
if available, to maintain the soil in good physical
markets. Seed should be soaked for 24 hours before
condition. The only way to determine the correct
sowing. It is grown in 80 to 36-inch rows and
fertilizer program for a given location is by fertilizer
thinned to 12 inches in the row. About 3 inches of
trials. Nitrogen is an important element for good
the terminal tips are harvested and bunched for
growth and phosphate helps to produce solid heads.
market. It is not as palatable as Malabar spinach
Potash should be tried to see if it gives an increase
but is quite drought resistant and easily grown (1).
in yield; in some trials in temperate regions no
response was obtained from potash. On sandy soils
MISCELLANEOUS
fertilizer trials should be tried with a range of nitro­
The tops of beets and turnips often are used for gen up to 100 pounds per acre and with phosphoric
greens but they form roots only at higher eleva­ acid and potassium up to 200 pounds. On silt and
tions. At these elevations kale, collards and sprout­ clay loams, the nitrogen level could be reduced to
ing broccoli also may be grown. In some parts of 50 pounds and the phosphoric acid and potassium
the Caribbean these are grown at 4,000 to 5,000 to 150 pounds. On irrigated soil the fertilizer
feet and marketed in the cities at sea level. should be placed 11/2 in. toward the furrow side
Some tropical areas also use tender tips and leaves and 3 in. deep (1).
of sweet potato, cassava, cowpeas, chayote and other It is very important to select the right variety for
plants for pot-herbs. a given environment and this can be done only by
conducting variety trials. Only heat-resistant varie­
References ties should be tried, such as Great Lakes types for
head lettuce and Salad Bowl for the leaf lettuce
1. Childers, N F., et al. 1950. Vegetable gardening in the
tropics. P. R Ag;. Exp. Sta. Cir 32 (Mayaguez) . type. The following head lettuce varieties might
2. Chung, 1L and J C Ripperton. 1929. Utilization and be worth testing: Great Lakes 659, 659G, 66, 59,
composition of oriental vegetables in Hawaii. Hawaii 118, 13, 456, Pennlake, Mesa 659, Valverde, Prima­
Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 60. verde and Kulanui. The following leaf lettuce varie­
3. Mullison, E.G. and W.R. Mullison. 1949. Vegetable ties should be tried: Salad Bowl, Ruby, Bath Cos.
varieties for the tropics. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hott. Sci. 54:
452-158
Suggested butterhead varieties are Artic King, Big
4. Yanovsky, E 1936 Food plants of North American Boston and Midas. Valverde is resistant to downy
Indians. US. Dept Agr Misc. Pub. 237. mildew. Salad Bowl, Bath Cos, Arctic King and Big
Boston are resistant to powdery mildew. Mesa 659
LETTUCE is resistant to bolting and tipburn. Great Lakes
659, Buttercrunch 659G and Primaverde are tol­
erant to hot weather. Kulanui is grown in Hawaii
(Lactuca sativa) and is resistant to hot weather.
Lettuce is the most popular salad crop. It thrives It is important to use disease-free seed, as a virus
best in a fairly cool growing season which means it which causes mosaic can be carried through the seed.
must be grown at high altitudes in the Tropics, Lettuce seed can be stored up to four years at a
usually above 3,000 feet. It does best during the relative humidity of 46 to 58 per cent and at 500 F.
cooler months, Information on herbicides, fungicides and insecti­
Lettuce can be grown on all types of soil from cides is listed under the appropriate tables.
clay loams to sandy loams. The soil should be well Leaf lettuce has a place in the home garden but it
drained but retentive of moisture, as lettuce plants cannot be stored or shipped in the Tropics since it
have a small root system. When furrow irrigation is wilts soon after harvest. Head lettuce can be ship­
used, the land is bedded into low flat beds about 6 ped and stored for a period of S or 4 weeks if it is
inches high with an.irrigation furrow between beds. refrigerated at a temperature of 820 F soon after
The beds can be 18 to 20 inches wide with 2 rows of harvest.
lettuce planted on each bed (1). Reference
'Out of print. Superseded by Winters, H. F. and G W. Miskinen. 1. Thompson, H.C. and W.C. Kelly. 1957. Vegetable Ciops.
1967. Vegetable Gardening in the Caribbean Area. U S. Dep Agr.
Handb. 323, 114 pp., iblus. McGraw-Hill Co. Inc. New York, N.Y.

96
 MUSKMELON ahead of planting. A fertilizer with a 1-2-0 ratio
may be best. Good results have been obtained with
(Cucumis melo) diammonium phosphate 1812-50-0 at the rate of
250 lbs. per acre. Application of up to 90 lbs. of
Muskmelons, or cantaloupes are best adapted to a nitrogen per acre increases fruit set (3).
warm dry season. In the Tropics where high hu­ Rows are usually 6 feet apart and hills 2 feet
midity occurs they are susceptible to mildews, apart in the row. One to two plants per hill are
particularly downy mildew (Pseudoperonosporacu­
left when thinned. One and a half pounds of seed
bensis (Berk. c Curt.) Rostow.). Resistance to this should plant an acre. Planting at 1/2 inch depth is
disease is now available in some varieties. The
much better than deeper planting (8).
Smith's Perfect, a variety developed from a selection
The insects most likely to be encountered are
found on the Isle of Pines is practically immune to
Diabroticabeetles which carry bacterial wilt as well
downy mildew. Other varieties with high resistance
as mosaic. These can be controlled with 112 per
are Georgia 47 and Seminole. Selections showing
cent dieldrin dust or J0 per cent chlordane dust.
high resistance in El Salvador, Central America,
The melonworm (Diaphania hyalinata) also can
trials are C 105, C 434A, 58-21, C 315, all from the
be destructive at times. Dusting the soil with diel­
U.S. Vegetable Breeding Laboratory, Charleston,
drin is helpful but melonworms are not easily
S. C. Moderate resistance was shown by Edisto. controlled. Aphids, or plant lice, are also common.
Varieties reported to have resistance in the United Malathion spray is very effective on this pest but
States, such as Rio Gold and Texas Resistant 1,were
should be used when they first appear, riot after the
susceptible. Some recently released varieties are re­ leaves are curled.
ported to have resistance to both powdery mildew In addition to the mildews and mosaic mentioned
and downy mildew. Perlita, Jacumba, Campo, Flori­ above, some losses are likely to occur from Southern
gold, Florisun, Floridees, Wescan, Edisto, and blight (Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc.) where melons are
Georgia 47 should be ttied in the Tropics. in contact with moist soil. Rotation with sorghums
In areas where powdery mildew is severe, resis­ or grain is advisable. Application of 0.5 lb. maneb
tant varieties like PMR 45 will be needed; however, with I lb. zineb in 100 gal. water has given good
this variety is susceptible to downy mildew. The control of downy mildew with weekly sprayings (1),
Home-garden variety was developed with ribsistance but has no effect on powdery mildew; however, 0.5
to both mildews as well as aphis (5). Seminole, per cent Karathane dust every 2 weeks gives good
Delta Gold and Virginia 435 are other varieties control of powdery mildew but does not control
with resistance to both mildews.
downy mildew (7).
Muskmelons did poorly at 1,500 ft. elevation in El The melon fly is a problem in some areas. The
Salvador, evidently because of cool temperatures best possibility for control is poison bait using
since good results were obtained at low elevations protein hydrosylates. It is best to get the latest recom­
where temperatures were higher. mendations from the U. S. Department of Agricul­
Gummy stem blight (Mycosphaerella citrullina) ture for the melon fly. Attractants to trap the males
is very serious in some parts of the Tropics. A before they have a chance to mate have been
source of resistance has been found for use in breed­ found (2) .
ing. In the meantime some tolerance is shown in Harvesting should be done in the cooler part of
Edisto, Banana and Rio Gold. the day and the harvested melons should be shaded
Healthy green foliage is necessary for production from the hot sun (6).
of melons of high sugar content while melons har­ Harvesting is at the half or three-quarter slip for
vested from partly defoliated vines will be lacking in distant shipments. For local markets full slip is
sugar. Plenty of sunshine with high temperatures best. Harvesting Honey Dews is done when sugars
also is needed. An accumulated daily temperature have developed since the stems do not slip.
of 2,500 degrees above 500 F is needed for ripening.
Melons should be planted in low rainfall areas and
References
grown under irrigation. They should be planted in
the fall and winter for the United States spring 1. Anonymous. 1958. Fungicide trials on Hales Best Jumbo
and Honey Dew Melons. S. C. Edisto Exp. Sta. Mimeo­
market. graph.
Barnyard manure is especially valuable for mel­ 2. Beroza, M., et al. 1960. New synthetic lures for the male
ons and should be applied in the furrow a month melon fly. Science 131.1044-1045.

97
 3. Brantley, B.B. and G.F. Watten. 1961. Effect of nitrogen Reference
on flowering, fruiting and quality in the muskmelon.
Proc.Amer. Soc. Hart.Sci. 77:424-431. 1. Thompson, H.C. and W.C. Kelly. 1957. Vegetable Crops.
4. Doolittle, S.P., et al. 1961. Muskmelon culture. U.S. Dept. McGraw-Hill Co. New York, N.Y.
Agr. Hbk. 216.
5. Ivanoff, S.S. 1957. The Home-garden cantaloupe, a variety
with combined resistance to downy mildew, powdery
mildew and aphids Phytopath.47 (9):552-556. ONIONS
6. Lipton, W.J. and J.K. Stewart. 1961. The effect of
hydrocooling on the market quality of cantaloupe. Proc. (Allium cepa)
Amer.Soc. Hart.Sci. 78:324--31.
7 Marlatt, R.B., et al 1959. Control of cantaloupe powdery
Onions are strongly influenced by length of day
mildew in Arizona with fungicides. Plant bis. Rep. 43
(1):67-69. and most onions of northern latitudes will not bulb
8. Rahn, E.M. 1947. Depth of planting cantaloupe seed. at all in the Tropics or even in the Subtropics.
Del. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 263:34-35. They make a good vegetative growth but require a
9. Whitaker, T.W. and F.N. Davis. 1962. Cucurbits, Botany, day length of 15 hours for bulbing. Some European
Cultivation and Utilization. Interscience. John Wiley &
varieties require 16 hours or more (8). In South
Sons. New York, N.Y.
Texas these are called "blue whistlers" because of
the bluish green color and the long tops. It is very
OKRA important to consider the length of day to which
they will be subjected before choosing the variety
(Hibiscus esculentus) to grow.
Fortunately varieties have been developed that
Okra is an important crop in the tropical areas will bulb at a 13 hour day in South Texas and
since it is heat tolerant. Okra is eaten in the green these are available commercially. Open-pollinated
state, frozen or canned and is used dry in many varieties are Texas Grano 502 (Texas Early Grano),
countries. Dried okra powder is used for salad dress­ Excel Bermuda, Eclipse, White Grano, L 36, Red
ings, ice creams, soups, cheese spreads and candies. Creole and White Creole. Considerably higher
It also is used as a medicine to treat peptic ulcers. yields in some cases can be secured with the hy­
The best varieties for the Tropics are Clemson brids Granex, Bermex, Brilliance, White Granex,
Spineless and Perkins Spineless. Other varieties such Texas Hybrid 28, White Alamo and Crystal Hy­
as Emerald, Gold Coast, Louisiana Market and Pusa brid.
Sawani can be tried. Emerald is a high quality L 36, Excel and Texas Hybrid 28 show the high­
variety for canning with deep green pods. Pusa est resistance to pink root (10). Red Creole onions
Sawani is a variety from India which is resistant to grown from seeds produced on the mainland of the
yellow vein mosaic. Seed should be kept in a sealed United States tend to split and double too much;
tin can in the refrigerator when stored in the however, a selection from Hawaii called Awahia is
Tropics. free of splits and doubles. If direct seeding is done,
Seed is drilled in rows 22 to 4 feet apart. Later about 4 to 6 lbs. per acre are sown in 14 to 16 inch
they are thinned to stand 18 to 24 inches apart in rows.
the row. Okra will grow well in most soil types but Seed is sown in beds at the rate of 18 lbs. per
sandy loam soils may require more fertilizer. Actual acre in a 16 inch row, or I ounce in 25 meters of
fertilizer requirements can be determined only by row. In the areas north of the equator this planting
fertilizer trials but an application of up to 1,000 should be done in September or October (March or
pounds of a 5-10-5 mixture could be tried. April south of the equator). This permits plants to
It usually requires 2 months from planting to the grow thru the shorter days and thus make larger
first harvest. The pods should be harvested every bulbs when the days reach 12 hours again, usually
day after the first ones mature. They should be about April 1. The bulb is an enlargement of the
harvested before the pods get too large as they stem and therefore the larger the plant, the larger
become leathery when they are harvested too large. the bulb that is formed.
They are graded for size and can be stored 5 days Transplanting is done when plants reach pencil
at room temperature or a week at 32o F. The size. They are set 3 to 4 inches apart in rows 20 to
quality for all purposes is highest at theifour day 24 inches apart. Yields are better if the plants are
stage from blossoming (1). not pruned. Plants are set with a stick, or dibble,

98
at about the level they were in the seed bed. The use there seems to be little difference between them.
of starter solutions at transplanting has produced They are used in much the same way as onions.
89 per cent increase in bulb development in Ceylon Shallots (Album ascalonicum) are grown from
(5). bulbs which multiply into clusters. The plants are
Onion sets of Granex grown in June, July and used in the green state much like green onions.
August produce faster and better than in other Culture is similar to onion.
months in Venezuela (1). It has been shown that Garlic (Allium sativum) is grown from bulbs, or
the percentage of bolting is decreased if sets are cloves, and is cultivated like onions. The same in­
stored at 860 F at low humidity for at least eight sects and diseases attack garlic as onions. In harvest­
weeks (7), The sets should be grown at a season ing, they have to be cured longer in the field than
when diseases would be less damaging. onions, often a week or more (13), then they are
Fertilizers are applied broadcast before trans­ clipped like the onions and graded for market. Gar­
planting. A ratio of 1-2-0 or 14-0 has been lic stores well at moderately low humidity. Bulbs
found satisfactory in most areas. Usually 40 lbs. of need a dormancy of 4 to 5 months at 450 F to pro­
nitrogen and 80 to 120 lbs. of phosphate per acre duce well (9). Small cloves should be discarded in
are found to be sufficient. planting because they have poor germination (2).
Onions should have adequate moisture at all Garlic powder or garlic oil has strong antibiotic
times and especially when bulbing begins (6). Ex­ properties (12).
periments have shown that water requirements of
onions greatly increase at bulbing time (4).
References
The chief insect problem is caused by onion
thrips which tear the leaves in feeding and cause 1. Anonymous. 1961, Siembra de cebolla medianto bulbitos.
them to turn white and curl. Thrips will appear Aoticis Agri. Ser. Shell 2 (33).
at the base of the leaves first and should be con­ 2. Attia, M.S. and A.F. Soliman. 1958. Effect of irrigation
trolled before they have time to do much damage. and clove size on germination and yield of the Italian
White variety of garlic. Agr. Res. Rev. (U. A. R.) 86
Malathion or dieldrin dust will give the best (3).459-462.
control (11). 3. Davis, G.N. 1957. Onion production in California. Calif.
The main disease is usually mildew (Peronospora Agr. Exp. Sta. Manual 22.
destrTuctor) (Berk.) (Casp.). Dithane Z-78 or Par­ 4. Hawthorn, L.R. 1938. Cultural experiments with yellow
zate at weekly intervals will help in controlling the Bermuda onions under irrigation. Tex. Agr. Exp. Sta.
But. 561.
disease. Pink root (Pyrenochaeta terrestris)(Hans.)
5. Jauhari, I.S. and R.S. Singh. 1960. Preliminary studies
(Gorenz et al.) can be very serious in some sections. on the influence of starter solution and beta-indole
Resistant varieties are the best solution, acetic acid on further growth and development of onion
Harvesting usually is done when tops fall on transplants. Trap. Agr. (Ceylon) 116 (93):191-203.
about 50 per cent of the plants. They are pulled 6. Jones, S.T. and WA. Johnson. 1958. Effect of irrigation
and laid in rows with tops covering the bulb to at different levels of soil moisture and of imposed
droughts on yields of onions and potatoes. Proc. Amer.
protect them from the sun. After curing about half
Soc. Hort. Sci. 71.
a day they are clipped leaving about V/ inch of 7. Lachman, W.H. and L.E. Michelson. 1960. Effects of
stem above the bulb and about the same length warm storage on the bolting of onions grown from sets.
of roots. They are then graded into sizes and sent Proc.Amer. Soc. Hort.Sci. 75:495-499.
to market or placed in storage. Texas Grano and 8. Magruder, R. and H.F. Allard. 1935. Bulb formation in
Red Creole have stored better than other varieties some American and European varieties of onions as af­
fected by length of day. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hart. Sci.
in the Tropics but storage at ordinary temperatures
33:489-490.
is not recommended beyond 2 months after harvest. 9. Mann, L.K. and PA. Minges. 1958. Growth and bulbing
Bulbs kept for seed should have at least 2 months of garlic. Hilgardia27 (15)±885-419.
of storage at 400 to 50' F before setting in the field 10. Nichols, C.C., et al. 1960. Relative pink-root resistance
for seed production. Bulbs kept at ordinary tem­ of commercial onion hybrids and varieties. Proc. Amer.
peratures will not flower in tropical areas. Soc Hort. Sci. 76:468-469.
11. Richardson, B.H. 1957. Control of onion thrips in the
Leeks (Allium porrum) often are grown for local winter garden aiea of Texas. Jour. Econ. Entom. 50:828.
market in the Tropics. Their culture is the same as 12. Sell, H.M., et al. 1948. An improved method for
for onions but they produce best at cool tempera­ preparation of antibacterial oil from Allium sativum.
tures. A number of varieties are recommended but Mich. Agr. Evp. Sta. Q. Bul, 31 (1):65-70,

99
13. Smith, HP., et al. 1944. Harvesting and curing garlic to Natal Common in 24 inch rows are recommended
prevent decay. Texas Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 651. (21). Planting in hills at 40 to 60 plants per square
14. Walker, J.C. and R.H. Larson. 1961. Onion diseases and
meter increases yields and reduces weeds in Vietnam
their control. U. S. Dept. Agr. Hbk. 208.
(19).
Weeds greatly reduce yields and should be con­
PEANUTS trolled either by hoeing or by a pre-emergence spray
of pentachlorophenate (PCP) at 10 to 20 lbs. per
(Arachis hypogaea) acre. This controls most weeds but nutgrass requires
hand weeding after 10 weeks (19).
Peanuts are important throughout tropical areas
as a cash crop. It is a high income crop in sandy Peanuts usually show very little response to fer­
land areas in the southern part of the United States tilizers. In poorer soils good results have been ob­
where the crop has become almost entirely mecha­ tained with 200 lbs, of 4-12-4 per acre but nitrogen
nized (1). Peanuts have been grown primarily as an alone has increased yields in some areas. The great­
oil crop but food uses have become very important est minor element requirements have been shown to
as peanut butter, roasted peanuts, etc. Peanuts are be for calcium and under some conditions, sulfur,
high in vitamin B complex which is affected very particularly for large seeded varieties. An ample
little in processing (22). The hay, when properly supply of calcium is needed in the fruiting zone
cured, has value equal to alfalfa (16). as well as the root zone (9). Applying 300 lbs. per
The large seeded varieties are commonly used acre of gypsum evenly at the flowering stage will
for roasting and often produce the highest yields. prevent "pops" or unfilled pods (7).
Jumbo has a shelling per cent of 60 to 62 while Three year rotations have increased peanut yields
Spanish has 73 to 75 per cent and Valencia 65 to 66 by 3 times in 10 years (8). Plowing under vetch in
per cent (18). Virginia Bunch, Virginia Jumbo and the winter has increased yields by 40 per cent (14).
Florigiant, recently released in Florida (10), yield In Australia, continuous cropping with peanuts did
well. Dixie Runner has less disease damage and not decrease yields in 10 years, provided fertilizers
higher yields in Florida. were used (3). A sorghum-peanut rotation increased
The small seeded Spanish types usually are grown sorghum yields but did not affect peanut yields (20).
for oil. Various strains have been developed such as The worst damage to peanuts generally is from
Spantex, Spanish 146 and recently a new variety, Sderotium rolfsii which occurs in all parts of the
Starr, with larger seeds (2). tropics. This disease is active only near the surface
The best flavored variety for eating is the Va­ where oxygen is available; hence, mounding the
lencia (Tennessee Red) and Cordoba Red (24) vines at pegging time increases the disease and de­
which have 3 to 4 seeds per pod and a red skin. creases yields. Burying crop residue and trash at
Since there apparently is little natural crossing, least 3 inches deep aids in control (4). Terraclor at
mass selection has little value (25); nevertheless, 10 lbs. per acre in three applications when culti­
good seed of normal size gives better results than vating, gives control of Sclerotium but is profitable
small seeds (1). Seeds need a dormant period of 40 only when the yields are high (13).
days at 860 F. before planting but this is shortened Leaf spot is another common disease. Damage is
to 15 days at 104 to 122o F. The nuts require about not always severe but control is possible by dusting
70 days to mature after the gynophore enters the with No. 325 mesh sulfur. In areas where nematodes
soil (23). are troublesome the use of Nemagon at 1 gal. per
Seed treatment with 2 per cent Ceresan at 1.5 acre or Cyanamid 18133 at 16 lbs. per acre has
oz. to 100 lbs. shelled seed increases germination been shown to be profitable (11).
considerably (3). Arasan and Spergon also may be Insects that may damage peanuts are white grubs,
used. leafhoppers, thrips, lesser cornstalk borers, etc.
Good stands are necessary for the best yields of These may be controlled with malathion, endrin
nuts and forage. In 36-inch rows spacing should be and chlordane (15).
6 inches in Texas. Spacing of 4 inches is recdm­ Harvesting is done by cutting the tap root when
mended in Georgia. In Texas 25 to 30 lbs. of seed leaves begin to turn yellow and nuts are full grown.
per acre of Spanish is best (17). For close spacing This is done with broad sweeps which also raise
40 to 50 lbs. per acre are needed (8). In Australia the vines out of the ground so that they can be
30 lbs. per acre for Virginia Bunch and 45 lbs. for picked up with a side delivery shaker rake which

100
throws them into windrows of 4 to 6 rows each. 21. Phillips, L.J. and MJ.T. Norman. 1962. The influence
Vines usually dry in the windrows for 3 days or of inter row spacing and plant population on the yield
of peanuts at Katherine, N. T. Austral. Jour.Exp. Agr.
more before threshing. If the nuts are to be dried & An. Husb. 2 (4):54-60.
artificially they may be threshed soon after digging 22. Pickett, T.A. 1941. Vitamins in peanuts and some of
but threshing is more efficient if the vines are dry their products. Ga. Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir. 128.
23. Pickett, T.A. 1950. Composition of developing seed.
(I). PlantPhysiol.25 (2):210-224.
Nuts may be dried artifically in a few hours at a
24. Rigoni, U A, et al. 1960. Las variedades de mani
reasonable cost. The best quality results from dry­ cultivadas en la provincia de Cordoba. Estac. Exp. Agr.
ing at 960 F; higher temperatures tend to reduce Manfpedi, Cordoba. Pub Tec, 15.
quality (6). Storage is best at 60 per cent humidity 25 Steinhauer, C.E, et al. 1940. Influence of mass selection
and 320 F. within certain large-seeded Virginia type peanut varie­
ties. Proc.Amer. Soc. Hart.Sci. 37:685-688.
26. Thompson, G.D. and F.E. Broadbent. 1948. Preliminary
References greenhouse studies of the influence of nitrogen fertiliza­
tion of peanuts on nodulation, yield and gynophore
1. Anonymous. 1950. A handbook of peanut growing in absorption of this element. Amer, Soc. Agron. Jour.
the southwest. Texas Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 727. 40 (1).64-69.
2. Anonymous. 1962. Starr Spanish Peanut. Texas Agr. 27. West, E. 1961. Sclerotium rolfsii, history, taxonomy,
Exp. Sta L 562. host range, and distribution. Phytopath. 51 (2):108-109.
3 Arndt, W. 1961. The continuous cropping of peanuts at 28. Wilson, C. 1948. Peanut seed treatments Ala. Agr. Exp.
Katherine, N. T. Austral. Gmlth Sci. & Ind. Res. Org. Sta. An. Rpt. 58/59:23-24.
Land Res. Reg. Sur. Tech. Paper 16. 29. Woodruff, N C. 1944. Leaf spot control for increased
4. Aycock, R. 1961. Symposium on Sclerotiurn olfsii. peanut yields. Ca. Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir. 145.
Phylopath. 51 (2):107-128.
5. Bailey, W.K., et al. 1957. Influence of temperature on
the after-ripening of freshly harvested Virginia Bunch PEAS
peanut seeds. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 71:422-423.
6. Baker, V.H., et al. 1950. Peanut harvesting and drying
research Va. Agr. Exp. Sta But. 439:10-16. (Pisumsativum)
7. Baver, L.D 1945. Peanuts and soybeans. N. C. Agr. Exp.
Sta. 68th An. Rpt '30-35. Peas are considered to be cool weather plants
8. Beattie, W.R. and J.H Beattie. 1943. Peanut growing. but can be grown either in the winter months or at
U. S Dept. Agr. F B. 1656 higher elevations in tropical regions. They usually
9. Bledsoe, R.W. and H.C Harris. 1950. The influence of
are grown for home use or local markets in tropical
mineral deficiency on vegetative growth, flower and
fruit production and mineral composition of the peanut areas because yields are likely to be too low for
plant Plant.Physiol.25 (1):63-77. canning or freezing. Day length also affects some
10. Carver, W.A 1961. Florigiant, a jumbo runner peanut. varieties but Alaska and Surprise are fairly well
Fla.Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir. S-129. adapted to short days (2). The temperature range for
II. Cooper, W E. and J.N. Sasser. 1960. Controlling sting
good production is 55 to 650 F (1) .
nematode in peanuts. N. C. Res. & Far. 18 (3),15.
Some of the best varieties for subtropical areas are
12 Dap, But Gui. 1960. Development of Arachis plants
when sown in hills. Agro-biol. 5:698-702. Asgrow 40, Canner 75, Greenfeast, Melting Sugar,
13. Harrison, A.L. 1961. Control of Sleroutim rolfsii with Ronda, Shasta, Alaska, Surprise, Wando, Thomas
chemicals. Phytopath. 51 (2):124-128. Laxton, World Record and Freezer 37. All of these
14. Hilton, J.H. 1948. Legume cover crops increase peanut are dwarf varieties and do not need trellising. The
yields 40%. N. C. Agr. Exp. Sta. An. Apt. 70:24. best variety in one test in El Salvador proved to be
15. King, D.R, et al. 1961. Peanut insects in Texas. Texas
Burpeeana. .
Agr. Exp Sta. M. P. 550.
16. Kuhlman, A.H. and H.W. Cave. 1943 Threshed peanut Manoa Sugar, a variety of the Dwarf Grey Sugar
hay for dairy cows Jour. Anim. Sci. 2 (4):362. type, has immunity to powdery mildew and some
17. Langley, B.C, et al 1945 Summary of peanut investiga­ resistance to warm temperatures. The variety is
tions in Texas. Texas Agr. Exp. Sta. Prog. Rept. 943. liked better than Melting Sugar in Hawaii. It grows
18. McClelland, C.K. 1944. Peanut production experiments, 3 to 4 feet tall and needs a trellis. Caution in
1931-11. Atk. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rul 448. saving seed is advised by Dr. J. C. Gilbert of the
19. Oram, P.A. 1961. Experiments on control of weeds in
Hawaii Experiment Station in order to avoid
groundnuts in Tripolitania. Weed Res. 1 (3):211-228.
20. Phillips, LJ. and MJ.T. Norman. 1962. Sorghum-pea­
Ascochyta blight which is seed borne.
nut crop sequences at Katherine, N. T. Austral. Jour. Peas are planted 2 inches apart in rows 18 to 20
Exp. Agr. & An. Husb. 1 (3):144-149. inches apart.

101
 In heavy rainfall, mildew and leaf spot may be­
come serious and sprays of zineb or maneb may be
needed.

References

1. Childers, N.F., et al. 1950. Vegetable gardening in the

tropics P. R. Agt. Exp. Sta. Cir. 32 (Mayaguez) ?
2. Reath, A.N. and S.H. Wittwer. 1952. Effect of tempera­
ture and photoperiod on development of pea varieties.
Proc, Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 60.301-310.

PEPPER

(Capsicum annum)-Bell or sweet pepper

Figure 73. THE YOLO WONDER PEPPER IS AN EX-
CELLENT PARIETY IN THE TROPICS.
(Capsicum frutescens)-Hot or tabasco
pepper

The bell pepper is a cool weather crop and does Giant. The plants spaced 12 inches apart in the
well at 650 to 750 F which means it should be row yielded more than plants spaced 14 and 16
planted only during the winter months or at higher inches in the row when the distance between rows
elevation in the Tropics. If grown at temperatures was 3 feet.
above 750 F, the fruit set is poor and sunburning Many varieties of hot peppers are available and
of the fruits is serious. The soil should be fertile many of the names are local names used within cer­
and well drained with a good moisture holding ca­ tain countries. Local selections of hot peppers
pacity and should be free of nematodes, bacterial should be tried along with the imported varieties
and fusarium wilts. If nematode-free land is not as they may be just as good or better. Some of the
available the soil can be treated with 20 per cent more common varieties are Tabasco, Anaheim
ethylene dibromide (EDB) at 15 gallons per acre. Chili, Mexican or "native" chili, College No. 9
If bacterial wilt has been a problem, pepper, to­ Chili, Long Thick Cayenne, Sport, Hungarian, Pap­
mato, eggplant or Irish potatoes should not be rika and Spanish Paprika.
planted on the land for a period of five years. If Determination of the correct fertilizer is by local
Southern blight caused by Sclerotium rolfsd has fertilizer trials. In Hawaii a fertilizer application of
been a problem the land should remain fallow or 500 pounds per acre of 8-12.5-6, 10-10-5 or 8-20-5
be planted to corn for 2 years. The variety World is suggested at transplanting time. This should be
Beater is supposed to be resistant to this disease (2). applied 3 inches from the stem and 3 to 4 inches
The only way to determine the best variety for a deep. At the flowering stage a second application
given location is by variety trials. The following should be made using 500 pounds per acre of 10-5­
varieties should be tried: Yolo Wonder, Liberty Bell 10 or 9-12-14. An additional application of 200
and Keystone Resistant Giant, since they are re­ pounds per acre of ammonium sulfate an be ap­
sistant to mosaic caused by a virus. The thick­ plied one month after the second application to
walled World Beater should be tried also. increase vigor and fruit size (1) -
Recently introduced varieties with mosaic resis­ Information on diseases and insects can be ob­
tance are Delaware Belle, Idabelle, Titan, and tained from the appropriate tables.
Florida Giant 5. Peppers should be harvested when mature green.
A variety and spacing trial in Haiti in 1962 The skin of mature green peppers is shiny and
showed that Yolo Wonder yielded significantly waxy while that of the immature pepper is not.
more than World Beater and Keystone Wonder Peppers harvested too young will wilt and shrivel.
Stems should be left on the fruits when they are
I Out of prnt. Superseded by. Winters, H. F. and G W. Miskimen.
harvested. Peppers should be cleaned and graded
1957. Vegetable Gardening mathe Caribbean Area. U. S. Dep. Agr. before they are sent to market.
Handb. 323, 114 pp., illus.

102
 References 4. Sanchez Nieva, F., et al. 1961. The freezing of pigeon
peas for market. Jour. Agr. Univ. P. R. 15:205-216.
1. Boswell, V.R., et al. 1964. Pepper production. U.S. Dept. 5. Sanchez Nieva, F. 1961, The influence of maturity on
Agr. Ag. Info B. 276. 39 pp. the quality of canned pigeon peas. Jour.Agr. Univ. P. R.
2. Thompson, H C. and WAC. Kelly. 1957. Vegetable Crops. 45:217-231.
McGraw-Hill Co., Inc. New York, N.Y. 6. Sanchez Nieva, F., et al. 1961. The effects of some process­
ing variables on the quality of canned pigeon peas.
Jour.Agr. Univ P.R. 45:232-258.
PIGEON PEA
(Cajanusindicus) POPCORN

The pigeon pea is a warm weather crop and (Zea mays)

thrives from sea level to about 2,000 ft. elevation.
They grow from 6 to 8 feet tall, forming perennial Popcorn is not so well known outside of, the
bushes. They are popular in the Caribbean and United States but usually will grow wherever field
are called "gandul" in Spanish speaking countries, corn gows. The chief problem is to get the proper
congo peas in some other countries (2). They are amount of moisture for good popping (1). This is
widely grown in India. The plants bear continu­ done commercially by bringing the kernels to 11 to
ously, beginning at 6 months from seed but should 13 per cent moisture and then sealing in cans.
be cut back at intervals and fertilized (1). Pigeon Several varieties are available. Hybrids are prob­
peas find a useful place anywhere in the Tropics ably the best but seed must be purchased each year.
where garden peas cannot be grown. The highest yielding varieties in Haiti in 1962 were
A number of named varieties are grown in Puerto Purdue 410 and Purdue 605 but the top yield was
Rico, of which Kaki is an early variety with high only 1903 pounds per acre. The cultural practices
yields. Saragateado is late maturing (3). Totiempo are the same as for sweet corn.
produces all during the year and is not affected
by day length. Most varieties produce only during References
short days. This variety is subject to pod borers
in the summer months. 1. Bemis, W.P. and W A. Huelsen. 1956. Maturity in ye­
lation to popping expansion of popcorn. Proc. Amer. Soc.
Yield averages about 800 lbs. of seed per acre.
Hort. Sci. 67:451-459.
The pods contain 4 to 6 seeds and 280 seeds weigh 2. Brunson, A.M. and G.M. Smith. 1948. Popcorn. U.S. Dept.
one ounce. They compare in composition with Agr. F. B. 1679.
kidney beans (2).
There is interest in canning and freezing in
Puerto Rico where they have developed methods of PUMPKIN
canning an acceptable product (6). Steaming the
pods before shelling is essential to inactivate the (Cucurbita spp.)
enzyme system; after shelling they are cooled, sized
and graded, then washed and blanched at 1850 F Pumpkins are native to America and are widely
for 35 minutes. For canning the best grade is ob­ adapted to various environments. They need con­
tained before they reach full size (5) . For freezing, siderable space and usually are grown on the bor­
fully mature green peas are better than the more ders in home gardens.
tender or over-ripe peas (4). A Cuban variety called Cuban, Camagueyana,etc.,
is a good market variety of rich flavor. Seeds are
References available in several countries but probably will
1. Landrau, P. and C. Samuels. 1959. Effect of fertiliaer ap­
need selection to obtain a uniform variety. North­
plication on yields of pigeon peas. Jour. Ag7. Univ. P. R. ern pumpkin varieties usually are not suitable for
43 (1). tropical areas. Fortuna, a variety released in Puerto
2. MacMillan, H.F. 1954. Tropical Planting and Gardening. Rico, is resistant to downy mildew and mosaic.
The MacMillan Co. New York, N.Y. Culture, insects and diseases are the same as for
3. Riollano, A., et al. 1962. Effects of planting date, variety
and plant population on the flowering and yield of
squash.
pigeon peas (Cajanus cajan). Jour. Agr. Univ. P. R. 46 A dried product, pumpkin flakes, recently has
(2)-127-134. been placed on the market from North Carolina.

103
 Reference CASSAVA
1. Anonymous 1962, New pumpkin flakes, Amer. Peg. Grow. Cassava (Manihot utilissima), also called tapioca,
10 (9):20. yuca or manioc, is grown in all tropical countries
for its starchy roots (13) (28). A coarse meal also is
RADISH made from the roots and is used to make the tapioca
of commerce, and in some countries (e.g., Brazil) the
(Raphanus sativus) meal is used to cover some cooked foods when
eaten. Two types, the sweet and the bitter, are
The radish is a favorite crop of the home garden available. The bitter type has more poisonous hy­
and matures in 3 to 6 weeks. It is more common in drocyanic acid, than the non-bitter type, which dis­
temperate regions than it is in the Tropics. The appears in cooking. The roots have 25 to 80 per
large hot radishes are more common in tropical cent starch.
areas. Cassava is a heavy feeder but is quite drought
Radishes prefer cool temperatures and should be resistant and seldom irrigated. With irrigation, high
grown during winter months or at high altitudes in yields, up to 30 tons per hectare or more, are ob­
the Tropics. Earliest Scarlet Button, Red Prince, tained. For convenience in digging as well as for
Calvalrondo, Red Boy, Champion, Cherry Bell and better yields a deep friable soil is best. Digging can
Buchancer are varieties that should be tried. The be very difficult when roots are deep or the ground
varieties of hot radishes that can be tried are Black is hard.
Spanish and White Chinese. Propagation is from stems cut from the previous
Radishes will grow on most soil types, but a light, crop which often are stacked in the shade until
friable soil is best. When planted for the market, they begin to sprout, when they are cut into 8 to
the seeds should be planted every 10 days. Radishes 10 inch lengths for horizontal plantings in furrows
usually are intercropped with other vegetables since 4 inches deep, or into 12 inch lengths for vertical
they mature in a short period of time and do not planting, with 4 to 6 inches in the ground. The
require much space. If they are not intercropped vertical planting is probably the best and has been
they should be planted in rows 12 to 15 inches apart reported to give 80 per cent higher yields (5).
and the seed should be planted thick and later the Spacing is 4 x 3 feet and 9 to 12 months are re­
plants thinned to 2 or 3 inches apart (1). quired for maturity (19) . Yields average from 6 to
The most common insects are aphids, cabbage 12 tons per acre. Planting is best at the beginning
maggots and flea beetles. Control measures are of the rainy season.
listed in the table on insect control. Varieties Valencia, Itu and Crema have per­
Harvesting begins as soon as the roots reach formed well in Mexico. Dr. A. Krochmal has an
edible size. The early varieties become strong and excellent variety collection in the Virgin Islands.
pithy if they are not harvested soon enough. The Although cassava is originally from South America
radishes are pulled by hand and tied in bunches of it is widely grown in Asia and Africa (15).
six to twelve, then they are washed before market­
ing. Chopped ice is used if the radishes are shipped SWEET POTATO
long distances to market.
Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) is a important
Reference crop in the Caribbean area and in the United
States. Since the newer, more palatable varieties are
1. Thompson, H C. and W C. Kelly. 1957. Vegetable Crops. not generally known in most tropical countries the
McGraw-Hill Co. New York, N.Y.
crop has not attained the importance of cassava.
Through breeding, geneticists have greatly in­
ROOT VEGETABLES creased the vitamin content (9).
Sweet potatoes require a warm season and a
Root crops are important in the diet throughout growing period of 4 to 6 months (6). Cool night
the world. In the temperate zone we depend largely temperatures (below 680 F) are favorable for tuber
on potatoes, somewhat less on sweet potatoes. Other formation. Irrigation is beneficial but sweet pota­
crops, such as cassava or manioc, yam, taro and toes will tolerate considerable drought. Soil should
dasheen are more important in tropical markets. be reasonably loose for best yields, but sweet po­

104
 tatoes may be grown even on heavy clay soils they have not become popular in areas where cas­
provided they are planted on ridges and have good sava or sweet potatoes grow well (31).
drainage. Heavy applications of fertilizer are not
advisable in the Tropics. POTATOES
The crop usually is grown from slips produced Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) do well in the
from tubers grown in hotbeds in the United States Tropics at higher elevations and may produce yields
where earliness is important (4). Cuttings from the of 5 tons or more per acre. Probably they should
Sinesare
used in.tropical areas. These are 12 to I­ not be grown below 3,000 tb 4,000 ft. ele",X on
-- inches long and usually are pushed in with a sticlp since they grow best below 700 F. Potatoes are more
and watered unless the ground is wet. Damp, cloudy susceptible to disease in tropical areas, especially
weather is best for this type of transplanting. About late blight which occurs at high humidity and
4 to 5 tons per acre is a good yield of tubers. temperatures below 600 F. Weekly spraying with
Spacing at 12 to 15 inches gives best yields (18) (26). Phygon XL will prevent infection unless there is
Plant breeders have produced many new varie­ much rain but the most satisfactory control is the
ties, some with high vitamins, others with disease use of the new late blight resistant varieties.
resistance. Some varieties suggested for trial in the Ona, Merrimac, Kennebec, Cherokee, and Ontario
Tropics are Nemagold, Apache, Orange Little Stem, looked promising in trials c6nducted in Haiti. In
Yellow Jersey, Nugget, Cliett Bunch Puerto Rico, Central America, Alpha and Voran have given good
Centennial, Goldrush, Mameya, Cobre, Sunnyside results at lower elevations where late blight does
and Triumph. Apache has high carotene, resists not occur. The following varieties have been re­
black rot and nematodes (2). Nemagold is resistant ported to have resistance to late blight: Catoosa,
to nematodes and is useful for canning (8). Gold­ Anita, Bertita, Conchita, Erendira, Navajo (2), Bun­
rush is especially useful for baking (16) . Centennial gama (3), Kennebec, Sebago, Menominee, Calrose
is a high yielding Puerto Rico type (23). Nugget (10), Aquila, Essex (19), Ona (25), Pungo and Boone.
is resistant to internal cork and tolerant to fusarium Superior yields in tropical areas have been reported
wilt. It is 7 to 10 days earlier than Puerto Rico for Ontario, Ona, Kennebec, Merrimac, Sequoia,
and has high market and cooking quality (27). Teton, Pontiac, Harford, Sebago, Alpha, Voran,
Three new varieties, Koedoe, Eland and Hartbees, Dakota Chief, Marygold, Ashworth, La Soda,
are reported from South Africa to be good keepers Cherokee and Erendira.
and slow to sprout (17). Seed dormancy often is a problem in the Tropics
Since viruses have become serious, checking where cold storage often is not available. Potatoes
foundation stock for planting material is being normally require 2 months dormancy or more to
done in some areas. The most serious insect pest is sprout. Tests of gibberellin and other chemicals
usually the sweetpotato weevil. This may be con­ have been tried but commercial procedures have
trolled by 2 per cent dieldrin dust or 2.5 per cent not been worked out. Mexico recommends storing 2
heptachlor dust applied when shoots begin to weeks at 540 F and later at 370 F, then at room
emerge (1). Some benefit is thought to be obtained temperature for sufficient time to sprout before
by planting cuttings instead of slips. planting. It is recommended to treat spring seed
Tubers should be cured at 850 F and 90 per cent after cutting, one hour in I lb. sodium thiocyanate
humidity for 5 to 7 days, then stored at 550 to 600 in 12 gal. water (14).
F and 85 to 90 per cent humidity (18) . Planting is usually 30 inches between rows, 8
inches between plants. Whole tubers 2 oz. in size
YAMS are preferred. Cut pieces of the same size may be
used if planting in a warm soil. Seed should be
Yams (Dioscoreaalata)and other species are com­ covered 2 to 3 inches deep (19).
monly grown in some parts of the Tropics. Yams Fertilizers containing 40 to 50 lbs. of nitrogen per
have twining vines and need staking or trellising. acre and 100 to 150 lbs. phosphate have given good
They are planted 4 x 3 feet in loose soil with results. In some cases 20 to 30 lbs. of potash also
pieces of about 14 lb., each with 2 or 3 eyes. The may be needed. If irrigation is available the soil
crop is ready in 9 to 10 months and yields are about moisture should be kept at a high level throughout
5 to 6 tons per acre (20). Roots are used as sweet the period of growth.
potatoes but are not as palatable to most tastes and In hot areas the tubers should be gathered im­

105
 mediately when mature to prevent sun damage. 3. Anonymous 1961 Bungama, a new potato variety. Agr.
Optimum storage is at 500 F and 80 to 90 per cent Gaz. N. S. TV. 72 (4).195-212
4. Boswell, V.R 1950. Commercial growing and harvesting
humidity. It is desirable to handle potatoes care­
of sweet potatoes. U. S. Dept. Agr. F. B. 2020.
fully to avoid bruising. 5. Brandao, S.S. 1959. Ensaio sobre sistemas de plantio da
mandioca. Rev. Ceeg. 11 (61):1-7 illus.
DASHEEN or TARO 6. Chapman, T. 1965. Experiments with Irish potato
(Solanun tuberosum) in Trinidad Trap. Agr. (Trini­
Dasheen or Taro (Colocasia esulenta), the Trini­
dad) 42 (4):189-198.
dad type, or Colocasia antiquorum, the Egyptian 7 Childers, N.F., et al. 1950. Vegetable gardening in the
type, is grown easily at the lower elevations where tropics. P. R. Agi. Exp Sta (Aayaguez) Cir.321
potatoes do not thrive. Tubers have a higher food 8. Cordner, H.B., et al. 1958. Origin and development of
Nemagold sweet potato. Okla. Agr. Exp. Sta. But. 507.
value than potatoes but they need 7 months to
9. Cordner, H.B., et al. 1959. Sweet potato nutrients:
mature (12). They should be planted as whole tu­ carotene and ascorbic acid content in improved sweet
bers in rows 42 to 48 inches apart and 24 inches potato variants. Ag7. & Food Chem. 7 (1):53-54.
apart in the row. Only 3 varieties are recommended: 10. Edmundson, W C., et al 1967. Potato growing in west­
Trinidad, Sacramento and Ventura, but hundreds ern states. U. S. Dept. Agi. F. B. 2034.
11. Gooding, Hj. and J.S. Campbell 1961. Preliminary trials
of varieties are available (33). The tubers are used
of West Indian Xanthosoma cultivars. Trop. Agr. (Trin­
in the same way as potatoes, either baked, boiled or idad) 38 (2):145-152.
fried. Newly emerged leaves can be boiled as greens 12. Hodge, WV.H. 1954. Dasheen, a tropical root crop for
but cannot be used raw (32). the south. U. S. Dept Agr. Car. 950.
A fairly constant soil moisture is needed for best 13. Holleman, L.W. and A. Aten. 1956. Processing of cas­
results. An average yield is 3 to 5 tons but as high sava and cassava products in rural industries. F.A.O.
(U N.) Rome Paper 54. pp. 1-115.
as 10 tons have been obtained under irrigation. 14. Jehle, R.A 1944. Use of spring-grown potatoes for plant­
This crop is especially popular in the West Indies ing the late crop Md. Agr. Exp Sta Misc. Pub. 17.
and Hawaii but also is grown commercially in 15. Jones, W.0 1959. Maniac in Africa. Stanford Univ.
Egypt and other tropical countries. Press
A near relative Xanthosoma is known as yautia 16. Jones, I D., et al 1959. A study of group acceptance of
baked sweet potatoes. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 73:
and tanier. It produces higher yields in the West 473-478
Indies and stores well (11) . 17. Joubeat, J.G. La G. 1965. Three new sweet potatoes.
Fing So. Afr. 41 (7):7, 9, 16.
18. Kattan, A.A. and B.B. Bryan. 1960. Irrigation and spac­
OTHER ROOT VEGETABLES ing improved yield and grade of sweet potatoes. Ark.
Farm. Res. 9 (6):8.
Arrowroot includes several species used both as 19. Kehr, A.E., et al. 1964. Commercial potato production.
a vegetable and for a flour sold as arrowroot. Purple 'U. S. Dept. Agr. A. H. 267. 59 p. l
arrowroot (Canna edulis) has been cultivated in 20. Kinman, C.F. 1921. Yam culture in Puerto'Rieo P. R.
Agr. Exp. But 27. 22 p. 1
Queensland with yields of 5 to 8 tons of tubers
21. Lutz, J.M and J.W. Simons 1958 Storage of sweet
per acre (22) . It is propagated by rhizomes planted
potatoes. U S. Dept. Agr. F. B. 1442.
8 x 2 feet and requires 6 to 8 months to mature. 22. MacMillan, H.F. 1954. Tropical Planting and Garden­
The West Indian arrowroot (Marantaarundinacea) ing. The MacMillan Co, New York, NY.
has pointed starchy rhizomes and is the commercial 23. Miller, J.C., et al. 1960. Centennial, a new sweet potato
arrowroot. It is propagated by tubers or suckers variety. La. Agr. Exp. $ta. Cir. 63.
planted 6 inches deep in furrows 30 inches apart 24. Milsum, JN. and D.H. Girst. 1941. Vegetable gardening
in Malaya. Dept. of Agr. Straits Settlements and Fed­
and spaced 15 inches at the beginning of the rainy
erated Malay States, Kuala Lumpur.
season. It requires a fertile soil, with good drainage 25 Parker, M.W. 1961. Naming and release of Ona, a new
and a moist hot climate. Yields are 4 to 6 tons per potato variety resistant to late blight, scab, Verticillium
acre at 10 to 11 months after planting, of which 12 wilt and mild mosaic. U.S. Dept. Agr. ARS.
per cent is dry arrowroot (22). 26. Peterson, LE. 1961. The varietal response of sweet po­
tatoes to changing levels of irrigation, fertilizer and
plant spacing. Proc Amer. Soc Hort. Sci. 77:452-457.
References
27. Pope, D.T., et al 1960. Disease resistant new sweet
1. Anonymous 1958 The sweet potato weevil and how to potato variety. (Nugget). N C. Res & Faim. 18 (3):7.
control it. U. S. Dept. Agr. L. 431.
2. Anonymous 1961. New vegetable varieties. List 7. Proc. 'Out of print. Superseded by: Winters, H. F. and G. W. Miskirnen.
Amer. Soc roil Sca. 77 842. 1967. Vegetable Gardeing in the Caribbean Area. US Dep. Agr.
Handb. S23, 114 pp., ellus

106
28. Rogers, D.J. 1965. Some botanical and ethnological con­ to be native to Afghanistan, Iran and India (11).
siderations of ManEhot esculenta. Econ. Bot. 19:859-377. They are classified into 13 groups by Brittingham
29. Sim, J.T.R. 1958. Agronomic investigations in winter
(1) all of which will inter-cross. The Southern pea is
rainfall region, 1892-1953. U. So. Africa Dept. Agr. Sci.
But. 373. a bushy or procumbent type of plant usually grown
30. de Young, J.E. 1960. Taro cultivation, practices and in rows 3 feet apart and spaced 2 to 3 inches in the
beliefs, Part I and II. Anthropological Wkg. Paper No rows. The asparagus or yard long type is climbing
6. Guam. and needs a trellis. It is chiefly of value for the
31. Young, R.A. 1923. Cultivation of the true yams in the
tender pods. The catjang type has cylindrical pods
Gulf region. U. S. Dept. Age. Bul. 1167.
32. Young, RA. 1924. Taios and yautias; promising new with closely packed seeds typified by the Lady (or
food plants for the south U.S. Dept Agr. Bul. 1247. Rice) variety. There are many varieties varying
33. Whitney, LD. et al. 1939. Taro varieties in Hawaii. from the Blackeye and Purple Hull to the Cream
Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta Bul 83. Crowder and Acre.
Breeding programs in Florida, Alabama, Missis­
SESAME sippi, Louisiana, Texas and California have re­
leased the following varieties: Calhoun Crowder,
(Sesamum indicum) Dixilee, Texas Purple Hull 49, Alacrowder, Ala­
long, California Blackeye 5, Cream 52, Texas Cream
Seeds of sesame are important as a source of oil 8, Monarch Blackeye, Climax, Producer, Topset,
for cooking in Asia and Africa. It is therefore used Extra Early Blackeye, Mississippi Crowder, Two-
as a food crop in that area while in the United Crop Conch and Baby Bush Purple Hull. Foreign
States it is an industrial crop. Sesame thrives best varieties reported are Poona in India; Malabar,
in semiarid seasons and warm temperatures (1). The Havana and Reeves in Australia; Garbancito,
variety Inamar yields well in Haiti. Chinito, and Azulgrande, which are mildew resis­
Sesame is sown in rows 30 inches apart and thin­ tant varieties from Costa Rica (2), and Acre from
ned to 6 to 7 inches apart in the row. In some Jordan.
areas of Asia it is sown broadcast. The crop matures Six viruses are known to cause disease of Southern
in about 5 months and is harvested when the first peas and most varieties are susceptible; however,
pods open. The plants are cut near the ground and Lousiana Purchase, Arlington, Buff, Brabham, Six
are stacked in sheaves to dry. Fertilizer requirements Weeks, and Victor are resistant to yellow mosiac
are not known but certainly phosphates help in virus. These viruses can be transmitted by bean leaf
most Asiatic soils. beetles.
Diseases that may occur include fusarium wilt,
High lime soils may cause chlorosis and poor
southern blight and leaf spots. Insects are usually
nodulation (5). Nematode resistant varieties might
not severe.
be necessary where nematodes are common.
Great care is needed to avoid loss of seed in
Cowpeas need a warm soil for good germination.
handling. Good yields are 800 to 1,000 lbs. of seed
Soil temperature should be 701 F or above (3).
per acre. Better varieties are being bred that do not
shed their seeds easily, so as to increase yields. Phosphate increases earliness and yields (8) but
Seeds contain 50 to 54 per cent oil, 25 per cent nitrogen gives only a slight increase in yield (9).
protein and 11 per cent carbohydrates. The pressed Cucumber mosaic and other viruses may cause
cake makes good livestock feed if the oil is removed. serious damage (6) . Hemipterous insects cause dam­
Seeds are widely used on cakes and pastries. age to seeds by sucking.
Cowpeas have a high vitamin content in the ten­
Reference der snap stage. The green shelled peas are not as
1. Ochse, JJ., et al. 1961. Tropical and Subtropical Agri­
high in vitamins as the snaps but are popular in
culture The MacMillan Co. New York, N.Y. the United States for freezing. The dry shelled peas
are liked for cooking like dry beans. Because of
better adaptability than beans to hot climates,
SOUTHERN PEA OR COWPEA
Southern peas should have an important place
(Vigna sinensis) among tropical vegetables.
. Peas are harvested when the color of the pods is
Cowpeas or Southern peas are considered to be still green but dose to the turning point of green
native of Central Africa (10). They also are reported to yellow. Storage of peas for 48 hours at 1000 F

107
 improved the mechanical shell-out of seeds as much relatively free of diseases but yields are somewhat
as 37 per cent for the variety California No. 5 low. The best summer squash types are the Cocozelle
and 21 per cent for the Conch variety. Storage types of which Caserta is the most promising.
treatments did not improve the seed shell-out of The summer squash is grown in hills 4 x 4 feet
the variety Alabama Crowder. Younger peas benefit and the winter squash at 6 x 8 or 8 x 8 feet. For
more from storage than mature peas (4). home use they often are grown in the boundaries
and allowed to run over the rock walls or fences.
References Manure is a good fertilizer where it is available.
Otherwise, diammonium phosphate at 200 lbs. per
1. Brittingliam, W.H. 1946. Key to horticultural groups of
varieties of the Southern pea, Vigna sinensis. Proc.
acre gives good results.
Amer. Soc. Hort. Set. 48:478-480. The cucumber beetles may be controlled with 10
2 Fennell, H.L. 1948. New cowpeas resistant to mildew. per cent chlordane or 1.5 per cent dieldrin dust.
Jour. Hered. 39 (10):275-279. Dusting with dieldrin is helpful in controlling
3. Hoover, M.W. 1955. Some effects of temperature upon pickleworins.
the growth of Southern peas Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort.
Sci. 66.308-314.
Regular spraying with dithane or parzate will
4. Hoover, MW. 1957. Influence of maturity and storage help in controlling leaf diseases but resistant va­
on seed shell-out of Southern peas Pioc. Amer. Soc. rieties would be best where they are available.
Hort Sci. 70 291-296. The summer squash is harvested while tender,
5. Ivanoff, S A. 1948. Chlorosis and nodulation of cow­ preferably about half to two-thirds mature. The
peas as affected by trial sulfur applications to calcare­
Butternut is harvested when mature and firm.
ous soil in the greenhouse. Plant Physic 23.162-164.
6. Klesser, P. 1960. Virus diseases of cowpeas. Bothalia.
7 (2):233-251.
7. Lorz, A.P., et al. 1955. Production of Southern peas TOMATO
(cowpeas) in Florida Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul .537.
8 Pateison, D R and H.T. Blackhuist 1955. Some effects (Lycopersicon esculentum)
of fertilizer on the yield and matutity of Southern peas.
Texas Agr Exp. Sta. P R. 1757. Tomatoes are important and very popular in the
9. Paterson, D.R. and HT. Blackhurst 1958. Some effects
of irrigation, fertilizer and variety on the yield of
diet of people in the Tropics. The crop is widely
Southern peas. Texas Agr. Exp Sta P.R. 2021. adapted and usually can be grown at some time of
10. Piper, C.V. 1913. The wild prototype of the cowpea. the year in any agricultural area provided varieties
U S. Dept. Agr. B. P. 1. Cir. 124 are carefully chosen. The rainy period usually is
II. Wight, VP. 1907. History of the cowpea and its intro­ considered difficult for growing tomatoes due to the
duction to America US. Dept. Agr. B. P. 1. Bul 102:
disease problems. Irrigation is required for good
43-59.
yields in the dry season.
Rains are damaging for several reasons. In the
SQUASH first place, reduction of sunlight tends to decrease
yields (6) while increased light gives better growth
(Cucurbitaspp,) (18) . Yields are best at 700 to 800 F day temperature
and 50 to 700 F night temperature (17). The crit­
Squash is grown commonly in the Tropics as well ical night temperature for setting fruit is 640 F (17).
as in the temperate zone. Most of the improved The main factor in the rainy season is the increase
varieties come from the temperate regions. The chief of diseases. Early blight, fruit rots, septoria leaf
problems in tropical areas are mosaic, cucumber spot, cladosporium leaf mold, gray leaf spot, etc.,
beetles, downy mildew, melonworms, pickleworms, are especially prevalent in the tropical rainy season.
etc. When temperatures go below 600 F for even short
The Alagold variety is resistant to mosaic but periods at a high humidity, late blight (Phytoph­
yields poorly under tropical conditions. It is also thora infestans (Mont.) DBy.)) appears. An ad­
very late maturing. A better variety is the Butternut ditional problem is that continual daily rains wash
which appears to be well adapted to the Tropics off the fungicides so that sprays lose their effective­
and has produced 6 to 8 tons per acre in Central ness. The excess moisture also is conducive to fruit
America. The squash will keep in open storage for cracking which allows rotting.
2 to S months and cooking quality is excellent. A Obviously if varieties could be found with resis­
native Central American squash called "pipian" is tance to diseases, and if they are also free from

108
 "
rainy season would be relatively easy. An attempt
was made to screen varieties for their ability to pro-
duce in the rainy season in El Salvador from 1957-
1961. Of a total of 121 varieties tried, Sioux, Texto
2, Urbana, Red Top, Roma and Summer Prolific
were consistently good producers when weekly
sprays of maneb were used. Especially promising
were the Hawaiian multiple resistant hybrids, In-
dian River, Cuyano, Egg and Santa Catalina.
Trials in Haiti in 1961-62 have shown that
Roma, Red Top, Indian River, Hawaiian hybrids,
San Marzano, Campbell 146, Urbana and Hotset
have some promise in the rainy periods. No resistant
varieties for late blight are known for tropical
areas. Rockingham and Surecrop, developed at New
Hampshire Experiment Station, are reported to
have resistance to late blight but they have not
been tried under late blight conditions in the
Tropics as far as the authors know.
It was thought at first that determinate varieties
would be required for the rainy season but the use
of plant stakes permits the use of any variety.
Resistance to fruit cracking is comparatively rare
in the larger fruited varieties. High resistance has
been shown by Glamour, Heinz 1370, Summer Pro-
lific and most of the small fruited varieties such as
Roma, Red Top and San Marzano. Figure 75.THE TOMATO VARIETY R O M A DOES
High temperatures at low elevations may affect WELL IN T H E TROPICS.
the yield. Varieties such as Summer Prolific, Hotset,
Victor, Westernred, and Red Cloud might have
value in such areas. transplanting. MC-2, a liquid methyl bromide gas
In the Tropics where diseases are so plentiful, to which 2 per cent chloropicrin has been added as
it is very important to have disease-free plants for a warning agent, is a good seedbed treatment for
control of weeds, nematodes and fungi. This is a p
plied under polyethylene covers which are left on
for 24 hours (1).
The seed is sown in rows 6 inches apart and
2 to 3 inches wide at the rate of 100 seeds per foot.
They should not be covered more than 1/2 inch
deep. They will need watering once or twice a day
until they emerge after 6 or 7 days. I n case of heavy
rains they must be protected by covers of burlap or
palm leaves until they become established.
The best plants are 6 to 10 inches tall with stems
of pencil-size. Smaller plants can be used but more
care is needed in getting them established. Topping
or pruning the larger plants reduces yields. Larger
plants can be used by covering at least two-thirds
Figure 74. T O M A T O VARIETY T R I A L A T T H E DA-
of the length of the stem in the soil when trans-
MIEN EXPERIMENT STATION IN HAITI. ONLY BY planting.
REPLICATED VARIETY TRIALS CAN T H E BEST VARI- Transplanting should be done directly from the
ETIES BE RECOMMENDED. seedbed. Holding plants after digging for several
 favorable for early flowering (12). Excess nitrogen
is associated with puffiness of fruit and blossom-end
rot (14). Too much nitrogen without phosphate
may cause abundant vegetative growth and no fruit.
Heavy applications of phosphates can be made
safely on tomatoes (7). Potash generally has given
no response and an excess may cause abnormalities
in the fruit.
Diseases become a major problem when growing
tomatoes in the rainy season in the Tropics. Spray-
ing i n the seedbed with Parzate or Dithane 2 7 8
will be needed. Use of either of these in the starter
solution is also beneficial when transplanting. Be-
ginning one or two weeks after transplanting,
weekly sprays with maneb are advisable. T h e most
destructive disease of tomatoes in tropical areas is
early blight (Alternaria solani (Ell. & G. Martin)
Sor.) . Although some varieties have been reported
to be resistant, none have had sufficient resistance
for tropical regions. Some varieties have resistance to
Figure 76. T H E INDIAN R I V E R V A R I E T Y OF T O M A T O
collar rot but it is still a good policy to use Parzate
YIELDED V E R Y W E L L I N T O M A T O T R I A L S I N H A I T I . or Dithane 2-78 in the seedbed and in the starter
A C A R R E A U ( C A ) IS A P P R O X I M A T E L Y T H R E E ACRES. solution when transplanting.
Resistance to fusarium wilt is important in the
days before transplanting reduces yields. A rapid Tropics and fortunately many resistant varieties are
method for hand transplanting is by the use of a now available; however, when nematodes are pres-
spade to open the soil. A second man carrying the ent the resistance may not be effective (8). Resis-
plants inserts the plant to the proper depth and the tance to gray leaf-spot (Stemphylium solani Weber)
man with the spade firms the soil with his foot. A also is available in a number of varieties including
third man follows with the starter solution which Manapal, Marion, Floralou and Indian River.
can be made at the rate of 5 lbs. of 11-48-0 or 3 Nematode resistance is present in some of the Ha-
lbs. of 18.5-50-0 in 50 gallons of water with lb. waiian hybrids and several selections including
of Parzate or Dithane 2 7 8 . A cupful is poured Anahu.
around each plant immediately after setting. If I n the Caribbean area and other warm areas with
conditions are dry, the plants should be irrigated high humidity the leaf mold (Cladosporium fulvum
as soon as possible. Cke.) becomes a serious factor. Since there are few
Spacing at 4 x 2 feet gives good yields for in- resistant varieties of the usual commercial types
determinate varieties like Indian River. Determi- available, spraying will be needed. Maneb spray is
nate varieties might be set a little closer depending effective only when the humidity is below 92 per
on the size of the plants. Varieties like VBL 3180 cent. Some resistance has been shown by Improved
could easily be set at 8 to 12 inches in 4 foot rows. Bay State, Vetomold, Waltham Mold Resistant,
Since earliness is not an important factor in the Globelle, Indian River, Floralou and Tuckers
Tropics, pruning usually will not be profitable. Dur- Forcing (3).
ing dry periods irrigation will be needed for good Viruses such as tobacco mosaic and cucumber
crops. Tomatoes are not adapted to drought condi- mosaic are found in all countries. Tobacco mosaic
tions and sufficient water should be applied to keep may be carried on the seed but may be controlled by
the plants growing vigorously at all times. Fre- treating with a 10 per cent solution of trisodium
quency is not important as long as sufficient water phosphate for 10 minutes (9). Since tobacco mosaic
is Gplied; however, excessive irrigation may in- also is spread by contact, cigarette smoking is not
crease fruit cracking (16) . advisable in the tomato field.
Fertilizers for tomatoes should be high in phos- Tomatoes are so widely grown that many differ-
phorus. A 2 N - 4 P - 1 K ratio has been found most ent diseases are likely to occur. A good reference
for identification is Doolittle (4). Bacterial wilt is TURNIP
especially likely in soils with poor drainage during
the rainy season and may be controlled by planting (Brassicarapa)
only on well-drained land. Newly developed toma­
toes with high resistance to bacterial wilt as well as Turnips are widely grown in the Tropics but
cracking and other diseases are being developed for prefer cool weather and should be grown in the
release by the Hawaii Agricultural Experiment winter and at high elevations.
Station (5). (Illus. page 8.) Shogoin (Japanese) is a popular variety that has
a mild turnip flavor. Golden Ball, Purple Top,
References Strap Leaf, Just Right, and Purple Top Milan
should be tried.
1. Brugis, D.S. 1954. Production of vegetable plants in Turnips are grown for the root and for the
sandy soil. Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 550. greens. The greens are high in minerals, calcium,
2. Childers, N.F., et al. 1950. Vegetable gardening in the iron and vitamin A. They also contain appreciable
tropics P. R. Agr. Exp. Smn. Cir. 32 (Mayaguez) .
3. Chupp, C. and A.F. Sherf. 1960. Vegetable Diseases and quantities of thiamine and ascorbic acid.
Their Control. Ronald Press, New York. Turnips thrive best on a deep rich loam but will
4. Doolittle, S. , et al. 1961. Tomato diseases and their grow on all types of soil. Turnips require nitrogen
contiol. U S. Dept. Agr. Hbk. 208. and phosphorus but most lateritic soils of the Trop­
5, Gilbert, J.C. and J.S. Tanoka. 1965. Holticultural re­ ics seem to have sufficient potash. Fertilizer trails
finement of multiple disease iesistant tomatoes in
Hawaii. Hawaii Farm Sci. 14 (1):4-6.
are necessary to determine the amount of fertilizer
6. Hemphill, D.C. and A.E. Murneek. 1950. Light and to use
tomato yields Pioc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Scl. 55-346-350. The seeds are planted in rows 12 to 15 inches
7. Ingram, J.M., et al. 1943 Field response of tomatoes to apart and the seedlings thinned to 2 to 6 inches
large applications of phosphates. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort.
Sct. 42 529-534. (1) .
8. Jenkins, W.T. and B.W. Coarsen. 1957. Effect of root­
Most of the diseases and insects affecting the
knot nematode on Fusarium wilt of tomatoes Plant. turnip also are injurious to cabbage and are listed
Dis. Rep. 41:182-186. in the table on insect control.
9. John, GA. and C Sova 1955. Incidence of tobacco Turnips are harvested like beets. For use as
mosaic virus on tomato seed. Phytopath. 45-636--639. greens, the plants are thinned and the foliage is
10. Kelsheimer, E G. 1961. Ploblems associated with insect
control on, tomatoes. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 74:
cooked.
156-157.
11. Kuitert, L.C. 1959. Promising new insecticides for vege­ Reference
table insects. Proc. Fla. State Hort Soc. 72:211-213.
12. Lambeth, V.N. 1948. Nutrient balance and time of 1. Thompson, H.C. and W.C. Kelly. 1957. Vegetable Crops.
anthesis in tomatoes. Proc. Amer, Soc. Hart. Sci. 52: McGraw-Hill Co. New York, N.Y.
347-349
13. Learner, E.N. and S.H. Wittwer. 1953. Some effects of
photoperiodicity and thermoperiodicity on vegetative WATERMELONS
growth, floweiing and fruiting. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort.
Sci 61,373-380. (Citrullus vulgaris)
14. Leopold, A.C. and F.S. Guernsey. 1953 Effect of nitro­
gen upon fruit abnormalities in the tomato, Proc. Amer, Watermelons are universally popular and are
Soc. Hort. Sc. 61:333-88. grown nearly everywhere; however, there are many
15. Michelbacker, A.E. and J. Underhill. 1959. Control of
tropical areas where they fail to produce satisfac­
tomato leaf miners. Calif. Agr. 13 (6):10.
16. Molenaar, A. and C.L. Vincent. 1951. Studies in sprink­
torily. Observations in Central America have indi­
ler irrigation with Stokesdale tomatoes. Proc. Amer. cated that watermelons should be grown only at
Soc. Hort. Sci. 57,259-265. the lower elevations where sufficient heat occurs for
17. Went, F.W. 1950. Photosynthetic activity of the tomato normal development A sandy soil is generally pre­
plant as influenced by light intensity and temperature. ferred but good melons can be grown on heavier
Science. 111:456-460.
soils if the weather is warm enough.
18. Went, F.W. 1957. Climate and agriculture. Sci. Amer.
196 (6) :88-94.
The leading variety is the Charleston Gray be­
cause of its disease resistance and good shipping and
' Out of print. Superseded by Winters, H F. and G. v. Miskimen. eating qualities; however, in the Mediterranean
1967. Vegetable Gardening in the Caribbean Area. U. S. Dep. Agr. area, the Chilean variety is commonly grown. An-
Handb. 323, 114 pp, illus

I1
 thracnose resistance is a valuable characteristic in ing maneb and zineb sprays may be used. Applica­
the Tropics. Charleston Gray, Garrisonian and tions should be repeated every week or 10 days (7).
Hope Diamond are released as anthracnose resis­ Powdery mildew causes pimples on melons in Missis­
tant. In general, melons are smaller in the tropical sippi and Texas and reduces marketability (6).
regions than in the temperate zone and production Where nematodes are severe, hill treatment with
is generally less. In the Caribbean, watermelons chloropicrin or methyl bromide might be advisable
weighing only one or two pounds are commonly ()
marketed. In Central America, Charleston Gray Harvesting watermelons is done in a number of
watermelons weighing 35 to 40 pounds are grown ways. The time from flowering to ripe melons in
at the lower elevations. the large varieties averages 45 days. At this time
Wilt resistance may be valuable in some areas. testing for ripeness can begin. Thumping the melon
Varieties with good resistance are Purdue Hawkes­ with the finger often is used. When ripe, a dull
bury and Blue Ribbon Klondike. Charleston Gray sound is given, and when green, a "ping" sound.
rates moderate resistance. Congo and Blackstone are Experienced harvesters can tell by the exterior color
slightly resistant and Florida Giant (Black Dia­ change to a duller appearance.
mond) and Garrisonian are susceptible (8). Some After the melon is cut the cut surface of the stem
new varieties that might be tried are Improved should be painted with a copper sulfate paste to
Peacock, Golden Midget, Market Midget, Charles­ prevent stem end rot.
ton Gray 133, Crimson Sweet, Graybelle, Shipper,
Rio Gray and Jubilee (3). References
Planting is done in hills 10 x 4 or 8 x 4 feet,
leaving one or two plants per hill. Fruit setting is 1. Anonymous, 1956. Diseases of watermelons in Florida.
dependent on the amount of leaves. Fertilizers usu­ Fla Ag. Exp. Sta. Bul. 459.
2. Anonymous. 1959. Watermelon production guide. Fla.
ally should include nitrogen and phosphorus. Good
Agr. Ext. Cir. 96C.
results have been obtained in the Tropics with 3. Anonymous, 1961. New vegetable varieties, List VII.
diammonium phosphate at the rate of 150 to 300 Pioc. Amer. Soc. Hort Sd 77 652,
lbs. per acre in bands. This may be applied before 4. Brantley, B B, and G.F. Warren, 1960. Effect of nitrogen
planting or as a side-dressing after plants are estab­ on the flowering, fruiting and quality in the watermelon,
lished and before they begin to run. Nitrogen in­ Pioc.Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 75.644-649.
5. Hibbard, A.D. 1989. Fruit thinning the watermelon.
creases the number of pistillate flowers and fruit Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Scl. 37:825-826.
set (4). 6. Ivanoff, S.S. 1957. Powdery mildew pimples on water­
Pruning defective melons and limiting the set melon fruits. Phytopath.47-599-602.
to 2 melons per vine gives earlier and larger melons 7. Schenk, N.C. and J.M. Crail. 1957. Five-year summary
(5). Pruning does not increase yields but does in­ on fungicidal control of watermelon foliage diseases.
Proc. Fla. Hort.Scl. 70:107-109,
crease fruit size (4) , 8. Schenk, N.C. 1961. Resistance of commercial watermelon
When anthracnose first appears maneb should be varieties to Fusarium wilt. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Sci. 74:
applied at 1.5 lbs. per 100 gal. of water or alternat­ 183-186.

112
 Chapter 4

DISEASE AND NEMATODE CONTROL

NEMATODES Nematodes are spread easily from infected soils

to clean soils by the feet of human beings or ani­
Nematodes, or eelworms, are animals too small to mals, by machinery, or plant roots. They are most
be seen without a microscope. They occur through­ easily carried in wet soil and spread rapidly in
out the Tropics, and about 50 are known to be crops where irrigation is done by surface methods.
damaging to crops. As most of them do best in Seeds and transplants are principal means of carry­
warm temperatures they are more destructive in ing nematodes to clean land (14).
the Tropics than in the temperate zone. Since they Effective control of nematodes requires a combi­
are not visible to the naked eye, the average person nation of methods. It is essential that growers realize
sees only the damage symptoms on the crop. As this the value of these practices. Use of chemicals is
damage is usually to the roots, one sees only the ef­ beyond the reach of most farmers in developing
fect on the part of the plant above the ground. The countries, and only high income crops would justify
nematode-affected plants lack vigor, wilt easily, and their use in the field; however, there are soil
indicate a lack of fertilizer as a result of the de­ management practices that are helpful without de­
struction of the roots. Roots may show galls or pending on chemicals entirely.
excessive root branching and rotting or dead areas The use of clean seeds and clean plants is perhaps
(6). the cheapest method of control. For example, grape­
Nematodes may be classified according to their vine cuttings can be submerged for 5 minutes in
damage (1)- There are those that form root galls water at 1250 F (51' C) and immediately afterwards
(root knot), while others form root lesions, root should be submerged in a cold water bath at 450 F
rot, or excessive root branching. Some injure or de­ for cooling. This is effective on several nematodes
stroy root tips and some attack leaves, stems, bulbs, (17). The hot water treatment also is useful in
tubers, or flowers. treating seeds (16). A solution of Nemagon (DBCP)
Nematodes are very widespread and although the also can be used in dipping the plants (18).
science of nematology is relatively new there are It also is helpful to fumigate the seedbeds in
over 12,000 named species, of which 1500 are de­ which plants are produced. Chemicals useful for
scribed as plant parasitic. The life cycle varies but this purpose are EDB, Vapam and MC2 (11). These
is usually 3 to 4 weeks. They develop more rapidly also control fungi and weed seeds. A plastic cover
at higher temperatures (above 800 F) but cannot is necessary in using MC 2 since it is highly volatile.
tolerate temperatures above 1400 F (1). This should be done about 2 weeks before planting
They damage many important crops not only by the seeds. DD and _DBCP also can be used. Since
their feeding but also by facilitating secondary in­ only small areas are used the cost is much less
fection by bacteria and fungi and by spreading than using chemicals in the field. A reasonably good
soil-borne viruses. In extreme cases total loss of a crop can be produced with tomatoes and other an­
crop may occur by the combination of nematodes nual crops if clean plants are used in transplant­
and disease (5) , Even varieties resistant to Fusarium ing.
wilt may lose their resistance when attacked by Small quantities of soil may be sterilized satis­
nematodes (19, 20 and 25). factorily by use of steam. The soil is heated in a 55.
The cost to farmers caused by 43 known species gallon drum, as shown in Fig. 78. The top of the
is estimated at 89 million dollars in California drum should be removed and perforated with many
alone (3) and at over a billion dollars annually in small holes. This is placed on three metal supports
the United States (I) . about six inches above the bottom of the drum. The

113
 tank is put on cement blocks or stones at a height
suitable for having a fire underneath. The bottom Burahp bag or banaa
of the drum is filled to a level of four inches with leaves
water. The soil is placed on the perforated piece to
a point one inch below the top of the drum, and Sweet potato at six
covered with banana leaves or burlap. A wood fire inches below soil surface
should continue to burn until a temperature of
1400 F at the top of the soil has been maintained So
for at least 30 minutes. If a thermometer is not
available, a sweet potato can be put six inches Perforated drum top
below the surface of the soil. When the potato is Water
cooked the soil has had sufficient heat. The soil
can be used after it cools to air temperature.
By avoiding the growing of nematode-susceptible t, Cement block
crops in periods of high temperatures the damage
from nematodes can be lessened. Nematodes are
especially active at temperatures above 800 F. In Fire
areas where temperatures are lower at. certain
periods of the year, the susceptible crops' can be Figure 78. HOME MADE SOIL STERILIZER.
grown in the cool season and resistant crops in the
warm period.
grown for 2 or 3 months in the summer reduces
Weed control is essential in any system of nema­ several kinds of nematodes (22). Cdastal bermuda
tode control (26). A great number of weed species reduces root knot but increases other nematodes
are hosts to various destructive nematodes and (11). Plant species found to be highly resistant to a
could nullify other efforts to reduce nematode wide range of nematodes are marigolds (Tagetes
damage. Some common weeds are very susceptible spp.), Crotalariaspp., Solanum grandiflorus,Lin­
to nematode attack (4). For information on weed tana camara,Senecio cineraria, and asparagus (30).
control see Chapter 5. More study is needed to determine the crops most
Dry fallow is a practical control where dry periods effective in nematode control. Some crops which are
of 3 months or more occur. It is necessary to plow toxic to nematodes are useful in permanent plant­
about 12 inches deep and to allow the soil to dry ings such as orchards and tea and coffee plantations.
thoroughly (9, 28). This method is practical only They are grown between the trees and attract the
where moldboard plows are available and definite nematodes to enter the roots where they apparently
dry periods occur. Dry fallow cannot be used in are killed by the toxins in the plant roots (30).
organic soils in the Tropics because of destroying Marigolds seem especially useful and Crotalaria
the organic matter (23). Flooding is useful in some spectabilis also is used for this purpose (11).
areas and destruction of nematodes apparently is
Organic mulches and manures have given good
due to the hydrogen sulfide produced (24). Flood­ results in some experiments but our present knowl­
ing must actually cover the soil for 60 to 200 days. edge does not justify their recommendation; how­
It does not entirely eliminate the nematodes (30). ever, since more than 50 species of fungi are known
Crop rotation is the most practical control with to prey on nematodes these treatments would seem
crops of low or moderate return and is a practice to justify further study (21).
that most farmers can use. Resistant crops are grown
Chemicals are by far the most effective means
in rotation with the susceptible crops and aid in
of controlling nematodes, but because of their ex­
reducing the nematode population; however, crops pense can be used only in the field on high income
resistant to one species of nematode actually may crops. Their use in seedbeds is practical except
build up populations of other nematode species. where farmers lack capital to purchase the equip­
Care is necessary in choosing the nematode-resistant ment and chemicals. In the field, chemicals such
crops. as DBCP (Nemagon and Fumazone) can be applied
Pangola grass grown one year with good weed in the row before planting to permit growing such
control gives excellent nematode control for tomato susceptible crops as tomatoes and melons but this
production in Florida (30). Crotalariaspectabilis chemical is toxic to onions, potatoes, sweet potatoes

114
 Table 6, NAMES AND FORMULAS OF COMMON FUNGICIDES

ACTIVE
COMMON NAME TRADE NAMES* FORMULATION INGREDIENTS
Captan Orthocide, Captan N- (trichloromethylthic) 4- 50% or 75% WP
cyclohexene-1,2-dcarboximide Various % dusts
Chloranil Spergon Tetrachloro-para-benzoquinone
Copper fixed Copper-Hydro, C.O.C.S., Copper A Low soluble coppers 23%-53% WP
Dichlone Phygon XL 2,3-dichloro-1,4 naphthoquinone 50% WP
1-4% dust
Dyrene Dyrene 2,4-dichloro-6- (0-chloro- 50% WP
anilino) triazine)

Ferbam Ferbeck, Ferante, Ferradow, Ferric dimethyldithiocarbamate

Karbam black, Nu-leaf
Karathane Karathane, Mildex 4,6-dinitro-2- (1-methyleptyl) 25% WP
phenyl crotonate
Maneb Manzate, Dithane M-22 Manganous ethylene his 80% WP
(dithiocaibamate) 4.9% dust
Nabam Dithane D-14, Parzate, Liquid Disodium ethylenebis-dithiocar- 19% liquid
Nabam Fungicide bamate - 93% WP
Terraclor Terraclor Pentachloronitrobenzene 75% WP
20% dust

Thiram Arasan, Tersan, Thiram, Naugets bis (dimethylthio carbamoyl) 75% WP

Delsan A-D, Panoram disulfide
Zineb Dithane Z-78, Fungicide A, 12 A Zinc ethylenebssdithiocarbamate 65% WP
Blightox, Parzate Zineb Fungicide 45% dust
Ziram Zerlate, ZC, Karbam White, Zinc dimethyldithiocarbamate 76% WP
Corozate, Zirbeck, Fuklasin 5 3% dust
These are only a few of the trade names and are listed as examples.

Table 7. APPROXIMATE QUANTITIES OF The most satisfactory solution to the nematode

FUNGICIDES EQUIVALENT TO ONE OUNCE problem is the development of resistant varieties;
FUNGICIDE NUMBER OF LEVEL breeding work along this line has developed resis­
TABLESPOONS tant varieties of tomato, pepper, lima beans, sweet
Bichloride of mercury (soluble powder)
potatoes and southern peas (cowpeas). Resistant
10
Captan (wettable powder) 3.5
rootstocks are now available for citrus, peach, plum
Choloranil (wettable powder) 3.7 and grape. The field is promising and work con­
Dichlone (wettable powder) 3.7 tinues along this line (12, 15). One of the problems
Ferbam (wettable powder) 5.0 is that varieties resistant at mild temperatures (20 to
Semesan 27 250 C) are more susceptible at higher temperatures
Sulfur (wettable powder) 3.0
Thiram (wettable powder) 3.0
(30 to 85o C) (18).
Zineb (wettable powder) 3.7 A combination of methods that utilizes resistant
Ziram (wettable powder) 5.5 varieties, crop rotations, weed control, and other
management practices probably will permit eco­
and peppers (10). DBCP also can be used in treating nomical crop production with a minimtim use of
orchard trees (8). This should be applied with a chemicals.
chisel applicator at least 6 inches deep (2). While
this is too expensive for the low income farmer, References
there are instances in the Tropics where the use of 1. Agricultural Research Service. 1962. Plant nematodes.
chemicals is profitable. U.S. Dept. Agr. ARS 22-83. 24 pp.

115
 2 Agricultural Research Service. 1965. Chemical control 23. Rhoades, H.L., et al. 1966. Nematode control guide for
of plant-parasitic nematodes. U.S. Dept. Agr. Hbk. 286. vegetable production in Florida. Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta. But.
28 pp. 707. 17 pp.
3. Allen, M.W. and A R. Maggenti. 1959. Plant nematol­ 24. Rodriguez-Kabana, R., et al. 1965. Nematodes: biological
ogy in California Cal. Agr. 13 (9):2-3. control in rice fields. role of hydrogen sulfide. Science
4. Bratley, H.E. 1946. Weeds as a factor in control of root­ 148:524-526
knot in tobacco fields. Fla. Agr Exp. Sta. Press Bul. 25. Ross, J.P. 1965. Predisposition of soybeans to Fusarium
629. wilt by Heteroderaglycines and Meloidogyne incognita.
5. Cheo, C.C. 1946. A note on the relation of nematodes Phytopath. 55:S61-364.
(Tylenchus fritict) to the development of bacterial dis­ 26. Southey, J.G. Ed. 1965. Plant nematology. Min. Agr.
ease of wheat caused by Bacterium tritici. Ann. Appl. Fish 6- Good (London) Tech. B. 7. 282 pp.
Btol. 33:446-449. 27. Thorne, G. 1961. Principles of Nematology. McGraw-
6. Christie, J.R. 1959. Plant nematodes: Their bionomics Hill, New York.
and control. Fla Agr Exp. Sta. 256 pp 28. Thorne, G. and J. Roman. 1964. Fallow controls
7. Christie, J.R. and A.L. Taylor. 1963. Controlling nematodes in tomato production. Jour. Agr Univ. P. R.
nematodes in the home garden. US. Dept. Agr. F. B. 48 (2):163-164.
2048, 29. Winchester, J.A. and N.C. Hayslip. 1960, Effect of land
8. Foster, H H. and D.F. Cahoon. 1958. Post-plant fumiga­ management practices on root-knot nematode. Fla. St.
tion for control of peach root-knot in South Carolina. Hort. Soc. Proc.73:100-104.
Phytopath. 48:342 (abstract). 30. Winchester, J.A. 1964. Cultural control of nematodes.
9. Godfrey, G H. 1947. A practical control for nematodes U.S. Dept. Agr. 2d. Int. Conf. Proc. 190-196.
Lowei Rio Gr. Valley Citrus & Veg. Inst. Proc. 2,
143-149.
10. Good, J.M. 1961. Evaluation of DBCP application rates, DISEASES
time of application, and phytotoxicity on selected truck
crops in South Georgia. Plant Dis. Rep. 45 (1):46-50.
11. Good, J.M., et al. 1965. Relative susceptibility of selected Diseases constitute a serious problem in the Trop­
cover crops and Bermuda giass to plant nematodes. ics because the causal organisms reproduce at a high
Phylopalh. 55 (a):1026-1080. rate due to favorable environmental conditions. It
12 Hare, W.W. 1965. Inheritance of resistance of plants to may be necessary to use shorter spray cycles in
nematodes. Phylopath.55 (11):1162-1167.
tropical areas than in temperate regions due to the
1. Holtzmann, O.V. 1965. Effect of soil temperatures on
resistance of tomato to root-knot nematode (Mfeloidogyne rapid spreading of fungus diseases.
incognita). Phytopath. 55 (a) 990-992. Fungicides can be used as a dust or spray. The
14. Hooper, D.J. 1966. Two rice nematodes new for Africa. advantages and disadvantages are discussed under
FAQ Plant Prot. But. 14 (l}:25-26. insecticides. Sprays usually are preferred since they
15. Kehr, A E. 1966. Current status and opportunities for
stick to the plant surfaces better than dust. Most
the control of nematodes by plant breeding. In Pest
Control by Chemicals, Biological, Genetic, and Physical fungicides contain a spreader and sticker but if they
Means: A Symposium, pp 126-138. U S. Dept. Agr., are not included in the fungicide they can be pur­
ARS 83-110. chased separately and added according to the manu­
16. Klotz, LJ., et al. 1960. Heat treatments to destroy fungi facturer's directions.
in infected citrus seeds. Calif. Citrog. 46 (2) :63-64. The fungicide should be applied before there is
17. Lear, B. 1966. Hot water treatment of grapevine cuttings
evidence of any plant damage. On some diseases a
for eradication of a root-lesion nematode, Pratylenchus
vulnus. Plant Dis. Rep. 50(11) '858-859. cycle of 10 days may be sufficient but on others a 3
18. Loos, C.A. 1961. Eradication of burrowing nematode, day cycle may be necessary in the Tropics. Only
Radophilus similis, from bananas Plant Dis. Rep. 45 experimental trials can give one an idea of the right
(6):457-461. fungicide and cycle to use for a specific disease in
19. Melendez, P.L. and N.T. Powell. 1965. Histological and tropical areas.
physiological influence of root-knot nematode infections
Bordeaux mixture is very effective in preventing
on Fusarium wilt development in flue-cured tobacco.
Phytopath. 55:1067. several diseases but it is not suggested in this hand­
20. Porter, D.M. and N T. Powell. 1965. Influence of certain book since it has to be made up each time it is.
Meloidogyne species on Fusarium wilt development in used and any unused portion must be discarded.
flue cured tobacco. Phytopath. 55:1071. A- wooden, earthenware or glass vessel is necessary
21 Pramer, D. 1964. Nematode trapping fungi Science for mixing, which is a disadvantage since these are
144:382-388.
not available in some places in the Tropics. Another
22. Rhoades, H.L. 1964. Effect of Crotalariaspectabilis and
Sesbania exaltata on plant nematode populations and problem is that the nozzles of the sprayer frequently
subsequent yield of snapbeans and cabbage. Fla. St. get clogged when Bordeaux is used. Bordeaux
Hoit. Soc. Pioc. 77:233-237 mixture may injure such crops as cucumbers,

116
muskmelons and tomatoes. Since there are many 12 Knorr, L.C., et al. 1957. Handbook of citrus diseases of
disadvantages in using Bordeaux, fixed copper com­ Florida. Fla. Agr Exp. Sta. But 587. 157 pp.
13. Kumabe, B. and W. Yee. 1964 Control of freckle disease
pounds and organic fungicides have been suggested and finger tip rot of Chinese banana by maneb sprays.
for trial. Some trade names for the organic fungi­ Haw. Farm Sci. 18 (4): 7.
cides have been suggested for trial. Some trade names 14. Langford, M H. 1945. South American leaf blight of
for the organic fungicides are listed in Table 6. Hevea rubber trees. U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bul. 882.
31 pp.
The most common fixed copper compounds are basic 15. Maramorosch, K. 1962. Present status of Cadang-cadang
copper sulfate, copper oxychloride;copper oxychlo­ yellow mottle disease. Phytopath 52: 19-20.
ride sulfate and cuprous oxide. These compounds 16. McGrew, J.R., and G.W. Still. 1968. Control of grape dis­
are sold under various trade names and should be eases and insects in the eastern United States. US. Dept.
Agr. F. B. 1893. 28 pp.
used according to the manufacturer's directions. 17. Muller, AS 1964. Diseases affecting temperate zone
Seed treatment chemicals will not be discussed fruit production in Central America. Ceiba 10 (2); 68:76.
since most of the reliable seed companies treat their 18. Namba, R. and C.Y. Kawanishi. 1966. Transmission of
seeds before they are sold. In a few cases seed treat­ papaya mosaic virus by the green peach aphid. Jour.
Econ. Entom. 59 (3): 669-671.
ment is suggested in Table 8. 19. Papasnlomertos, A. and C. Papadopoulos. 1965. Trials in
control of loquat scab in Cyprus F.A.O. Plant Prot. B.
References to FruitDiseases 13: 83-85.
20. Purss, G S. 1954. Identification of the species of
1. Aponte, C.E. 1963. El cultivo de guayaba en Puerto Fusarium causing wilt in passion vines in Queensland.
Rico. Caribb. Agi. 1: 199-215. Qld Jour.Agr Sen. 11 (2). 79-82.
2. Aragaki, M and M. Ishi, 1960, Fungicidal control of 21. Raabe, RA. and D.V. Holtzmann. 1964. Control of
Mango anthracnose. Pl. Dis. Rep. 44: 318-823 papaya anthracnose. Haw. Fanm Sci. 13 (4); 1-2.
3. Buddengahen, I.W. 1961. Bacterial wilt of banana: 22. Raghavan, D. 1966. Handbook of Agriculture. Indian
history and known distribution. Trop. Agr. (Trin.) Council of Agr. Res. 877 pp.
38(2): 107-121. 23. Rhodes, A S. 1956. The occurrence of destructiveness of
4. Crandall, BS. 1966. List of fruit diseases in Central Clitocybe root rot of woody plants in Florida. Lloydia
America (in process). 19 (4). 193-239.
5. Cuellar, SR. 1959. Phytonematology in Panama and 24. Simmonds, J.H. 1965. Papaw diseases. Qld. Jour. Agr.
Central America. Soil 6- Crop Sci. Soc. Fla. Proc. 19: 91 (11); 666-677.
430435. 25. Teakle, S ., et al. 1963. Mosaic disease of passion vine.
6. Grant, TJ. 1962. Role of plant pathology in tropical Calif. Agr. 17 (11): 3.
plantation agriculture. Phytopath.52. 930-936. 26. Trujillo, E.E., et al. 1963. Distribution of Sigatoka dis­
7. Hamilton, R A 1956, Macadamia nut production in the ease in bananas in Hawaii. Haw. Farm Sci. 13(1):
Hawaiian Islands. Econ. Bot. 10: 92-100. 10-12.
8. Hansen, AJ. 1963. The role of Fusarium decemcellulate 27. Trujillo, E E. and R.B. Hine. 1964. Papaya root rot and
and Fusarium ,oseum in the green point cushion gall the replant problem. Hawaii Farm Sci. 24 (2): 3-5.
complex of cacao Turrialba18: 80-87. 28. Vimuktananda, V.Y. and M.S Celino. 1940. Anthracnose
9. Hilton, R.N. 1952. Bird's eye spot leaf disease of the of black pepper (Piper mgrum). Philip Agr. 29 (2):
Heuca rubber tree caused by Helminthosporium heveae 124-141.
Petch. Jour. Rubber Res. Inst. Malaya 14(9); 40-92. 29. Wardlaw, C W. 1961. Banana Diseases. Longmans
10. Hines, R.B, et al. 1964. Stem end rot and other fruit (London). 648 pp.
rots of papaya Haw. Farm Sd. 13(4): 5-6. 30. Wellman, F.L. 1961. Coffee. Interscience (New York).
11. Holliday, P. and W.P. Mowat. 1963. Foot rot of Piper 488 pp
nigrum (Phytophthora palmivorum). Phytopath, Pap. 31. Zentmyer, G.A., et al, 1962. Avocado root rot. Calif, Agr,
Commonw. -Mycol. Inst. 5 62 pp. Exp. Sta. Cr. 511. 18 pp.

117
 Table S. SUGGESTED DISEASE CONTROL FOR VEGETABLES '

CROP DISEASE DESCRIPTION CONTROL

Artichoke Black Rot Black infection on heads. Varieties with compact heads are
more resistant.
Leaf spot Small irregular gray spots on leaf Zineb or Maneb.
may cover whole leaf.
Powdery mildew White mold on lower surface of leaf. Karathane.
Asparagus Ceicospora Spots on stems and branches. Maneb.
Rust Elongated, orange-red powdery Ferbam. Rust resistant varieties such
particles on stems and foliage, as Mary and Martha Washington.
Bean Anthracuose Brown sunken spots with pink Crop rotation. Obtain seed from
See Photo Fig. 79 centers on pods. disease-free areas. Resistant varieties.
Phygon XL, Fermate, Zmeb.
Ashy stem blight Cankers on stem below cotyledon. Treat seed with Ceresan.
Bacterial blight Large brown dry spots on leaves Rotation, sanitation, clean seed,
surrounded by yellow borders. resistant varieties.
Damping-off Death of young seedlings. Seed treatment with captan,
chloranil or thiram.
Fusarium yellows Green foliage changes to yellow Use seed from areas free of the dis­
eventually killing the plants. ease. Treat seeds with Semesan and
Ceiesan.
Mosaic Mottled (light and dark green and Resistant vaxieties. Control aphids.
curled leaves).
Powdery mildew Darkening of leaf, covered with Resistant varieties. Sulfur.
powdery mold.
Rust Minute reddish brown circular spots. Pinto 5 or 14, Columbia Pinto, Rico 23.
Yellow Mosaic Mottling of yellow and green which en- Isolate from clover, corn or
large until whole plant becomes yellow. gladiolus. Control aphids.
Beet Black root Tip of root turns black, leaves wilt Hot water treatment for Phoma plus
and yellow. captan or thiram.
Damping-off Death of young seedlings. Chloranil, thiram seed treatment.
Leaf Spot Small brown flecks which become Rotation. Insoluble copper, zineb
ashy gray aeas. and ziram sprays.
Broccoli Black leg Gray spots speckled with tiny black Rotation. Clean seed. Hot water
dots on leaves and stem. seed treatment. 1220F-20 min
Brussels Black rot Minute brown specks and leaves turn Rotation. Clean seed. Hot water
Sprouts yellow and drop. seed treatment 122 0 F-20 min.
Cabbage Club root Large irregular swellings on roots. Lime to make soil slightly alkaline.
Cauliflower Stunted plants. Use Terracilor 3 lbs/50 gal. in
Kale transplanting water.
Kohlrabi Downy mildew Mildew is visible on the under side Insoluble copper sprays or chloro­
of the leaves with yellowing above. nil in seedbed. Zineb or maneb
spray.

Fusarium yellows Yellow-green leaves. Grow resistant varieties such as

Stunted plants. Lower leaves drop. Jersey Queen, Resistant Detroit,
Marion Market, Badger Market,
Globe, Wisconsin, Ballhead and
Wisconsin All-season.

118
 Table 8. SUGGESTED DISEASE CONTROL FOR VEGETABLES (Continued)

CROP DISEASE DESCRIPTION CONTROL

Mosaic Mottled distorted leaves, plants Control aphids. Rogue out diseased
stunted. plants.
Carrot Leaf blight Black or brown spots on leaves and Insoluble copper. Zineb, maneb or
stalks Older leaves dry and die. ziram spray.
Yellows Yellow young leaves. Red and Contiol leaf hoppers with Malathion;
twisted old leaves. 2 tablespoons per gallon of water.
Cassava Die-back Lesions on leaves and die-back of Try zineb or maneb sprays.
twigs and branches.
Leaf spot Brown or light brown spots. Try maneb spray.
Rust Small circular spots on leaves. Try ferban or zineb sprays.
Celery Celery mosaic Clearing of veins, petioles Control aphids.
shortened, plants stunted.
Early blight Small, circular, yellow brown spots Fixed copper, dyrene, maneb, na­
on old leaves. bam with zinc sulfate. Growth resis­
tant variety, Emerson Pascal.
Fusarium yellows Yellow leaves, stunted plants. Grow resistant varieties as Michigan
Golden, Florida Golden or Forbes
Golden Plume. Green celeries are
generally resistant.
Pink rot Water soaked spots and white to pink Rotation. Remove and destroy dis­
cottony growth at base of stalk. eased plants, calcium cyanamid
1,000 lb. per acre a month before
planting.

Corn Bacterial wilt Wilted and dwarfed plants. Yellow Grow resistant varieties as Stowell's
slime oozes from cut stalk. Evergreen, Golden Cross Bantam,
Marcross, Spancross or Whipcross.

Corn stunt virus Yellowing of leaves, stunting and Control of vector Dalbvlus rnaidis.
lack of grain. Grow resistant varieties.

Helminthosporium Narrow lesions 1-5 in. long on Rotation, seed treatment, zineb or
leaf blight leaves. maneb spray.
Seedling decay and Seeds decay in soil. Young plants Treat seeds with thiram dust at
seeding blight die. 5 1/2 oz. per 100 lbs.
Smut Large white galls on stalks, ears Remove galls and destroy.
See Photo Fig.80. and tassels.

Corn Stalk rot Stunting and weakening of plant. Rotation.

Cucumber Anthracnose Reddish brown, circular spots on Treat the seeds with 1:1,000
leaves, elongated, tan cankers on corrosive sublimate. Spray with
stems, sunken spots on fruits. Ziram and captan on young plants
and maneb on older plants.
Bacterial wilt Large vines wilt and die. Young Control beetles with aldrin. Re-
See Photo Fig. 81. plants die rapidly. move and destroy wilted plants.
Damping-OfE Young seedlings wilt and die. Treat seeds with thiram dust at
3 oz. per 100 lbs.
Downy mildew Yellow, angular spots on older Ashley, Pixie or Palomar or use
See Photo Fig. 82. leaves. Leaves dry, curl and die. maneb after runners form.
Gummy stem Gummy exudations and wilting of Plant in clean ground. Some va­
blight vines, often where they touch water. rieties are more tolerant.

119
 Table 8. SUGGESTED DISEASE CONTROL FOR VEGETABLES (Continued)

CROP DISEASE DESCRIPTION CONTROL

Cucumber Mosaic Mottled (green and yellow) and Grow resistant slicing cucumber
(cont.) See Photo Fig. 83. curled leaves. Warty, misshapen varieties as Ashley, Niagara,
and spotted fruits. Stunted plants. Challenger, Ohio MR 200,
Tablegreen MR, Sensation Hybrid
or Ohio MR 17. Ohio MR 25,
Yorkstate Pickling or WisconsitZ
SMR 12 as pickling varieties.
Root knot
Galls on roots, stunted plants. Treat soil with nematocide or
nematodes
use rotation.
Scab Sunken, dark-brown spots on fruits. Grow scab resistant cucumber
Gummy substance oozes from fruits. varieties as Highmoor, a slicing
variety, or Wisconsin SR 6 and
Wisconsin SMR 12, pickling
varieties.

Eggplant Damping-off Young seedlings wilt and die, Use 1 tbsp./gal. of Captan 50 to
water seedlings. Treat seeds
with thiram at 4 Oz. per 100 lb.

Fruit rot Brown and shrunken stems at soil Grow resistant varieties as Florida
line. Brown or gray spots on Beauty or Florida Market.
leaves. Large ringed circular
brown spots on fruit.
Phomopsis
Canker at base of stem. Sunken Hot water seed treatment plus
blight
areas on fruit. chloranil. Spray with insoluble
copper; resistant varieties.
Verticillium Slow wilting and stunting of Do not rotate with tomatoes or
wilt plants, potatoes.
Yellows Conspicuous yellowing from tip Dust with sulfur at weekly intervals
downward. in seedbed.
Lettuce Aster yellows Yellowing, curling and twisting of Control leaf hoppers with Malathion,
inner leaves. 2 tablespoons per gallon.
Big vein Whitening along veins which thicken Fumigate seed bed. No resistance
or crinkle. known.
Downy mildew Yellowish spots on upper side and Spray with nabam plus zinc sulfate
white mold below. or zineb.

Drop Wilting of outer leaves; soft rot on Avoid poorly drained soils. Plant
stems and old leaves. lettuce on lifted beds. Rotation,
deep plowing.

Mosaic Mottling of leaves and stunting of Use disease-free seed and cotmol
plant. aphids with Malathion, 2 tablespoons
per gallon.

Tipburn Margins of leaves turn brown and Grow tip burn resistant varieties
dry. such as Great Lakes, Cornell 456
and Pennlake.

Lima bean Bacterial spot White downy mold in patches or Spray with maneb or zineb.
Downy mildew covering the entire pod, a purple
Leaf blight border between healthy and
or Podspot diseased portions.
Muskmelon Anthracnose Vines are defoliated, young fruits See Cucumber.
die.

120
 Table 8. SUGGESTED DISEASE CONTROL FOR VEGETABLES (Continued)

CROP DISEASE DESCRIPTION CONTROL

Muskmelon Bacterial wilt Entire plant wilts and dies. See Cucumber,
(cont.) Damping-off Stem is watersoaked and plant falls See Cucumber.
over and dies.
Downy mildew Irregular brownish spots on older Grow resistant varieties as Smith's
leaves Leaves dry, curl and die. Perfect, Seminole, Georgia 47,
Edisto and Home Garden.
Gummy stem blight Brown gummy exudates on stems; vines Rotation, seed treatment spray
(Mycosphaerella are girdled and wilt. with Dithane M45.
catrullina)
Leaf spot Small, round, brown spots on Rotate crops, spray with fixed
leaves. copper.
Mosaic Mottled (green and yellow) and Kill perennial weeds, control
curled leaves, stunted plants. aphids and striped cucumber beetle
with malathion, 2 teaspoons per
gallon of water.
Powdery mildew Powdery mold on upper surface of Kalathane, Resistant varieties:
leaf. PMR 45, 5, 6, Georgia 47, etc.
Root knot Stubby root system. Plant stunted See Cucumber.
and yellow.
Okra Verticillium Yellow and wilted leaves, stunted Only grow okra once every three
wilt plants. years.
Onion Downy mildew Elongated gray spots. Spray with nabam plus zinc sulfate,
dyrene or maneb.
Pink root Roots turn pink and later black. Grow resistant varieties.
May stunt plants and prevent
brilbing
Purple blotch Water soaked spots, at first brown, Same as for downy mildew.
later purplish.
Smut Black blisteis filled with masses of Rotation. Use formaldehyde solu­
fungus on leaves. May kill young tion on sol-i teaspoon to 1 quart
plants. of water.
Sunscald or White necrotic areas on leaf and tips. Same as for downy mildew to pre­
blast Appears at high temperatures. vent secondary infection,
Peas Bacterial blight Large water soaked spots on pods, Purchase disease-free seed from
irregular dark spots on leaves. low rainfall areas.
Fusarium wilt Yellowed leaves, wilted plants. Grow wilt resistant varieties as
Inside of stems ale lemon yellow. Alaska, Improved Gradus, Dwarf
Alderman, Alderman and Teton.
Root rot Yellowish, unhealthy plants, yellow- Rotation. Use well drained soil or
ish brown, red or black stems below plant peas on raised beds.
ground and toots.
Seed decay Seed rots in soil. Treat seeds with thiram dust at
3 oz. per 100 lbs.
Peas Ashy stem Sunken cankers near base of stem at Treat seeds with Ceresan. Resis­
(Southern) blight warm temperatures. tant varieties.
Cowpea,
Blackeyed Fusarium wilt . Tap root bright red, firm and turgid. Grow resistant varieties.
pea Leaf blight Small reddish brown circular spots Spray with insoluble copper or
on leaves. zineb.

Powdery mildew White powdery mold on leaves Spray with sulfur.

121
 Table 8. SUGGESTED DISEASE CONTROL FOR VEGETABLES (Continued)

CROP DISEASE DESCRIPTION CONTROL

Pepper Anthracnose Large, dark-brown or black spots on Plant clean seed. Use zineb spray.
See Photo Fig. 84. fruits.
Bacterial leaf Small, yellowish-green spots on Treat seeds for 5 minutes in a
spot young leaves. Spots 1/8 to 1/4" in 1:2,000 corrosive sublimate solu­
See Photo Fig. 85. diameter with dead brown centers tion. Treat seed with dichlone or
with dark margins on older leaves thiram dust of 4 oz. per 100 lbs.
Rough coiky spots on fruits. Spray with insoluble copper.
Blossom-end Light-colored sunken, water soaked Avoid excessive use of nitrogen.
rot spots near blossom end of fruits. Use ample amounts of superphos­
One-third of fruit may become dark phate and lime. Always maintain
and shxiveled. even soil moisture.
Cercospora Circular, water soaked spots 1/4 to Treatment same as for bacterial
leaf spot 1/2" in diameter. White centers and leaf spot.
dark margins.
Damping-off Seed decay in soil. Young plants wilt Treat seeds with dichlone and
and die. thiram dust at 4 oz. per 100 lbs.
Fusarium wilt Wilting and death of plants. Good diainage; plant on ridges.
Mosaic Mottled green and yellow and curled Grow resistant varieties as Keystone
leaves. Fruits are sometimes yel- Resistant Giant, Liberty Bell, Yolo
lowed or show green ring spots. Wonder and Rutgers World Beater
Stunted plants. No. 13.
Potato Blight-early Leaves show small, irregular, dark Plant disease free tubers. Spray
brown spots which enlarge and have every 10 days with a fixed copper
target-like markings. or maneb.
Blight-late Dark, irregular dead areas on leaves Plant disease free tubers. Grow
and stems Disease kills plants resistant varieties as Sebago, Saco,
early in the season. Kennebec, Pungo, Essex, Ona,
Merrimac, Florita, Gabriela and
Conchita.
Potato Leaf roll Upward rolling of lower leaves. Plant disease free tubers. Grow
Yellow and stunted plants. resistant varieties. Katahdin and
Brown specks in tubers Saco are resistant to tuber dis­
coloration and have some resistance
to leaf rolling. Kennebec, Sebago
and Chippewa are resistant to tuber
discoloration. Grow certified seed.

Mosaic Mottled light and dark green and Grow resistant varieties as Cher­
curled leaves, stunted plants. okee, Chippewa, Katahdin, Kenne­
bec, Pungo, Saco and Sebago.
Rhizoctonia Black glistening sclerotta from 1/4" Treat seed pieces with bichloride
scurf in diameter to continuous masses on of mercury.
tubers. Can cause decay of shipping
bags in tropics.
Scab Rough, scabby, raised or pitted Grow resistant varieties as Cayuga,
See Photo Fzg. 36. spots on tubers Cherokee, Eatly Gem, Menommee,
Ontario and Seneca.
Spinach Blight or Yellow and cuiled leaves, stunted Grow ,resistant varieties as Virginia
yellows plants, low yields. Savoy and Old Dominion.
Blue mold Yellow spots on upper surfaces of Grow Wisconsin Bloomsdale, Badger
leaves. Downy, purple or blue- Savoy, etc.
colored mold on undersides of leaves.

122
 Table 8. SUGGESTED DISEASE CONTROL FOR VEGETABLES (Continued)

CROP DISEASE DESCRIPTION CONTROL

Seed decay Seed rots in soil. Hot water treatment, 122 0 F for 25
minutes. Dust with thiram at 4 oz.
per 100 lbs. of seed.
White rust White pustules on underside of leaf. Spray with zineb or maneb.

Squash Bacterial wilt See Cucumber. See Cucumber.

Squash or Mosaic Yellow spots on leaves and some- Remove and destroy diseased
Pumpkin times on fruit. plants. Control aphids and cucum­
ber beetles with 2 teaspoons of
malathion in I gallon of water.

Scab See Cucumber. Do not grow cucumbers or squash

in same soil oftener than once in
3 years.

Sweet- Black rot or Black, sunken, roundish spots on Use plants with clean, white roots.
potato foot rot sweet potatoes. Black cankers on Remove and destroy diseased plants.
underground parts of stem. Do not plant sweet potatoes in same
soil every year. Soak in solution
of 5 lb. borax in 30 gal. of water.
Internal cork Dark brown corky areas in tubers, Resistant varieties such as Allgold,
slight mottling of leaves. Nancy Hall, Ranger, etc., should
be planted.
Pox Small dark, dry spots on surface of Rotation, clean seed, adjust soil to
potato. pH 5.0 to 5.2.
Root rot Yellowing and stunting or dying of Rotation. Use dean seed.
the foliage. Use certified seed.
Scurf Small brown specks on roots that Use clean seed and plant in clean
spread under favorable conditions. seed bed. Use certified seed.
Stem rot or Yellow and wilted plants. When cut Same control as for black rot.
wilt across, stems have a black discolor­
ation and roots have a black ring.

Tam Blight (Phytophthora Enters bruises. Therefore walk through Basic copper spray at 2 week in-
colecasiae) field as little as necessary. tervals, 5-10 months after
planting.
Tomato Anthracnose Small, circular, sunken spots on the Spray with zineb, maneb or ziram.
fruit.
Bacterial Spots on fruits are superficial, circu- Hot water, 122*F for 25 min., seed
canker lar, slightly raised, white rings with treatment plus dusting with dichlone
red dot in center. or ceresan M and fumigate seed bed.
Bacterial Numerous black stipples on fruit and Same as for bacterial canker. Spray
speck or spot leaves, every 7 days with insoluble coppers.
Bacterial wilt Wilting and death of plants. Milder Good drainage. Graft on resistant
infections cause protuberances on species. Resistant varieties when
stem, available.
Big bud Witches' broom effect at nodes. Destroy diseased plants and sola­
Enlarged calyx with no fruit. naceous weeds.
Blight-Early Leaves show small irregular dark- Spray with maneb every 7 days.
brown spots which enlarge into cir- (Will burn young plants. Do not
cular spots with target-like mark- use in seed bed or starter solution.)
ings. Brown cankers on stem. Use Parrate in the seed bed and
Dark decayed spots at stem end of for a starter solution.
fruits.

123
 Table 8. SUGGESTED DISEASE CONTROL FOR VEGETABLES (Continued)

CROP DISEASE DESCRIPTION CONTROL

Tomato Blight-Late Dark water-soaked spots on leaves, Spray with Phygon XL every 7 days.

(cont.) See Photo's Fig. 87 large water-soaked spots on fruits,

and Fig. 88 white growth on underside of leaves.
Spots on fruits turn brown and leaves
wither.
Blossom end
Small to large decayed spots at Avoid droughts or moisture stress.
rot
blossom end.
Fusarium wilt Gradual yellowing and wilting of Grow wilt resistant varieties as
foliage. Browning of woody tissue Pan America, Southland, Jeffer­
under the outer green portion of son, Manalucie, Homestead, Indian
stem. Plants may die. River, Manapal, Urbana or Roma.
Gray leaf spot Small spots that have light centers Grow resistant varieties as Indian

and dark margins on leaves, dark River, Manapal or Floralou.

specks in center of spots. Leaves Spray with maneb or zineb.

may be killed. Low yield.

Tomato Leaf mold Miloew like fungus destroys leaves in Grow resistant varieties. Spray

wet weather. with munch or zineb.

Cercospora
Yellowing on upper surface of leaf Dwarf Stone & Marglobe resistant.
leaf mold
with yellow mold beneath. Use maneb, zineb or fixed copper.
Cladosporium
Yellowing of upper leaf surface with Ziram and resistant varieties,

leaf mold
dark mold on under surface. Bay State, Globelle, Vetomold,

Waltham M. Proof, Indian River.

Mosaic Mottled green and yellow and curled Caused by tobacco mosaic virus,

leaf foliage, stunted plants, low Do not smoke while working with

yields, tomatoes.

Root knot
Galls or swelling on roots, stunted Grow resistant varieties as Hawai­
nematode
plants. ian varieties: Anahu, Kolea and

hybrids.

Spotted wilt Leaves turn brown and droop. Also Grow tomato 100 yds. or more from
dieback from tip. weeds or flowers.

Verticillium
Stem is shortened, whole plant may Grow resistant varieties as Red

wilt
wilt and die. Top V9 CPC-2, Porte, H1350.

Watermelon Anthracnose Round, water-saked spots on fruit, Grow resistant varieties such as
See Photo Fig. 89. dark spots on leaves. Spots on Charleston Gray. Congo, Fairfax
fruits are small and raised at first, and Blackstone. Spray man-eb, zineb
later they are larger and sunken, or fixed copper every 7 days.
Root knot
Galls or swellings on roots, Rotation, Treat soil with Nemato­
nematodes
Stunted plants. cide.

Wilt Stunted seedlings, wilted vines, low Grow resistant varieties as Kieck­
yields, plants die. Wilting starts at ley No. 6, Improved Stone Mountain
tips of runner and spreads to entire No. 5, Fairfax, Charleston Gray
vine. Miles, Hawkesbury, Missouri
Queen, Leesburg, Klondike Rt-7,
and Baby Kondike.
Yam Anthracnose Leaf spots enlarge rapidly, eventu- Spray with maneb or zineb. Use
ally destroying whole leaf, resistant varieties.
Cco...sPora Large areas of leaf destroyed. Spray with maneb or zineb,
leaf spot e
1Part of the information in this table was obtained from USD.A. Farmers' Bul. 46. "Insects and Disease, of Vegetables in the Home Garden,
(1963)." Recomnendations on discas control are always changing due to recent research, and new releases of this publication should be requested
eVery year.

124
 4

AI
4

Jf a,

(
'4 w

p
4 i

wt

A
x, 04
Figure 79. ANTHRACNOSE ON BEAN PODS. SPORES ARE PRODUCED IN THE CENTER OF THE DARK SPOTS.
U.S.D.A. Photograph.

125
 \ f

&i*4~t..

tC

Figure 80. CORN PLANT AFFECTED BY SMUT. THE LARGE BLISTER-LIKE GROWTHS CONTAIN MASSES OF
DARK FUNGUS SPORES. US.D.A. Photograph.

126
 -~ ~,

-i
0

0
zz
z

C
h

ciA

'Ut,'

-I
Figure 82. EARLY STAGES OF DOWNY MILDEW ON CUCUMBER LEAF. THE SPOTS ARE YELLOW-GREEN AND

EVENTUALLY KILL THE OLDER LEA VES. US.DA. Photograph.

128
 -4

4,

-i

.7
ct2~

at-

-o

'-4
"'0-ta,
Figure 84. ANTHRACNOSE SPOTTING OF PEPPERS. U.S.D.A. Photograph.

Figure 95. BACTERIAL SPOT ON PEPPER. THE SPOTS ARE SLIGHTLY RAISED AND HAVE A CRACKED,
ROUGHENED SURFACE. U.S.D.A. Photograph.
130
 4

11

Figure 86. POTATO TUBER SHOWING SEVERE INFECTION OF SCAB AND LEAVES OF THE GREEN MOUNTAIN

VARIETY AFFECTED WITH MILD MOSAIC. NOTE YELLOW PATCHES ON LEAVES. US.D.A. Photograph.

131
Figure 87. TOMATO LEAF SHOWING DARK, WATER-SOAKED SPOTS CHARACTERISTIC OF LATE BLIGHT.
US.D.A. Photograph.

132
Figure 88. LATE BLIGHT ROT OF TOMATO. THE SPOT IS FIRM AND HAS A WRINKLED SURFACE.
US.DA. Photograph.

133
Figure 89. WATERMELON FRUIT SHOWING SHRIVELING AND DECAY CAUSED BY STEM END ROT.
U.S.D.A. Photograph.

134
 Chapter 5
WEEDS AND THEIR CONTROL

Weeds are defined as plants out of place. Even In developing countries where capital is lacking to
useful plants may become weeds when they occur purchase machinery or chemicals it may be the only
in areas where they are not wanted. In the Tropics method that can be used until purchasing power
where rainfall is excessive, weeds such as nutsedge improves.
(Cyperus spp.), bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis) Mechanical control consists of hoeing, mowing,
and bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) may become disking, plowing and cultivation. Control efforts are
so well established as to prevent crop production. mainly to (1) prevent seed formation, (2) to avoid
In areas of low rainfall where irrigation is prac­ transporting weed seeds or roots and (3) to prevent
ticed, weed seeds produced along the ditch banks top growth on perennials. Most farmers do not
are carried to the fields in the irrigation water realize how rapidly weeds can multiply when they
where they germinate and compete with the in­ are allowed to go to seed. One plant can produce
tended crop. hundreds of thousands of seeds and cause heavy
Weed control, including the loss of yields and expense in weed control the following season. Since
reduced quality, ranks among the highest costs of only a few weeds are spread by roots or cuttings
crop production and certainly among the most im­ the prevention of seed formation will automatically
portant (7). The annual cost of weeds was estimated prevent spread of most weed species. Controlling
to be 3 to 5 billion dollars to United States in weeds in the crop is not enough as the weeds allowed
1951 (1). In 1966 it was estimated to be five billion to seed on the borders or along the irrigation
dollars. This damage to crops includes competition ditches can sow the whole field the next year.
for moisture, nutrients and space, reduction of The mechanical controls such as hoeing or culti­
quality, harboring insects, diseases and nematodes. vating must be done when the weeds are small,
The heaviest competition is in the first 0 to 90 to be effective. Weeds are killed more easily in the
days of the crop. Weeds are not only rapid growing seedling stage. Some species of rapidly growing an­
but also have high requirements for moisture and nuals may produce seed within a few weeks after
nutrients (5, 6, 17, 20). Some weeds use 2 to 3 times emergence. Control should be early before seeds
as much moisture as the crop being grown and are are formed. In addition, weeds are much easier to
also heavy feeders. destroy in the early stages.
Hundreds of species of weeds exist in various Preventing weed seed from entering the farm on
parts of the world. Some of the ones that are most machinery, in packing materials, in hay or litter for
widely spread are listed in Table 10. These are livestock, in animal manures, by the wind and in
listed by their scientific names because the common irrigation water requires constant attention. Crop
names are different in each country. Thirteen peren­ seeds may carry weed seeds. It is important to plant
nial weeds and 19 annual species are included, three clean seed. Animal manures used for fertilizers are
of which are parasitic. Many species important in responsible sometimes for heavy weed infestation.
local areas could be added. For example, a grass Perennial weeds are difficult to control. In coun­
(Imperata cylindrica) is very serious pest in culti­ tries where the wooden "point" plow is used, the
vated fields in South Asia. Another grass (Hypar­ deep-rooted perennial weeds escape and actually
rheniarufa) can be troublesome in Central America. thrive from the plowing. Well-established perennial
Weed control is basic to efficient crop production. weeds can be controlled mechanically only by fre­
This may be accomplished in a number of ways. quent cutting or cultivating. The first 10 days of
Hand pulling or cutting is the most primitive and new growth is at the expense of the rootstocks but
has become too expensive to use in many countries. after about 14 days the leaves begin to send food

135
back to the roots. The principle of control is to trade names. The actual use of crops is given in
keep the tops cut off at 10 to 14 day intervals. This Table 12.
will eventually destroy the root reserves and weaken Chemical weed-control methods save labor and
the weed plants so that they die. Bindweed can be may be effective if care is exercised in their use.
controlled in one season in this way (20). This Since labor is less expensive in the Tropics than in
method also has controlled bermuda grass in one the temperate regions, it is best to consider the
season. Since perennials also grow from seed it is economy of weed control before starting investiga­
important to avoid reinfestation from outside the tions with chemicals.
field after it has been cleared. If chemicals are used for weed control, certain
Another good practice where sufficient water is precautions should be taken:
available is to irrigate the land before planting to 1. Always follow the recommendations of the
allow the weeds to sprout. Then these can be de­ manufacturer.
stroyed by harrowing or disking before planting. 2. Be careful that there are no residues on the
Another practice in areas where rains are scarce is harvested product.
to plant the crop deep leaving a dry mulch through 3. Soil moisture is necessary for effective action of
which the weed seeds will not germinate. pre-emergence sprays.
Clean seeds are highly important. The use of 4. Smaller rates are desirable on light soils and
certified seed has become a standard practice in higher rates on heavy soils.
most of the United States and pure seed laws are in 5. When using wettable powders, agitate the liq­
effect in nearly all states. Similar laws should be en­ uid during spraying.
couraged in all countries. 6. Band application should be used on widely
Rotation of row crops with broadcast crops will spaced crops to save on the cost of the
aid in weed control if cultivation is practiced on the herbicide.
row crop. Flooding for 60 days will kill weeds but 7. Use pre-emergence oils and oil emulsions at
no horticultural crop will tolerate flooding (3). 20 to 60 gallons per acre and at 40 to 80
Smothering by the use of paper mulches, straw or pounds per square inch pressure.
other materials can be used if the crop returns When using the same sprayer for insecticides,
justify the cost. Smother crops are also possibilities fungicides and herbicides, it is very important to
for controlling some weeds that cannot tolerate be sure that the sprayer is dean after an herbicide
shade. Bermuda grass areas have been controlled application, as a small amount in the tank may
with a sweet potato crop. Fertilizers have been used kill vegetable crops. Water is sufficient to clean a
on the theory that the crop will respond more sprayer for some herbicides, but for other herbicides,
readily than the weeds. This is expensive and gen­ a cleaning solution is desirable. One can use 5 lbs,
erally not effective (18). of tri-sodium phosphate, 1 gal. of household am­
Geese or other poultry have been used at times monia and 5 lbs. of sal soda in 100 gal. of water.
when labor was scarce (14). This involves fencing, This should be mixed well with water and left in
the sprayer for 86 hours, then should be pumped
markets for the poultry and the possibility of dam­
through the sprayer. The sprayer should be rinsed
age to crops.
several times with water after this.
The rapid development in recent years of herbi­
If 2,4-D has been used in a sprayer, it is4tesirable
cides for the control of weeds in crops in the United not to use the sprayer for other insecticides, fungi­
States has made the use of chemicals the most im­ cides or herbicides as it is very difficult to remove
portant means of weed control in the United States. 2,4-D from a sprayer. If a copper spray is used be­
The sale of chemicals for herbicides now exceeds fore a herbicide, put 1 gallon of vinegar in 100
that of insecticides or fungicides. gallons of water and let it stand in the sprayer for
The most successful of these are pre-emergence 2 hours before using it. The sprayer then should
chemicals that are applied to the land to kill the be rinsed thoroughly.
young weed seedlings as they emerge. If applied at New information and new chemicals are being re­
the proper dosage the crop is able to emerge and leased continually. It is well to check on the lastest
grow. Some of these are trifluralin, DNBP, EPTC, recommendations before making any large pur­
amiben, CDEC, calapon, and pebulate. These will chases.
be found in Table 11 which gives also representative Some of the newer herbicides are picloram

186
(tardon) which is more toxic than 2,4-D or 2,,5-T 10. Hamaker, J.W., et al. 1963. A picolinic acid derivative:
and trifluralin (treflan) which is finding a wide use a plant growth regulator. Science 141: 363.
11. Hamilton, K.C., et al. 1960. Weeds of crops in southern
against seedlings of many weed species. Dalapon
Arizona. Ariz AE.S.B. 296. 67 pp.
for grass weeds and monuron for quackgrass control 12. Hauser, E W and H. F Arle. 1958. Johnson grass as a
are being more widely used (20, 2, 8, 12). Herbicides weed. U. S. Dept. Agr F. B. 1537, rev, 14 pp
may behave somewhat differently in the Tropics 13. Hodgson, J. M, et al. 1952. Control of certain ditchbank
than they do in temperate zones (17), weeds on irrigation systems. U., S. Dept. Agr. ARS Po.
Res. Rpt. 60, 64 pp.
References 14. Johnson, C. 1960. Management of weeder geese in com­
mercial fields Calif. Agr. 14 (8): 5.
1. Ahlgren, G.H., et al. 1951. Principles of Weed Control. 15. Klingman, G. C. 1961. Weed Control as a Science. Wiley,
Wiley, New York. 368 pp. 421 pp. New York.
2. Anonymous, 1965. Wider use for treflan. Amer Veg. 16. Muenscher, W. C 1955. Weeds MacMillan. 560 pp.
Grow. 13 (4):27. New York.
3 Crafts, A.S. and W.W. Robbins. 1962. Weed Control 17. Nakagawa, Y. and R. R. Romanowski. 1964 Chemical
McGraw-Hill, 600 pp. New York. weed control in vegetable crops. Hawaii Agr. Ext. Cm.
4. Davision, V.E., et al. 1965. Water weed contiol on faims 402.
and ranches U. S. Dept Agr F B 2181 (rev) 22 pp.
18. Shaw, W C. and L. L. Danielson. The control of weeds
5. Dawson, J. H. 1964. Competition between irrigated field
in seed cops In Seeds, U. S. Dept. Agri. Ybh 1961 280­
beans and annual weeds. Weeds 12 (3): 206-208.
287.
6. Dawson, J. H 1965. Competition between urigated
sugarbeets and annual weeds. Weeds 13 (3): 245-249: 19. Tar, S. A J. 1961 Witchweed (Sttiga hermonthica)on
7. Ennis, W B. and W.D. McClellan. 1964. Chemicals in rain giown pearl millet in nitrogen deficient sandy soil
crop production. In Faimel's World, U. S. Dept. Agr. of central Sudan. Ann. Appl. Biol. 49 (2). 347-849.
Yearbook 1964. 106-112. 20. Timmons, F. L 1941 Results of bindweed control ex­
8. Gentner, W A. and L.L. Danielson. 1965. Evaluation of periments at the Fort Hays Branch Station, Hays,
selected insecticides on several pulses. Amer. Soc. Hart. Kansas, 1935 to 1940 Kans. Agr. Sta. Bul. 296, 50 pp.
Sct. Proc. 87: 359-362. 21. Wiese, A. F., et al. 1965 Picloram for controlling small
9. Hall, BJ. 1961, Dalapon for grass control, Agr. Gaz patches of bindweed and other perennial weeds Tex.
N. S. W. 72 (3): 153-154. Agr. Exp. Sta P. R. 2347.

Table 9. FRUIT DISEASES AND SUGGESTED CONTROL

DISEASE NAME REFER-
CROP SYMPTOMS CONTROL
COMMON SCIENTIFIC ENCE 1

Apples Scab Venturia innequalis Spoils fruits for market. (17)

Avocado Root rot Phytophthora Causes wilting and death of Good drainage. (31)
cinnamomi trees

Bananas Panama disease Fusarium Causes wilting and death of Resistant varieties. (4) (29)
oxysporum trees by destroying roots.
vat. cubense

Sigatoka Mycosphaerella Causes yellow spots and Spray with light oil in (26)
musicola dead areas on leaves. mist spray at 1 to 11/
gal/acre.

Freckle disease Macrophoma Discolors fruits and causes Maneb spray every (13)
musae uneven ripening. 2 weeks.

Moko bacterial Xanthomonas Causes wilt; occurs in Remove male flowers (3) (4) (29)
wilt solanacearm wild Heliconia plants. of Heliconia near
plantation.

Betel nut Koleroga Botryobasidiumi Attacks green fruits and Try M46 Spray or (22)
foliage causing them to Bordeaux.
drop.

Foot rot Ganoderma Trees wilt as though suffer- Remove infected (22)
lucsdum ing from drought. trees.

For references see page I 177 137

 Table 9. FRUIT DISEASES AND SUGGESTED CONTROL (Continued)

DISEASE NAME REFER-

CROP SYMPTOMS CONTROL
COMMON SCIENTIFIC ENCES

Cacao Witches' broom Marasmius Causes abnormal branching; Pruning; resistant (5)
perniciosus fruits drop. hybrids.
Swollen shoot Virus complex Branches swell and yellow Remove infected trees, (5)
spots appear on mature lindane spray.
leaves. Selections from Amazon
are resistant.
Cushion gall Fusarium Forms a gall on seedlings and Resistant varieties. (8)
decemcellulare adult trees through seeds
and F. roseum and wounds.
Citrus Gummosis Phytophihora Attacks near ground and Prune and paint with (12)
parasiica trees may die. Bordeaux paste.
Tristeza Virus Wilting and death of tree. Resistant root stocks. (6)
Clean budwood.
Exocortis Virus Causes scaly bark of root­ Resistant mat stocks. (6)
stock and death of tree. Clean budwood.
Aerial gummosis Physalospora Gumming and death of twigs Spray with Captan. (12)
thodina and branches. Avoid pruning.
Coconut Bud rot Phytophthora Causes wilting and death of Pruning and burning.
palnivora terminal bud. Maneb spray.
Red ring Aphelenchoides Rapid wilting of leaves and Clean pruning. (5)
nematodes red ring in trunk. Good drainage.
Cadang Cadang Probably virus Yellow mottle and decline; Suggest weed control. (15)
palm finally dies.
Coffee Rust Hemilela Affects leaves. Copper sprays. (30)
vasiatrix
Leaf-spot Mycena citricolor Causes defoliation in (30)
(Omphalia American tropics.
flavida)
Grape Anthracnose Elsinoe Circular spots on fruits Copper ox zmneb sprays. (16)
ampelina and young shoots
Black rot Guignardia Attacks new foliage and ber­ Copper sprays. (16)
bidwellfi ries which turn black and
mummify.
Downy mildew Plasmopara Yellow spots on leaves fol­ Copper or zineb sprays. (16)
viticola lowed by white, moldy
growth on under side of
leaves.
Powdery mildew Uncinula necator White powdery growth may Sulfur dust or spray. (16)
cause defoliation.
Root rot Phymatotrichum Destroys roots and causes Resistant root stocks. (16)
omnivorunm death of vine on alkaline,
arid soils.
Pierce's disease Virus Delayed foliation, gradual No remedy. Use (16)
dying of roots and decline resistant varieties.
of vines.
Guava Fruit rot Glomerella Mummifies green fruit and Captan or copper (1)
cingulata rots ripe fruit. sprays.

138
 Table 9. FRUIT DISEASES AND SUGGESTED CONTROL (Continued)
DISEASE NAME REFER-
CROP SYMPTOMS CONTROL ENCE'
-COMMON SCIENTIFIC
Guava Mushroom Clitocybe Rots roots and kills trees. Remove infected trees. (2S)
(Continued) root rot iabescens
Loquat Fireblight. Eronia anylovora Twigs die back. Prune below dead areas. (19)
Scab Spalocaea Spoils fruits. Copper spray at
erobotryae blossoming.
(Fusicladzum Maneb spray every 15
eriobotryae) days from petal fall.
Lychee Fruit rots Spoils fruits. Control fruit flies.
Mango Anthracnose Glnerella Dark spots on fruits Captan spray. (2)
cingulata
Orange See ctrus
Papaya Mosaic Virus Transmitted by Myzus Malathion spray for (18)
persicae from cucumbers Aphids.
and watermelons. Remove infected
Causes bitter flavor in plants.
fruits.
Anthracnose Glomerella Enters wounds in ripe fruit. M45 spray at 10 day (21)
cingulata intervals.
Colletatrichum
gloeosporioides
Dieback Undetermined Attacks crown and leaves Cut back below rotting (24)
causing rot. stem.
Stem-end rot Ascochyta Affects young fruits causing Spray with maneb. (10)
caricae them to drop and on
mature fruits as black
circular spots.
Root rot Phytophthora Plants wilt and die. Set clean plants on (27)
parasitica,etc. well-drained land.
Passion Mosaic Virus Transmitted from cucumbers Avoid cucumbers near (25)
Fruit by aphids (Myzus persicae) plants.
Wilt Fusarium Plants wilt and die. Plant in clean soil. (20)
oxysporum var
passiflorae
Peach * Leaf rust Tranzscheba Rust-like spots on leaves. Suggest zmeb or (17)
discolor maneb spray.

Brown rot Monalinia Rotting of fruit

fructicola
Pepper, Foot rot Phytophthora Affects roots and crown. Grow grass between (11)
black palmivorum vines and prune lower
branches.

Rubber Anthracnose Glomerella Young leaves have dark spots Resistant varieties. (28)
cingulata with yellow border causing
them to drop.
South American Dothidella ulei Severe defoliation, (14)
leaf blight
Leaf spot Hclminthosporium Spotting on leaves causing (9)
heveae them to drop.
' Numbers refer to list on separate page.

189
 Table 10. COMMON WEEDS
Propa­
Scientific Common Type 2 gated Descriptive Notes Suggested Control
(English)' by*
Agropyron repens Quackgrass P SRC Spicading grass Frequent cultivation or
Monuron, atrazine

Alhagi camelorum Camel thorn P S Erect, thorny, legume Clean cultivation

deep rootstocks
Ameranthus spp. Pigweed A S Erect, leafy, rapid growing Clean cultivation or tri­
fluralin pre-emergence
treatment -

Brassica spp. Mustard A S Broad leaf, rapid growing Clean cultivation or 2, 4-D,
DNBP

Cardarta draba White top P S Eject, creeping roots Frequent cultivation

Cenchus spp. Sand bur A S Erect glass, spiny burs, Clean cultivation
Grass bur mostly in sandy soils
Centaurea repens Russian P SR Erect, creeping roots, Clean cultivation
knapweed purple flowers.
Chenopodium spp. Lamb's quarter A S Erect, gray foliage Clean cultivation

Cirsium arvense Canada thistle P SR Erect, creeping roots, prickly Frequent cultivation
leaves, rose-purple flowers.
Convolvulus Field bindweed P S,R Creeping vines Frequent cultivation
arvensis 2, 4-D spray

Cuscuta spp. Dodder A S Yellowish vine, parasitic Frequent cutting or CIPC,

DCPA

Cynodon dactylon Bermuda or P S,R,C Creeping stolons making Frequent cultivation or

devilgrass dense sod Dalapon spray, EPTC,
dichlobenil

Cyperus rotundus Nutsedge P SR Erect, quickgrowing Frequent cultivation or

summer fallow; dalapon,
vernolate

Digitariaspp. Crabgrass A S Creeping decumbent Clean cultivation or tri­

fluralin, amiben, diphenamid
5, DCPA

Echinochloa spp. Barnyardgrass S Erect, rapid growing Clean cultivation or NPA

spray, propanil, EPTC

Eleusine indica Goosegrass 8 Erect, rapid growing Clean cultivation or EPTC,

CIPC, DCPA, trifluralin

Euphorbiaesula Leafy spurge S,B. Erect, milky sap Frequent cultivation

Fumariaofficinalis Fumitory S Decumbent, smoky green, red Clean cultivation or CDEC

flowers, rapid growing
Lamium amplexicaule Henbit Low, rapid growing Clean cultivation or CDEC,
pebulate, DNBP

Malva spp. Mallow cheese Broadleafed, bushy Clean cultivation

weed S
Orobanche ramosa Broom rape Parasitic on roots, purple Hand pulling
flowers
Polygonum convol- Black bindweed Vines, heart-shaped leaves Clean cultivation or 2,
valus 4-D spray

140
 Table 10. COMMON WEEDS (Continued)
Propa-
Scientific Common Type2 gated Descriptive Notes Suggested Control
(English)' by.
Portulacaolcracea Puralane A S Decumbent fleshy stem Clean cultivation or CDEC,
CIPC
Setaria spp. Foxtail A S Grass with dense spikes Clean cultivation or amiben,
trifluralin
Sanchus asper Sow thistle P S Prickly leaves Clean cultivation or DNBP
spray
Sorghum halepense Johnsongrass P S,R Tall glass, Ted glumes Frequent cultivation or
dalapon
Striga asiatica Witchweed A S Root parasite on corn, Rotation
sorghum, etc.
Trianthema Horse pursiane A S Decumbent, broader leaf Disk before planting
portulacastrum than Portulaca
Tribulus Puncture vine A S Creeping, with spiny burs Clean cultivation
terrestris

Typha latifoha Cattail P S Rapid growing water plant Prevent seeding

Urtica spp. Nettles A S Cause intense itching when Clean cultivation or 2, 4-fD
touched
*Most weeds have different names in each language.
*A= Annual; P =Perennial
'S = Seeds; R = Roots; C = Cuttings

Table 11. SOME HERBICIDES USED ON VEGETABLE CROPS

COMMON NAME ACTIVE INGREDIENTS TRADE NAMES

Amiben 3-amino-2, 5-dichlorobenzoic acid Vegiben
Atrazine 2-chloro-4, ethylamino-6, isopropylamine-s­ Gesaprin
triazine Atrazine
CDAA 2-chloro-N, N-diallyl acetamide Randox
CDEC 2-chloroallyl diethyldithio-carbamate Vegadex
CIPC - Isopropyl N-3-chlorophenyl carbamate CIPC
Dalapon 2,4-dichloropropionic add Dowpon
DCPA Dimethyl 2, 3, 5, 6-tetrachloro-terepbthalate Dacthal
Dichlobenil 2, 6-dichlorobenzonitrile Casoron
Diphenamid N, N-dimethyl-2, 2-d, phenylacetamide Dymid
DNBP 4, 6-dinitro-O-sec-butyl phenol Premerge
EPTC Ethydi-N-dipropylthiocarbamate Eptam
Monuron 3- (pi-chlorophenyl)-1, I dimethylurea. Karmex-W
NPA N-1 naphthylphthalamic add Alanap 3
Pebulate N-propyl N=ethyl N-butylthiocarbamate Tillam (R-2061)
Pkcloram 4-amino-8, 5, 6-trichloropicolinic Tordon
Propanil Stam F--34
Stoddard Solvent Mixed hydrocarbons Varsol,' Sovarsol
Trifluralin alpha, alpha, alpha-trifluoro-2, 6 Treflan
dinitro-N-N-dipropyl-p-tolvidine
Vernolate N-propyl-di-N-propylthiolcarbamate Verna

141
 Table 12. HERBICIDES FOR WEED CONTROL IN VEGETABLES

CROP HERBICIDES'
TIME TO APPLY COMMENT

Asparagus (seed bed) DPBP

2 days before asparagus seedlings
Weeds must be visible for DNBP action.
emerge.

Asparagus (mature)
Monuron
Before and after cutting.
Agitate well during application.
Beans
DNBP Just before emergence,
Controls only annual weeds between
65-80o F Incorporate in soil immedi­
ately after application.
Lima bean
EPTC Just before emergence.

Soy bean
Trifluralin Pre-emergence.

Beet Stoddard Solvent

One day before emergence. Controls annual weeds only.
60-80 gal. per

acre.

CIPC
At seeding time.
Controls annual weeds only.
CDEC
Apply immediately after seeding.
1/2 to I inch of lain or irrigation is
needed within 2 days after application.
Cabbage, Broccoli,
CDEC Apply immediately after seeding. 1/2 to I inch of rain or irrigation is
Cauliflower
needed within 2 days after application.
Carrot, Parsley
Stoddard Solvent When carrots have 2 to 4 true
Controls only annual weeds less than 2
75 gal. per acre. leaves.
inches high and when temperature is
below 80* F.
Cassava Amriben At planting time. Irrigation or rain is needed 10-14 days
after application.
Celery Stoddard Solvent
When plants have 2 true leaves. See Carrot.
75-100 gals. per

acre.

CDEC Post-transplant. See Beet.

Corn, Sweet Atrazine After planting, before For annual weeds and nutsedge.

emergence. Heavier application for quack grass

2, 4-D
Post-emergence. Do not spray in leaf whorl.

Dasheen or Taro Amiben

Pre-emergence. See Cassava.

Muskmelon, Cucum. NPA granular

Post-emergence. For annual weeds.

ber, Watermelon DCPA

4-6 weeks after seeding.
Onion CIPC
After emergence or after trans­ For annuals

planting.
DCPA Pre-emergence or after clean
cultivation.
Pea DNBP When plants are 4 to 8 inches
high.
Trifluralin
Pre-emergence. See Bean.

Pigeon Pea Amiaben

Pre-emergence, See Cassava.

Potato DNBP
2 weeks after planting or before
emergence.
Dalapon 2 weeks after planting or before For annual grasses.

emergence.
Pumpkin, Squash DNBP
Pre-emergence. See Bean.

Spinach CDEC
Immediately after planting.
1 inch rain or irrigation needed within

2 days.

Sweet Potato Amiben granular After transplanting before weeds

May control weeds for 2 months.

emerge.

Tomato (direct CDEC See Spinach.

See Spinach.

seeded)
Tomato (transplanted) Pebulate Incorporate in soil within
Can transplant immediately after

minutes after application.

application.

Yam Aniben See Cassava.

See Cassava.

'Part of tlns information was obtained from "1963 VegtabIe Production Recommendations" by P A. Minges, ct. al., New York State College
of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y.

'142

 Chapter 6

INSECT CONTROL

Insect control is a continuous operation in the a large part of the cost in countries far from the
Tropics as there is no cold season to reduce the factory sources.
population of insects. Parasites and predators tend Whatever material is used, it must contain the
to limit the insects but there is always danger of an correct amount of the active ingredient. Spray pro­
outbreak at any time. grams should be started early before plants show
Some of the more common insecticides are listed in severe damage. To determine this, it is necessary to
Table 13. Most.of the common insecticides are made inspect the crop frequently during the growing
up into wettable powders which contain only a season in order to detect the first appearance of the
stated percentage of the toxicant. They also are insects. Some insects that are difficult to detect re­
made into dusts diluted to lower percentages suit­ quire sprays at fixed times. For example, cutworms
able for direct application to the crop. Generally are so general in some tropical areas that soil treat­
it is cheaper to buy the insecticide with the highest ment before planting is essential fot success.
percent of the active ingredient because freight is It is possible to spray too often. Sprays may de-

Table 12. COMMON INSECTICIDES

Common Name Formulation Amount to Mix per Gallon of Spray
(Quality per U.S. gallon')
Carbaryl (Sevin)
50 WP 2 tbsp. 10 gms.
Chlordane
40 WP 1.5 tbsp. 14 gins.
DDT
50 WP 2 tbsp. 10 gins.
25 EC 1 tbsp.
Dieldrn
50 WP 1.5 tbsp. 14 gins.
Dicofol (Kelthane)
18.5 EC 1 tsp.
18.5 WP 3 tsp. 18 gins.
Malathion 25 WP 2 tsp. 14 gins.
Malathion 57 EC 2 tsp.
Methoxychlor 50 WP 2 tbsp. 14 gins.
Toxaphene 40 WP 3 tbsp. 28 gins.

Poison bait spray for fruit flies:

Dissolve 1 lb. protein hydrolysate in 3 gal. water. Stir and add 2 lbs 25% ialathion wettable powder. Use coarse spray
in scattered droplets

' One gallon is usually sufficient for 500 square feet. These are only suggested rates of application.
Legend: WPwettable powder. tbsp. level tablespoon.
EC =emulsifiable concentrate. tsp. =level teaspoon.

Table 14. INSECTICIDE DILUTION TABLE stroy the beneficial insects that regulate populations
of aphids or mites and actually cause them to in­
QUANTITY QUANTITY OF WETTABLE POWDER
OF WATER INSECTICIDES crease more rapidly. It is necessary to use good
judgment in the spray program. When hand spray­
100 1 lb. 2 lb. 3 lb. 4 lb. 5 lb.
ing is done, "spot" spraying will save labor and
50 8 oz. 16 oz. 1 1/2 lb 2 lb. 2 1/2 lb
5 0.8 oz. 1.6 oz. 2.4 oz. 3.2 oz. 4 oz. reduce the damage to beneficial insects. Some in­
I 5 gms. 10 gins. 14 gins. 18 gins. 23 gins. sects appear on only a few plants at first and

143
 Table 15. FACTORS FOR CONVERSION spraying the infested plants sometimes will prevent
OF ACTIVE INGREDIENT TO TOTAL further spread.

QUALITY OF INSECTICIDE
Simple methods of control could be used in small
PER CENT ACTIVE FACTOR FOR gardens where sprays are not available. Destroying
INGREDIENT CONVERSION insects by hand is sometimes cheaper and less
20 5.0 trouble than obtaining the proper spray and
25 40
40 sprayer. Melon plants severely affected by aphids
2.5
50 20 can be destroyed by burying in the ground. Larger
75 1.3 insects can be collected and destroyed. Hornworms
on tomatoes are destroyed easily by hand when they
Table 16. APPROXIMATE QUANTITIES occur in small numbers
OF INSECTICIDES TO WEIGH ONE OUNCE Some insects occur on nearly all crops but the
-INSECTICIDE NO. OF LEVEL same species do not attack all crops. Aphids are
TABLESPOONS
common on practically all crops in the Tropics.
1. Chlordane wettable powder 3
Although the species differ, the same control meth­
2. DDT wettable powder 6
3. Malathion wettable powder 4 ods usually are effective for all. Ants, leafhoppers
4. Methoxychlor wettable and spider mites attack a wide range of crops. For
powder 4 convenient reference they are lited with each crop
5. Sevin wettable powder 6
6. Toxaphene wettable in Tables 17 and 18.
powder 3

Table 17. SUGGESTED INSECT CONTROL FOR FRUITS

INSECT NAME REFER-

CROP DAMAGE CONTROL'
COMMON SCIENTIFIC ENCES

Acerola Weevil Anthonomus

Small larva feeds in fruits Malathion spray.
unipustulatus

Apple Aphids Aphis &pp. Feed on young growth causing Malathion spray. 15
curling of leaves.
Codling moth Laspeyresia Young woims enter calyc or Spray DDT at blossom 15
pomonella where fluits touch. drop Carbaryl spray
later at 3 week inter­
vals
Pear leaf Eriophyes Pyr. Cause russetting and deformed Malathion spray. 15
blister mite fruits.
Quetta borer Aeolesthes sarta Bore into trunk. Pruning and hand 10
picking.
San Jose Aspidiotus Grayish scales suck juices and Malathion spray during 15
scale perniciosus kill twigs and limbs. growing season
Avocado Mites Oligonychws sp. Suck juices and cause Dicofol spray. 13
browning of the leaf.
Scale Melanaspis Occur on twigs and fruit. Malathion spray. 1s
aliena

Seed weevil Conotrachelusy Larvae feed in or near the Destroy or bury in­ 13
perseae seed. fected fruits.
Banana Root weevil Cosmopolites Larvae feed in the corm. Spray suckers with Car­ 13
sordidus baryl before planting.
Destroy old stem by
chopping in pieces.

144
 Table 17. SUGGESTED INSECT CONTROL FOR FRUITS (Continued)
INSECT NAME
CROP DAMAGE CONTROL' REFER-
COMMON SCIENTIFIC ENCES
Banana Scab moth Nacoleia
Larvae feed on female flowers Spray with Carbaryl. 13
(Continued) octasema
and young fruits.
Stem borer Afetanasius
Larvae feed in stems. See Root Weevil above. 13
hemipterus

sericeus

Cacao Borer Xyleborus sp.

Larvae bore into trunk. Spray Dieldrin on
13
etc.
trunks.

Leaf-cutting Atta spp. Defoliate plants. Mirex 460 bait. Dieldrin 5

ants dust in nests.
Pod borer Acdrocercops
Bore into fruits. Carbaryl spray, 13
cramerella etc.

Citrus Aphids Toxoptera Feed on young leaves; trans­ Malathion spray.

auranil mit tristeza virus.
Leaf-cutting Alta spp. Defoliate trees. Dieldrin or Chlordane.
ants
Fruit flies Anastrepha spp., Maggots enter fruits causing Malathion bait spray.
Ceratitis decay.
capitata
Orange dog Papilio spp. Gray larvae with offensive Hand pick or spray
odor on young leaves. with Carbaryl.
California Aonidiella Cover leaves, branches and Usually controlled by
red scale aurantii fruits fungus parasites in
the Tropics. Can use
Malathion spray if
needed.
Spider mite Tetranychus spp. Suck juices from leaves Sulfur or Dicofol spray.
turning them a gray color.
Coconut Moth Artona Larvae feed on leaves; heavy Suggest Carbaryl spray. 11
catoxantha damage at times in Fiji.
Palm weevils Ithynchophorus, Larvae tunnel into heart of Dieldrin spray. 11
spp. palm and kill the plant.
Scale Aspidiotus Affects leaves. Malathion spray. 11
destructor
Coffee Leaf-cutting Alta spp. Defoliate plants Dieldrin or Mirex 450 5
ants bait. Chlordane dust.
Bean borer Hypothenemus Attack beans in Africa and Clean up infested fruits 9
(Stephanoderes) Biazil. Spray with Dieldrin.
hampei
Green Scale Coccus viridis Attacks leaves along veins. Malathion spray. I3
Date Scale Partatoriaspp. Attack leaves near trunk. Malathion spray.
Wasps Polisles spp. Adults feed on ripe or nearly Dust nests with Chlor­ 7
etc. ripe fruits. dane; trap with fresh
liver bait.
Fig Fruit beetle Cotinis mutabtlls Adults feed on ripe or nearly Clean up old straw 4
ripe fruits. stacks or manure
piles; hand pick;
spray with Carbaryl.

145
 Table 17. SUGGESTED INSECT CONTROL FOR FRUITS (Continued)
INSECT NAME
CROP DAMAGE CONTROL1 REFER-
COMMON SCIENTIFIC ENCES
Grape Leafhopper Empoosca Suck juices causing leaves to Malathion or DDT spray
decipiens etc. turn gray. soon after grape bloom.
Berry moth Paralobesia Destroys young fruit in Carbaryl spray at petal
viteana cluster. fall and later.
Phylloxera. Phylloxera sp. Attack roots causing decline Resistant rootstocks.
and death of vines.
Wasps Polistes spp. Feed on ripe fruit. See Date. 7
etc.
Grapefruit See Citrus.
Guava Aphids See Apple.
Fruit flies Anastrepha Maggots attack fruit. Malathion bait spray. 21
striata,
Dacus spp.
Green Scale Coccus viridis Occur on bianches. Malathion spray.
Lemon See Citrus.

Lime See Citrus.

Lychee Fruit flies Ceratitis Maggots attack fruits causing Malathion bait spray. 21
capilata etc. decay.
Mandarin See Citrus.

Mango Fruit flies Anastrepha spp. Maggots feed on ripe or Malathion bait spray. 21
etc. nealy ripe fruits. Clean up and bury
infested fruit.
Treehopper Aconophora Feed on leaves. Carbaryl spray. 1
pugionata

Scale Aulacaspis Occurs on branches esp. in Malathion spray.

tubercularis India.

Olive Fruit fly Dacus oleae Very destructive to fruits Malathion bait spray. 21
Scale Pailatoriaspp Occurs on branches. Caibaryl splay.

Oxange See Citrus.

Papaya Gicen peach Myzus persicac Carries mosaic virus. Malathion spray. Do 14
aphid not plant cucumbers
or melons near
papaya.
Fruit flies Tototrypana Larvae feed in interior. Destroy or bury all 1
curmicauda dropped fruits.
Malathion bait spray.
Scale Various Leaves and young fruit. Malathion spray. I
Whiteflies Tialcurodes Feed on leaves. Carbaryl spray.
spp. 22
Passion Aphids See Papaya. 16
fruit
Fruit flies See Papaya. 16
Mites Several Feed on foliage. Dicofol. 16

146
 Table 17. SUGGESTED INSECT CONTROL FOR FRUITS (Continued)
INSECT NAME
CROP DAMAGE REFER-
CONTROL'
COMMON SCIENTIFIC ENCES
Peach Oriental Grapholithea Laivae feed in fruits. Carbaryl or DDT 20
fruit moth molesta spray.
San Jose Aspidiotus Gray scale covers branches. Malathion spray. 20
scale pernictosus
Leafhopper Homalodisca Transmits phony peach Malathion or Carbaryl 20
insolita disease. sprays.
Peach tree Sanninoidea Larvae bore in trunk near soil Spray trunk with DDT 20
borer exitiosa level 4 times at 4 week in­
tervals. Begin Aug. 1 in
northern hemisphere.

Pineapple Mealybug Dysmacoccus Feeds at base of fruit; trans- Malathion spray. 1

brevipes mits wilt.

Scale Diaspis bromebae Feeds on leaves. Malathion spray. 2

Plums Plum Conotrachelas Grubs bore into fruits causing Dieldrin every 10 days.
curcullo nenuphar them to drop. Begin at petal fall.
Mites Tetranychus spp. Suck juice from leaves and Dicofol spray.
cause them to fall.

Pomegran- Fruitworn Euzophera Larvae enter young fruit and Suggest early spray 10
ate puncaella cause rotting. with Carbaryl.
Sapodilla Fruit flies Anastrepha Maggots feed in fruits and Malathion bait spray. 21
serpentmna etc. cause decay.

Strawberry Mites Various Suck juice from leaves. Form Dicofol spray. 3
light webbing.
White grubs Phyllophaga Grubs feed on Toots and cause Dieldrin, 3 lbs. per acre 3,8
spp. plants to wilt. active ingredient on
soil before planting.
Work in well.
Tangelo See Citrus.

Tangerine See Citrus.

Tea Mites See Strawberry 18
ISee Table 13 for formulas
I
1
Table 18. SUGGESTED INSECT CONTROL FOR VEGETABLES
CROP INSECT DESCRIPTION CONTROL CAUTION
Asparagus Asparagus Adult: metallic blue to black, Spray with 57% Do not apply within
beetle orange to yellow 'markings Malathion. I day before harvest.
See Photo Fig. 90. 1/4" long.
Cutworm See Peas. Bait-3% toxaphene.
Beans Bean aphid Adult and young. Tiny black Malathion spray Do not apply within
insect like cabbage aphid. I day before harvest.
Bean aphids cluster on stems
and under leaves.
Bean leaf Adult- Reddish to yellowish, 50% wettable DDT Do not apply within 7
beetle black spots on back 1/4" days before harvest
See Photo Fig. 91. long. for DDT.

147
 Table 18. SUGGESTED INSECT CONTROL FOR VEGETABLES (Continued)

CROP INSECT DESCRIPTION CONTROL CAUTION

Beans Corn earworm Green, brown or pink, light 50% wettable Meth­ Do not apply within
(Continued) See Photo Fig. 101. stripes along sides and on oxychlor or 50% WP 3 days before har­
back, 1 3/4" long. Sevin vest.

Leafhoppers Adult: Greenwedge shaped, Spray with Malathion. Do not apply within
1/8" long. They fly quickly Spray with Sevin, I day before harvest.
when disturbed.

Lima bean pod Pink, pale yellow head, 5/8" Same as for bean leaf
borer long, wriggles violently beetle.
See Photo Fig. 108. when disturbed.

Mexican bean Adult: copper colored, oval, Spray with Malathion. Do not apply within
beetle 1/4" long, 16 black spots on Spray with5lb. of I day before harvest.
back Larva: orange to yel­ active Carbaryl per
low, spiny, 1/3" long, acre.

Spotted cucumber Yellowish green, 12 black Same as for bean Do not apply within
beetle spots on back, 1/4" long. leaf beetle. 7 days before har­
See Photo Ftg. 121. vest.

Beet Beet webworm Yellow to green, a black 50% Wettable DDT or Do not eat beet
See Photo Fig. 92. stripe and numerous black Carbaryl. tops if sprayed
spots on back, 1-1/4" long with DDT.

Blister beetle Gray, black or striped, Same as for beet

See Photo Fig. 93. slender 1/2 to 3/4" long. webworm.

Cutworms See Peas.

Cabbage Cabbage, Adult and young: tiny green, Remove and destroy Do not apply
Broccoli aphid blue soft bodied covered heavily damaged Malathion within
and See Photo Fig. 91, with a fine whitish wax. plants early in the I day of harvest.
Cauliflower Aphids cluster on leaves. season. Apply Mala­
thion spray.

Cabbage Pale-green measuring Early application: 40% Toxaphene should

looper worm, light stripes down Wettable powder Tox­ be used before for­
See Photo Fig. 95. back 1-1/2" long. Doubles aphene. Late appli­ mation of parts of
up when it crawls. cation: Malathion. plants to be eaten;
after this stage
Malathion should
be used.

Cabbage web­ Dull grayish yellow, fat, Apply Malathion Do not apply within
worm 5 brownish-purple stripes spray. 1 day before har­
down back, 1/2" long vest.

Diamond back Larva: light green slender, Same as for Cabbage

moth 1/3" long. It wriggles rapidly looper.
when disturbed and often drops
from the plant and hangs by a
silken thread.

Harlequin Adult and young: Black bril­ Early application: Do not apply DDT
bug liantly colored with red and DDT spray. after formation of
See Photo Fig. 105. yellow, shield shaped, 3/4", the part to be
long. eaten.

Cabbage Imported Velvety green, 1 1/4" long. Same as for cabbage Do not apply within
cabbageworm looper. 1 day before har­
vest.

148
 Table 18. SUGGESTED INSECT CONTROL FOR VEGETABLES (Continued)

CROP INSECT DESCRIPTION CONTROL CAUTION

Cabbage Root Yellowish white, legless 1/4" Apply Chlordane spray Do not apply
(Continued) maggots to 1/" long. when first two leaves Chlordane to plants
appear. Repeat after past seedling stage.
thinning or trans­
planting. Add 2 level
tsp. of 40% chlordane
to each gal. of trans­
planting water. Use
3/4 cup per plant.
Carrot Celeryworm, Green, banded with black and Remove caterpillars by
yellow markings, 2" long. hand.
Carrot Larva: yellowish, white, leg­ Apply Chlordane to
rust fly less, 1/8" long. soil surface and
See Photo Fig. 96. work in thoroughly
before planting.
Aster Adult and young: Light Apply 50% wettable Do not use treated
leafhopper greenish yellow, slender, DDT as spray or tops for feed or
wedge shaped, very active, Carbaryl. food.
several pairs of tiny black
dots on face, 1/8" long.
Celery Celery leaf Greenish, up to 3/4" long. Apply 50% wettable Do not apply DDT
tier DDT as spray. after the bunch be­
See Photo Fig. 97. gins to form or the
stalk is half grown,
whichever is earlier.
Cucumber - Aphids See Muskmelon.
Pickleworm Yellowish white, brownish Apply Carbaryl Do not apply within
head, 3/4" long. Dark spots (Sevin), I day before har­
on young worm. vest.
Beetles Several species; all feed on Carbaryl or Do not apply insec­
(Drabrotica spp.) leaves and young seedlings. Methoxychlor. ticides within one
See Photo Fig. 121 day before harvest.
Eggplant Aphids Adults and young are tiny, Apply Malathion Do not apply Mala­
green to black and soft bodied, spray. thion to eggplant
cluster on underside of leaves. within 3 days before
harvest.
Colorado potato Adult: yellow, black-striped Apply 50% Wettable Do not apply DDT to
beetle 3/8" long Larva- brick-red DDT spray. eggplant within 5 days
See Photo Fig 98. humpbacked, S/5" long. before harvest.

Eggplant Adult- Grayish to light brown; Apply Malathion Do not apply Mala.
lace bug flat, lacelike wings, 1/16" long. spray. thion to eggplant
See Photo Fig. 102. Nymph: yellowish, louselike, within 3 days be­
spiny, up to 1/10" long. fore harvest.

Flea beetles Black, brown or striped Apply DDT spray Apply DDT before
See Photo Fig,114, jumping beetles, about 1/16" early in season and formation of the
long. Methoxychlor later. fruits and after for­
mation of the fruits.
Use Methoxycilor.
Hoinworm Green, diagonal lines on Handpick worms. Ap­ Do not apply TDE to
See Photo Fig. 106. sides, horn on rear end, ply 50% TDE wettable eggplant within I day
up to 4" long. powder as a spray. before harvest.
Whitefly Small white flies on leaves, Use Malathion spray. See Aphids.

149
 Table 18. SUGGESTED INSECT CONTROL FOR VEGETABLES (Continued)
CROP INSECT DESCRIPTION CONTROL CAUTION

Lettuce Aphids See Muskmelon.

Wireworms Yellow to white; dark heads Apply 3/4 cup of 40% Do not apply within
See Photo Fig. 130. and tails; 1/2-1-1/2 in. Chlordane in 2-1/2 gal. 1 year before plant­
long. of water to 1,000 sq. ing carrots or
ft. of soil. Work in phrsmzps.
soil to 6" or 8".
Cabbage
Pale-green measuring worm, Spray with 40% Toxa­ Same as for aphids.
looper
light strips down back, 1-1/2" phene before thinning
See Photo Fig. 95. long, doubles up when it and with Malathion
crawls. after thinning.
Cutworms See Peas.
Fall armyworm Light green to black, striped Apply 50% wettable
See Photo Fig. 104. white inverted Y on front of DDT to grasses and
head, 1/3" long. weeds near garden.
Aster
Adult and young. Light Apply Malathion sprays Same as for aphids.
leafhopper
greenish yellow, slender when plants are 1/2"
wedge shaped, very active, high and repeat every
up to 1/8"1 long. week.
Muskmelon Aphids Feed on underside and curl Spray with Malathion. Do not treat within
and the leaf. I day before harvest.
Cantaloupe
Picklewornm Yellowish white, brownish Spray with Carbaryl Do not treat within I
head, 8/4" long. at weekly intervals. day before harvest.

Spider mite Adult and young. Tiny Spray with Malathion Do not treat within
See Photo Fig. 120. (barely visible to naked eye), or Dicofol. 2 days before
red or greenish red. On harvest.
underside of leaves.

Striped Adult: yellow to black, 3 black Spray with Malathion Same as for Pickle­
cucumber stripes down back 1/5" long. or use Methoxychlor, worm,
beetle Larva: white, slender,
See Photo Fig. 125. brownish at ends, 1/8" long.

Okra Aphids See Eggplant.

Corn
Green, brown or pink, Apply Carbaryl dust Do not apply Car­
earworm
1-8/4" long. or spray. baryl within 1 day
See Photo Fig. 101. of harvest.

Bollworms Spiny small gray caterpillar Carbaryl. See Earworm.

in pods.

Stink bug Adult: brown, green or black, 2 lbs. active See Earworm,
See Photo Fig 119. with or without markings, Carbaryl per acre.
shield shaped 5/8" long and
1/8" wide. Stink bugs dis­
charge a foul odor.

Onion Onion maggot White root maggot, legless Apply Malathion Do not apply Mala­
1/3" long. Found in bulbs. spray. thion within 3 days
before harvest.

Cutworms See Peas.

Onion thrips Adult: yellow or brownish, Same as for Onion Same as for Onion
See Photo Fig. 111. winged, active, 1/25" long. maggot. maggot.
Larva; white, wingless.

150
 Table 18. SUGGESTED INSECT CONTROL FOR VEGETABLES (Continued)

CROP INSECT DESCRIPTION CONTROL CAUTION

Pea Cotypea
Adult: Black humpbacked Spray with Toxa­ Do not apply Toxa­
(Blackeye) curculio
snout beetle, 1/4" long. phene. phene within 7 days
cowpea See Photo Fig.99 before harvest.
Stink bug Suck pods and cause dark See Okra. See Okra.
See Photo Fig. 119. seed.
Peas Aphids See Eggplant.
(Garden)
Cutworms Cutworms are dull gray, Apply Toxaphene dust Do not apply Toxa­
See Photo Fig. 100. brown or black and may be or spray to soil sur­ phene to foliage of
striped or spotted. They are face in the late after­ peas.
stout, soft bodied and noon.
smooth, 1-114" long.
Lima-bean
See Beans.
pod borer

Pea weevil Adult; Brownish, white black Apply Malathion spray

See Photo Fig. 112. and grayish markings, 1/5" while adults are within
long. the blossoms.
Root
Several species (including See Onion maggot
maggots
seed corn and cabbage mag­
gots) yellowish white, leg.
less 1/4 to 1/3" long.
Pepper Aphids See Eggplant.
Cutworms; See Peas.
Flea beetles See Eggplant.
Hornworms Green, diagonal lines on Handpick worms. Not not apply TDE
See Photo Fig. 106. sides, prominent horn on Spray with 50% wet­ within I day be­
rear end. 4" long. table TDE powder. fore harvest.
Pepper
Adult: Black snout beetle, Apply Toxaphene or Do not apply DDT
weevil
gray or yellow markings DDT every week to within 5 days be­
See Photo Fig. 113. 1/8" long. Snout is half 10 days. fore harvest.
the length of the body.
Potato Aphids See Eggplant.
Colorado potato Adult: yellow, black striped, Spray with 50% wet­
beetle 3/8" long. Larva: brick red, table Carbaryl.
See Photo Fig. 98 humpbacked, 3/5" long.
Flea beetles See Eggplant. 1 lb. active Carbaryl
See Photo Fig. 114. per acre.

Leafhoppers Adult: Green, wedge shaped, Spray with DDT or

See Photo Fig. 115. up to 1/8" long. They fly Methoxychlor or
quickly when disturbed. Malathion.

Millipedes Brown or grayish, wormlike, Spray with DDT. Do not apply on

See Photo Fig. 109. hard-shelled, many pairs of tubers.
legs, I to 11/4" long.
Mole cricket Adults and nymphs: Light Spray S/4 cup of 40%
See Photo Fig. 110. brown, large, beady eyes, wettable Chlordane on
short, 1 1/2" long. 1,000 sq. ft. of soil
and mix in upper 6"
or apply ready mixed
3% Chlordane bait. Use
1 lb. of bait for 1,000
sq. ft. Apply in late
afternoon after a rain.

151
 Table 18. SUGGESTED INSECT CONTROL FOR VEGETABLES (Continued)
CROP INSECT DESCRIPTION CONTROL CAUTION
Potato Potato
Pinkish-white, brown head, Spray with DDT, Do not expose
(Comn.) tuberworm
up to 1/2" long. Keep out weeds. tubers to in­
See Photo Fig. 116. fested foilage
after digging.
Sowbugs Dark-gray, oval, flattened Spray soil with 50% Do not apply on
body, 7 pairs of legs, 112" wettable DDT. tubers.
long.
White­ Adult: Dark gray snout Apply 1/4 lb. of DDT
fringed
beetles, light band along or 1/8 lb. of Chlordane
beetles
sides of body 1/2" long. per 1,000 sq. ft. of
See Photo Fig. 128. soil surface before
planting. Work into
top 8" of soil. Mix
1/2 lb. of 50% DDT or
1/4 1". of 50% Chlor­
dane in 2 1/2 gal. of
water.
Potato White grubs White or light yellow, hard Treat surface of soil Do not apply exces­
See Photo Fig. 129. brown heads, curved 1/2 to with 114 lb. of Chlor­ sive amounts of
1 1/2" long. dane per 1,000 sq. ft. Chlordane to the
Mix 1/2 lb. of 50% soil.
Chlordane in 2 1/2 gal.
of water.
Wireworms See Lettuce.
Radish Root
Yellowish white, legless Spray with Chlordane Do not apply to
maggots
1/4 to 1/3" long. when first leaves plants past the
appear and repeat seedling stage.
shortly after thinning.
Squash
Aphids See Eggplant.
and

Cutworms See Peas.

Pumpkin
Pickleworm See Cucumber.
Spider mites See Muskmelon.
Squash bug Adult: brownish, flatback Handpick adults and
See Photo Fig. 122. stink bug, 5/8" long. eggs Trap bugs un­
der boards placed on
soil. Try Malathion
or Carbaryl spray.
Squash vine Larva; white, up to 1" long. Partial control with
borer Carbaryl spray. Start
See Photo Fig. 123. application when run­
ners develop, repeat
once a week.
Cucumber See Cucumbers.
beetles
See Photo Figs. 121, 125.
Sweet Corn Corn earworm Green brown or pink, light Spray with DDT early Do not feed DDT
See Photo Fig. 101. stripes along sides and on in the season. Use 2 treated foliage to
back, 1-3/4" long. tsp. of 25% DDT emul­ animals.
sifiable concentrate in
I gal. of water. Spray
whole plant. Later
spray silk every 2 days.
Carbaryl can be used.

152
 Table 18. SUGGESTED INSECT CONTROL FOR VEGETABLES (Continued)
CROP INSECT DESCRIPTION CONTROL CAUTION
Sweet Corn sap
Adults. Usually black, 3/16" Apply Malathion spray
Corn beetles
long Larva: white or cream after silks appear and
(Cont.) colored. 1/4" long. repeat 10 days later.
Cutworms
See Peas.
Leafhopper
Transmits corn stunt. Carbaryl (Sevin).
(Dalbulusmaidis)
Lesser cornstalk
Enters young stalks soon Rotate crops; avoid
borer
after emergence and weedy areas. Spray or
See Photo's Fig. 10 causes them to wilt and dust with Dieldrin on
and 124. die, soil when beans have
2 true leaves.
Root maggots See Radish.
White grubs See Potatoes.
Wireworms See Lettuce.
Sweet Flea beetles See Eggplant.
Potato
Sweet potato
Adult, Reddish snout beetle, Apply 2 to 2-1/2% Dield­ Do not apply Dield­
weevil
shiny, ant-like, slender­ rin 4ust along the row rn within 21 days
See Photo Fig. 126. bodied, bluish black head, in a strip 6 to 8" wide. before harvest.
114" long. Apply soon as roots be­
gin to enlarge and re­
peat 2 weeks later.

Wireworms See Lettuce.

Tomato Aphids See Eggplant.
Blister
Gray, black or striped, Spray with Do not apply within
beetles
slender, 1/2 to 3/4" long. Methoxychlor. I day before harvest.
Colorado
See Potato. Apply DDT spray. Do not apply within
potato
5 days before har­
beetle
vest.
Cutworms See Peas.
Flea beetles See Eggplant.
Hornworms Green, diagonal lines on Handpick worms. Do not apply Toxa­
See Photo Fig. 106. sides, prominent horn on Spray with Toxaphene. phene within 3 days
rear end, 4", long. before harvest.
Spider mites See Muskmelons.
Stalk borer Slender, 1 1/4" long, young Remove and destroy
See Photo Fig. 124. borer, creamy white, dark weeds. Avoid plant­
purple band around body. ing in weedy or sod
Several brown or purple areas.
stripes running lengthwise
down the body.
Stink bugs See Okra.

Tomato fruit­ Green, brown or pink, light Apply 50% wettable Do not apply DDT
worm stripes along sides and on DDT or Carbaryl 5 days before
back, 1 3/4" long. spray. harvest.
Tomato russet
Can be seen with a 20 X mag­ Spray with 40% wet­ Use 3 tablespoons
mite
nification hand lens. White table sulfur when per gallon of water.
and pear shaped. fruits set and repeat High concentrations
every 2 weeks. may injure plants.

158
 Table 18. SUGGESTED INSECT CONTROL FOR VEGETABLES (Continued)
CROP INSECT DESCRIPTION CONTROL CAUTION

Watermelon Cucumber beetles See Cucumber.

See Photo Fig.121,125.

Aphids Causes leaves to curl and Spot spray with

deform. Malathion Destroy

infested plants.

Cutwouns See Peas.

Pickleworms See Cucumber.
I Part of the information in this table was obtained from U.S.D.A. Farmers' Bul. 46. "Insects and Diseases of Vegetables in the Home Garden
(1963" and Agriculture Handbook No 120, "Insecticide Recommendations of the Entomology Research Division for the Control of Insects attack.
mngCrops and Livestock for 1963 " Insect control recommendations always are changing due to research work and changing regulatons of the
Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act. The above mentioned publications usually are revised each year and the most up-to-date publications should
be requested from the United States Department of Agriculture.

PRECAUTIONS Do not apply insecticides to plants during hours

when honey bees and other pollinating insects are
Insecticides used improperly can be injurious to visiting them.
man and animals. Use them only when needed and Have empty insecticide containers buried at a
handle them with care. Follow the directions and sanitary land-fill dump, or crush and bury them at
heed all precautions on the labels. least 18 inches deep in a level, isolated place where
Keep insecticides in closed, well-labeled contain­ they will not contaminate water supplies. If you
ers in a dry place. Store them where they will not have trash-collection service, thoroughly wrap small
contaminate food or feed, and where children and containers in several layers of newspaper and place
animals cannot reach them. Promptly dispose of them in the trash can.
empty insecticide containers; do not use for any Excellent references to have available are "Agri­
other purpose. culture Handbook No. 321, 1967" and "Safe Use of
When handling an insecticide, wear clean, dry Agricultural and Household Pesticides" available
clothing. from Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Depart­
Avoid repeated or prolonged contact of insecti­ ment of Agriculture,
cide with your skin.
Wear protective clothing and equipment if speci­
fled on the container label. Avoid prolonged in­ GENERAL (Mixing rates and fruit and
halation of insecticide dusts or mists. vegetable controls)
Avoid spilling an insecticide concentrate on your
mouth. If you spill any on your skin or clothing, Mixing rates given on the commercial packages
remove contaminated clothing immediately and seldom include the amounts to mix small quantities.
wash the skin thoroughly with soap and water. In Table 14 will be found the amou nts calculated
Launder the clothing before wearing it again. from the rate per 100 gallons usually given. Table
After handling an insecticide, do not eat, drink, 15 gives factors for conversion to stated percentages.
or smoke until you have washed your hands and For example, if the percent of active ingredient is
face. Wash any exposed skin immediately after ap­ one, 2 lbs. of a 50% wettable powder will be needed
plying an insecticide. or 4 lbs. of a 25% wettable powder concentrate.
Avoid drift of insecticide to nearby wildlife habi­ Table 16 gives a guide for measuring small amounts
tats, bee yards, crops, or livestock. Do not apply in level tablespoons.
insecticides under conditions favoring drift from the Table 17 is a suggested list of controls for fruit
area to be treated. insects. This is not complete but an attempt has
Many insecticides are highly toxic to fish and been made to include the common insects that might
aquatic animals. Keep insecticides out of all water be encountered. The species that occur in the
sources such as ponds, streams, and wells. Do not United States have been checked with Department of
clean spraying equipment or dump excess spray ma­ Agriculture specialists while those from tropical
terial near such water. areas are taken from available foreign publications.

154
 The list of controls for vegetable insects (Table 21. Steiner, L.W., et al. 1958. Fruit fly control with poisoned I
18) is more complete since many of these crops are bait sprays in Hawaii. U.S. Dept. Agr. ARS 33-3.
planted also in temperate climates. Two excellent 22. Wolfenbarger, D.O. 1962. Biology and control of
arthropod pests of subtropical fruits. Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta.
references for those that occur in the United States An. Rpt. 1961-62: 33-334.
are "Home and Garden Bulletin 46" authored by
L. R. Reed and S. P. Doolittle, 1963; and "Insects
and Diseases of Vegetables in the Home Garden"
U.S. Dept. Agr. 48 pp.

References for Fruit Insect Table

4000"-, rMMOM/
1. Berry, PA. 1960. Entomologia economica de El Salvador.
Min. Agr. y Gan. Bol. Tec. 24.
'04
2. Brimblecombe. A.R. 1955. Pineapple scale investigations.
Qld. Jour. Agr. Sci. 12 (3): 81-94.
3. Campbell, R.E. and E. A. Taylor. 1965. Strawberry in­
sects and how to control them. US. Dept. Agr. F. B.
40
2184 (rev.)
4. Campbell, W.V., et al 1966. Evaluation of some organic
phosphates and carbamate insecticides against third­
instar green June beetle larvae. Jour. Econ. Entom.
59 (3): 516-617.
5. Diaz Lopez, RE. 1966. Resultados preliminares con el Figure 90. Asparagus Beetle.
Mirex 450 en el control del zampopo. Min. Agr. y Gan.
Dir. Av. Agron. Cir. No. 69.
6. Echols, H.W. 1966. Texas leaf cutting ants controlled
with pelletted mirex bait. Jour. Econ. Entom. 59(3):
628-61. a

7. Entomology Research Division 1958. Wasps: how to con­ * IPl

trol them. US. Dept. Agr. L. 365.
8. Entomology Research Division 1959. Control of common
white grubs. U.S. Dept. Agr. F. B. 1798.
9. Evans, D.E. 1965. The coffee berry borer in Kenya.
Kenya Coffee 30 (356): 335-337.
10. Janjua, N.A. and G. Chaudry. 1964. Biology and con­ 4
tt
trol of hill fruit insects of West Pakistan. Pak. Govt.
Press. 159 pp. Karachi.
I. Lever, R.A. 1964. Insect damage to coconut palms.
World Farm. 16(4): 66-8. Figure 91. Bean Leaf Beetle.
12. McGrew, JR., and G.W. StilL 1968. Control of grape
diseases and insects in Eastern United States. U.S. Dept.
Agr. F. B. 1893, rev., 28 pp.
13. McGuire, J. 1966. Lista general de insectos. Mimeograph.
14. Namba, R. and C. Y. Kawanishi. 196i. Transmission of
papaya mosaic virus by the green peach aphid. Jour. Figure92 Be -e -W r r
Econ. Entom. 59 (3): 669-671.
15. Newcomer, Ej. 1966. Insect pests of deciduous fruits in
the west. U.S. Dept. Agr. A. H. 306, 57 pp.
16. Nishida, T. and F. H. Haramore. 1964. Passion fruit Figure 92. Beet Webworrn.
pests and their control. Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir.
63, 13 pp.
17. Pierza, H. and J. Fisher, 1965. Red scale and red
spider populations in citrus as affected by insecticidal
treatments. So. Afr. Citrus Jour.380: 11-15.
18, Sen. A.R., et al. 1966. Sample surveys of pests and dis­
eases of tea in North East India. Exptl. Agr. 2(3):
161-172.
19. Shell Chemical Co. 1958. Cacao pest, disease and weed
control.
20. Snapp, 0.1. 1963. Insect pests of the peach. US. Dept.
0;Y \ -111- 4--^

Agr. AI.B. 272. Figure 93. Blister Beetle.

155

 A -INO

Figure 94. Cabbage Aphids.

1>
Figure 98. Colorado Potato Beetle.

Figure 95. Cabbage Looper.

1'O~
Figure 96. Carrot Rust Fly Larva.
I.

Figure 97. Celery Leaf Tier. Figure 99. Cowpea Curcutio Adult

U. S. D. A. Photographs

156
 Figure 102. Eggplant Lace Bug.

Figure 100. Cutworm.

Figure h03. European Corm Borer.

Figure 104. Fall Armyworm.

Figure 101. Corn Earworm. Figure 105. Harlequin Bug.

U. S. D. A. Photographs

157
Figure 106. Hornworm.

p
Figure 110. Mole Cricket.

Figure 107. Japanese Beetle.

Figure iI I. Onion Thrips.

Figure 10. Lima-bean Pod Borer.

Figure 109. Millipede. Figure 112. Pea Weevil Adult.

Ul. S. D. A. Photographs

158
 Figure116. Potato Tuberworm Larva.

Figure113. Pepper Weevil. Figure 117. Slugs.

It

'St

A.--;

,Opt.

Figure 118. Snail.

Figure 114. Potato Flea Beetle.

4/
40

4-

Figure 115. Potato Leafhopper. Figure 119. Southern Green Stink Bug.

U. S. D. A. Photographs

159
 Figure 123. Squash Vine Borer.

Figure 120. Spider Mile.

r'4

Figure 124. Stalk Borer.

r
Figure 121. Spotted Cucumber Beetle.

Figure 125. Striped Cucumber Beetle.

Figure 122. Squash Bug. Figure 126. Sweet Potato Weevil.

U. S. D. A. Photographs

160
 Figure 129. While Grub Larva.

Figure 127. Vegetable Weevil.

V\
I K
)I
4a­

b'

Figure 128. White-fringed Beetle. Figure 130. Wireworm.

U. S. D. A. Photographs

161
 Chapter 7
PLANT MATERIAL

The introduction of new varieties for the tropical

NAME ADDRESS CROPS
areas is very important. In areas where variety
trials have not been conducted, the first step would Glecklers Metamora. Ohio Tomato
be to start variety trials. In order to conduct vari­ Joseph Harris Rochester 11, Tomato, beans,

ety trials, it is important to know where to obtain Seed Co. New York etc.

experimental plant material.

Northrop King & Co. 1500 Jackson St. N.E. All
Crops
Since it is not easy to select varieties without some Minneapolis 13, Minn.
kind of trial, the best method will be to select
varieties with the characters desired. For example, J. E. Oblsen's ENKE Linnesgade 14, Copen-All Crops

disease resistance, earliness, etc. could be used to hagen, Denmark

make your selections. Length of day also will be a Picters, Wheeler Gilroy, Calif. All Crops
factor. Varieties adapted to the same latitude should Seed Co.
be selected. Peto Seed Co. Box 138, Saticoy, Tomato

The list of seed sources is by no means complete. Calif.

It includes some wholesale seedsmen as well as re­

Reuter Seed Co. 320 N. Carrolton Ave., All Crops

tailers. Plant breeders have been omitted because New Orleans 9, La.

their supplies are insufficient for general distribu­

tion. Therefore, seeds should be ordered from pri­ Rogers Bros. Co. P.O. Box 2188, Beans, Peas
Idaho Falls, Idaho
vate companies.
Seed Research Modesto, Calif. All Crops
Specialists
VEGETABLE SEED SOURCES' Simpson Nursery Co. Monticello, Fla. Watermelons

Commercial Stokes Seeds Ltd. Ste. Catherine All Crops

Ontario, Canada
NAME ADDRESS CROPS Takii and Co., Ltd. 180 Umekoji-Imokuma All Crops
Arthur Yates & Co. Kyoto, Japan esp. hybrids
Sydney, Australia All Crops
Twilley, 0. S. Salisbury, Md. Cucurbits.
Asgrow Export Milford. Conn. All Crops
Corporation tomato

W. Atlee Burpee Co. Hunting Park Ave. atAll Crops Vaughan's Seed Co. 601 W. Jackson Blvd., All Crops
18th St. Philadelphia Chicago 6, 111.
32, Pa. Vilmorin, Andrieux Paris, France All Crops
Corneli Seed Co. 101 Choteau Ave., All Crops & Co.
St. Louis 2. Mo.
Willhite Melon Seed Weatherford, Texas Watermelons
Dessert Seed Co. P.O. Box 181, Onions, etc. FaTms
El Centro, Calif.
I This is by no means a complete list of seed companies and the
authors do not recommend these seed companies but are merely sug­
Ferry-Morse Seed Co. Box 100, Mountain All Seeds
gesting a few possible sources of vegetable seeds. There are many other
View, Calif. seed companies that are just as reliable as the ones listed.

162
 Chapter 8

EQUIPMENT, SUPPLIES AND MATERIALS

Introduction

One of the main problems that confronts a horti- ITEMS REMARKS SOURCE
culturist working overseas for the first time is that of
3. Calculator For statistical Friden, Inc.
obtaining equipment, supplies and materials. A hor­
analysis San Leandro, Calif.
ticulturist working in the United States can look
in the classified section of a telephone directory Monroe Calculating
Machine
and have the information he waits in a few minutes
555 Mitchell St.
and receive his supplies and materials in a matter Orange, N. J.
of days.
4. Dustets D. B. Smith Export Co.

This situation does not exist in many of the areas

Smith Bldg.

overseas where a horticulturist might be working. Main St.

It usually is not possible to take all the reference Utica 2, N. Y.

material overseas that one would like.

5. Embossers For labelling Dymo Industries, Inc.
If one does not know a ready source of supplies trees 525 Bridge St.
he must write to someone else to determine a source Duryea, Pa.
of supplies and then write to the company for
prices and other information before requisitioning G. Fertilizers Chelates of Iron, Division of Geigy
Manganese and Chemical Corp.
the supplies and equipment. This type of operation Zinc P. 0 Box 430
may delay a project from one to six months before Yonkers, N. Y.
the materials and supplies are available for use.
Diammonium Olin Mathieson
A partial list of equipment, materials and supplies Chemical Corp.
phosphate
is presented here to give the horticulturist an idea Mathieson Bldg.
where some of the important items can be located. Baltimore, Maryland
There are many sources for most of the items listed
General Esso Chemical Co.
but only one or two are indicated for each item to 15 West 51st St.
save space. New York 19, N. Y.
The authors do not endorse or recommend any of
the companies listed in this book since many other 7. Fungicides Phygon XL U. S. Rubber Co.
Naugatuck Chemical Div.
companies may supply these items. The list is pre­ Naugatuck, Conn.
sented only as a possible source of the items.
7. Fungicides Tui-Basic copper Tennessee Corporation
sulphate 614 Grant Building
SOURCE OF EQUIPMENT,
Atlanta, Ga.
MATERIALS AND SUPPLIES
Manzate, Parzate E. I. du Pont de Nemnours
ITEMS REMARKS SOURCE Spreader-Sticker & Co.
Delsan A-D Wilmington, Delaware
1. Applicators For use on 1 lb. Arrow Products Co.
Arasan SF-M
cans for Dow- 447 Lincoln St.

fume MC-2 Carlstadt, N. J.

Captan
California Chemical
2. Bags- For planting Dobeckman Co.
Orthocide 50W
Ortho Division
polyethy- trees 1700 - 5th St.
P. O. Box 7067
lene Berkley 10, Calif.
Orlando, Florida

163
 SOURCE OF EQUIPMENT, ITEMS REMARKS SOURCE
(Continued) 11. (Cont.) Sevin 50 W Union Carbide
International Co.
ITEMS REMARKS SOURCE 270 Park Avenue
8. General
National Agricultural New York 17, N. Y.
Agricultural
Supply Co. DDT 50% W E. I. du Pont de Nemours
Equipment
Fort Atkinson, Wis. (Deenate) & Co.
Marlate 50 Wilmington, Delaware
Seed Trade Buyers Guide
Methoxychlor
327 So. La Salle St.
Chicago 4, Ill. Dieldrin 50% W Miller Products Co.
7737 N. E. Killingsworth
9. Glue Cement for Val - A Company Portland, Ore.
repairing burlap 700 - 710 W. Roog St.
bags Chicago 9, 111, Aldrin Stauffer Chemical Co.

380 Madison Ave.

10. Herbicides Alanap 3 Naugatuck Chemical New York 17, N. Y.

International
12. Labels Plastic for Economy Label Sales Co.
1230 Avenue of Americas
marking trees P. 0. Box 350

New York 0, N. Y.
and shrubs Daytona Beach, Fla.

Dowpon Dow Chemical Co.

13. Markers Plastic for Life Markers

(Dalapon) Midland, Michigan

marking plots P. 0. Box 216

Premerge
and seed bed Clyde, Michigan

Dowfume MC-2
Dowcide G 14. Measuring Keuffel and Esser Co.
(Pentachloro. equipment Adams and Third St.
phenate) Hoboken, N. J.
Sinox P.E. F. M. C. International
15. Meteoro­ The Bendix Corp.
161 East 42nd St.
logical Bendix International
New York 17, N. Y.
equipment Division
205 East 42nd St.
Chlore IPC Pittsburgh Plate

New York 17, N. Y.

Emulsifiable Glass International

Concentrate Geneva, Switzerland

16. Mist Al Saffer and Co.
Propagator 130 West 28th St.
Eptam 6GEC Stauffer Chemical Co.
New York 1, N. Y.
Tillam 6 EC 380 Madison Ave.
New York 17, N. Y. 17. Nursery A. M Leonard & Sons,

Union Carbide Equipment Inc.

Piqua, Ohio

Mylone Inter-America, Inc.

Crag Sesone 270 Park Avenue 18. Office General Services
New York 17, N. Y. Equipment Administration
Federal Supply Service
Lorox E. I. du Pont de Nemours 50 Seventh St. N. E.
& Co. Atlanta 23, Ga.
Wilmington, Delaware
Chas. J. Lane Corp.
Amiben Amchem Products, Inc. 105 Chambers St.
Ambler, Pa. New York 7, N. Y.

Stoddard Solvent Esso Research and Engi­ Art Steel Co. Inc.
neering Co. 170 West 23rd St.
P. 0. Box 51 New York 63, N. Y,
Linden, N. J. 19. Pencils Waterproof for Yoho and Hooker
Simazin J. R. Geigy S. A. labelling markers Youngstown, Ohio
Atrazin Basel, Switzerland 20. Photo­ Negative files The Mega-File Co.
graphic riles for Koda­ Box 405
11. Insecticides Diazinon Division of Geigy
Equipment chrome slides Doylestown, Pa.
25% WP Chemical Co.
Diazinon 60% E P, 0. Box 480 Eastman Kodak Co.
Diazinon 40% M Yonkers, N. Y. Rochester, N. Y.

164
 ITEMS REMARKS SOURCE ITEMS REMARKS SOURCE
21. Plastic For covering Gering Plastics 25. Seed Packet Disbrow Manufacturing
film nursery beds Division of Studebaker Co.
Packard Corp. 181 South 18th St.
Kenilworth, N, J. East Orange, N. J.
1
22. Pollinating Tassel & Silk Corn States Hybrid
26. Soil Plant tissue Thorton Laboratories
Supplies Bags Service
Analysis analysis P. 0. Box 2880

803 Kee Way

Tampa, Fla.

Des Moines 14, Iowa

27. Soil Soil moisture Industrial Instruments
Testing meter for 89 Commerce Road
22 Pollinating Plastic vials for Lusteriaid

Supplies cacao or toma­ Container Co. Inc.

Equipment Bouyoueos blocks Cedar Grove, N. J.
toes (8/8" di­ 10 West Parker Ave,
Bouyoucos Soil Irrigation Development
ameter x I" Maplewood, N. J.
Moisture Blocks Corp.
long) 260 Madison Ave.
New York 16, N. Y.
23. Radio 0. 0. Mallegg Inc.
Equipment Daily News Building Soil Samplers, etc. Soiltest Incorporated
400 West Madison 4711 West North Ave.
Chicago, Ill. Chicago 89, Ill.
28. Sprayers D. B. Smith Export Co.
24. Scientific Arthur H. Thomas Co. Smith Building
Equipment P. 0. Box 779
Main Stieet
Philadelphia 5, Pa. Utica 2, N. Y.
Fisher Scientific Co. 29. Tags White tags to Dennison Company
635 Greenwich St. identify seed Framingham, Mass
New York, N. Y. sacks

165
 Chapter 9

CONVERSION FACTORS

There are many types of measurements used in I square link 6 2.7264 sq. in.

the Tropics. The metric system is used in most of I square yard 8,36 1.3 sq. cm.

)8361 sq. meter

the tropical countries but there are a few countries
1,29 5 sq. inches
that use the Imperial system of measurements. The 9 sq. feet

metric system has the advantage that it is based on I squarerod 2 5.292 sq. meters

tenths which facilitates easy calculations. In some 27 2.25 sq. feet

countries, terms such as tarea, carreau,cucda, man­ 0.25 sq. yards

1 square mile .59 sq. km.
zana and faddan are used for land measurement. A
102,40 0 sq. rods
tarea at one time was considered the amount of 658 .98 cuerdas

land a man could plow in a day with a team of 64 0 acres

oxen and is about 1/16 of a hectare. I acre 0 4047 hectare

Many different terms are used for measurements

0.3135 carreau

43,560 sq. feet

and only a few of the more important terms are

4,84 0 sq. yards
included in the following tables. A uniform method 4,046 .87 sq. meters
of presenting scientific data is needed throughout 160 sq. rods
the world so that the data will be understood by all .579 manzana
people. The metric system probably will be adapted 615 tareas
I caballeria 64.58 manzanas
universally some day, but until it is, conversion
43 .15 hectares
tables are needed to convert one system to another 111 .5 acres

readily. I carreau .18 acres

(Haiti) .29 hectares

I cuerda 625 sq. varas

AREA (Puerto Rico) 42,806 sq. feet

3,980 sq. meters
Metric I dunum = 100 sq. meters
I square - 0.155 sq. in. I manzana - 10,000 sq. varas
centimeter = 100 sq. millimeters I tarea = 1/6A4 acre
I square meter = 1,550 sq. inches (Dominican = 1/16 hectare
10.764 sq. feet Republic) = 629 sq. meters
1.196 sq. yards I faddan - 4,200 sq. meters
10,000 sq. centimeters
I square = 0 3861 sq. mile
kilometer = 254.427 cuerdas
1,000 sq. meters IRRIGATION
I are = 100 sq. meters
0.01 hectare I acre foot = 325,851 gall ons
0.0247 acre I second-foot = 448.8 gallous per min-
I hectare = 2.471 acres u te
0.775 carreau - 3,600 cubic ft. per hour
10,000 sq. meters I horse power = 550 foot pounds per
100 ares se cond
Tmperial I acre in ch = 3,650 cubiic feet
I square inch = 6.452 sq. centimeters = 27,154 gal ons
1/144 sq. foot Velocity = 0.75 1/2 gh
1/1296 sq. yard gravity
1 square foot = 929.088 sq. cm. g = 32.2
0.0929 sq. meter h = head in feet and tenths

166
 1 vara 32.71 inches
IRRIGATION (Continued) $8.29 centimeters
I rod 25 links
Area = D3 x .7854 5.025 meters
D Diameter of pipe in feet and tenths 198 inches
Problem 1 foot head 24" pipe 16.5 feet
Volume = 0.75 VY2gh 5.5 yards
075 V64A x 1' I chain 4 rods
22 yards
0.75 V64.4
66 feet
0.75 x 8.02 = 6 02
100 links
A = Area = D2 x 0.7854
20.116 meters
22 x 0.7854
1 mile 1,609 347 meters
4 x 0.7854 = 3 1416
1.609 kilometers
Quantity AV
5,280 feet
Q = quantity in second feet
1,760 yards
Qa = 3.14 x 6.02
320 tods
Q= 18.9
10 - 20 sec. ft. good for 160 acres

PRESSURE
LENGTH
Metric
Metric 1 atmosphere 14.696 pounds per
I millimicron = 0.001 micron sq. in.
I micron = 0.001 millimeter 760 mm. of mercury
I millimeter = 0001 meter at 00 C.
0.0394 inch = 1,036 cm of water
I centimeter = 10 millimeters 1 gmn. per
0.3937 inch square
0.01 meter centimeter 0.4912 lb. per sq. in,
I meter 39.37 inches I kilogram per
3 281 feet sq. meter 0.20482 lb. per sq. ft.
1,000 millimeters 0.0014223 lb. per sq. ft.
100 centimeters
varas
Imperial
1.2
1 pound per
I hectometer = 100 meters
70.307 grams per sq. cm.
109.36111 yards sq. in.
feet 1 pound per
328,0833
feet sq. ft. 0.48824 grams per sq. cm.
1 kilometer = 3,281 kilograms per.
4.8824
1,094 yards
sq. m.
0.621 mile
1,000 meters

Imperial
Smil 1/1000 inch VARIOUS
0.0254 millimeter
1 foot per
1 inch 25.4 millimeters
miles per hour
second 0.68
254 centimeters
1 degree of
1 hand 4 inches
miles
latitude 68.7
10.16 centimeters
chain 1 degree of
I link 1/100 miles
longitude 69.17
7.92 inches
0.22 yard
0.201 meter
1 foot 30.48 centimeters VOLUME
0.3048 meter
12 inches Metric
1 yard 0.9144 meter I cubic
91.44 centimeters millimeter 0.000.000,001 cu. meter
3 feet I milliliter 0.03382 fluid ounce
4.525 links 0.001 liter
1 brasa 6 feet I centiliter 0,01 liter
1.83 meters 0.61 cubic inch

167
 VOLUME (Continued) 1 pint (dry) - 0.550 liter
33 60 cubic inches

I liter 38.82 fluid ounces 0.5 quart (dry)

2.113 U.S. pints liquid 0.0625 peck

1.057 U.S. quarts liquid 1/64 bushel
0.9081 quart, dry 1 U.S. quart

0.2642 US. gallon liquid

946 a milliliters

0.11351 US. peck 57.75 cubic inches

0.221 Imperial gallon 32 fluid ounces

1,000 milliliters or cc. 4 cups

0.0353 cubic foot 1/4 gallon
61.02 cubic inches 2 U.S. pints (liquid)
0.001 cubic meter 0.946 liter
1 cubic 1 quart dry 1.1012 liters
centimeter = 0.061 cubic inch 67.20 cubic inches
= 1,000
cubic millimeters 2 pints (dry
1 decalitre = 10
liters 0.125 peck
18.162 dry pints 1/32 bushel
- 9.081 dry quarts I cubic inch = 16.387 cubic centimeters
- 1.135 pecks I cubic foot cubic centimeters
28,317
= 0.283 bushel 0.0283 cubic meter
1 hectoliter = 100 liters 28.816 liters
- 2.8378 bushels 7.481 U.S. gallons

1 cubic meter = 61,023.38

cubic inches 1,728
cubic inches

= 35.314
cubic feet
IUS. gallon 16
cups
= 11308
cubic yards
3.785 liters or cc.

= 264.17
U.S gallons

231 cubic inches

= 1,000
liters

4 U.S. quarts
= 28.38
US bushels

8 US. pints
- 1,000,000
cu. centimeters

=1,000,000,000 8.3453 pounds of water

cu. millimeters

1 cubic 128 fluid ounces

kilometer = 1,807,942,000 08827 British Imperial
cu. yards
Imperial gallon
1 teaspoon
1 British
(level) =- 0.11
fluid ounce Imperial gallon= 4.546 liters
6
cubic centimeters 1.201 U.S. gallons
1 tablespoon 277.42 cubic inches
(level) = 0.5 fluid ounce 1 boartifoor 144 cubic inches
3 teaspoons (level) 1/12 cubic foot
18 cu. centimeters 2.859 cubic centimeters
I fluid ounce = 1/128 gallon I cubic yard= 0.7646 cubic meter

29.57 cubic centimeters 46,656 cubic inches

2 tablespoons 27 cubic feet

(level) 1 cord 128 cubic feet

29.562 milliliters 3.624 cubic meters
1 805 cubic inches I peck 8.809 liters
0.0625 U.S. pint (liquid) 587.605 cubic inches
[ gill = 1/32 gallon 16 pints (dry)
1/4 liquid pint 8 quarts (dry)
7.21875 cubic inches 0.25 bushel
0.118 liter I U.S. bushel= 35.24 liters
I cup - 0.5 pint 0.3524 hectoliter
8 fluid ounces 2,150.42 cubic inches
1 U S. pint 12444 cubic feet
(liquid) = 473.2 milliliters 0.03524 cubic meter
2 cups 4 pecks
0.5 quart 32 quarts
0.4732 liter 64 pints
28.875 cubic inches 1ibarrel = 7,056
cubic inches
16 fluid ounces 105
dry quarts
1/8 gallon = 115.626 liters

168
I J.K. bushel = 2,219.86 cubic inches I short ton = 907.184 kilograms
= 86.37 liters 0.9072 metric ton
Other 2,000 pounds
I almud 0 98 cubic foot 20 quintals
27.75 liters Other
I fanega 2 almudes 1 arroba
(Puerto Rico) 25.36 pounds
WEIGHT 1 arroba
(Brazil)
Metric 33.00 pounds
15 kilograms
1 milligram = 0.001 gram

0.0154 grain

1 centigram 0.01 gram

0.1543 grain YIELD

1 gram = 0.0353 avoirdupois

ounce Metric
grains I kilogram
15A824
I decagram = 10 grams per hectare = 0.89 pound per acre
154 324 grains I hectoliter
1 hectogram = 100 grams

per hectare = 68.88 pounds per acre

3.53 avoirdupois = 1.148 bushels (60

ounces
pounds) per acre
1,543.24 grains

1 quintal
1 kilogram = 1,000 grams per hectare = 89.214 pounds per acre
353 avoirdupois
= I4869 bushels (60
ounces
pounds) per acre
2.2046 avoirdupois
= 100 kilograms per
pounds
hectare
10 hectograms
= 0.446 ton (2,000 lb.)
1 quintal = 100 kilograms
per acre
(metric) = 220.46 pounds
I metric ton = 1,000 kilograms Imperial
2,204.6 pounds 1 pound
1.102 short tons per acre = 1.121 kilograms
0.984 long ton per hectare
Jmperial I bushel (60
1 dram .1/256 avoirdupois pounds) per
(avoirdupois) pound acre = 0.871 hectoliter
27.34 grains per hectare
1.772 grams = 67.26 kilograms
I dram - 1/96 apoth. pound per hectare
(apothecaries) = 1/8 apoth. ounce 1 'ton (2,000
60 grains lb. per acre = 2.242 metric tons
3.8879 grams per hectare
1 grain = 1/7000 avoirdupois
pound
0.064799 gram Table 19. CENTIGRADE-FAHRENHEIT
I ounce
CONVERSION TABLE
(avoirdupois) = 28.3496 grams
437.5 grains On the centigrade scale, the temperature of melting ice is
1/16 pound 0' and that of boiling water is 1000 at normal atmospheric
1 pound pressure. In the Fahrenheit scale, these two equivalent
(avoirdupois) = 453.593 grams temperatures appear at 320 and 2120, respectively. The
0.45369 kilograms formula for converting Fahrenheit to centigrade is C=5/9
16 ounces (F-82) and the formula for converting centigrade to Fahren­
1 stone = 14 pounds heit is F=9/5 C-32.
6.350 kilograms
C C or F F C C or F F
I hundred­
weight (cwt) = 45.36 kilograms -73.33 -100 -148.0 - 5.00 23 73A
100 avoirdupois -70.56 - 95 -139.0 - 4.44 247 75.2
pounds -67.78 -90 -130.01 - 3.89 25 77.0
I quintal = 100 pounds -65.00 - 85 -121.0 -- 3.3 26 78.8

169
 Table 19. CENTIGRADE-FAHRENHEIT C C- or F r C C or 7 F
CONVERSION TABL E (Continued) 25.0 170.6
C C or F F C C or F F 25.6 172.4
26 1 174.2
-62.22 - 80 -112.0 - 2.78 27 80.6 26.7 176.0
-59,45 - 75 -103,0 - 2.22 28 82.4 27.2 177.8
-56.67 - 70 - 94.0 - 1.67 29 84.2 27.8 179.6
-53.89 - 65 - o05 -1.11 30 86.0 28.3 181.4
-61.11 - 60 - 76.0 - 0.56 31 87.8 28.9 183.2
-48.34 - 55 - 67.0 0 32 89.6 29.4 185.0
-45.56 - 50 - 58.0 0.56 33 91.4 30.0 186.8
-42.78 - 45 - 49.0 1.11 34 93.2 30.6 188.6
-40.0 - 40 - 40.0 1.67 35 95.0 31.1 190.4
-37.23 - 35 - 31.0 2.22 36 96.8 31.7 192.2
-34.44 - 30 - 22.0 2.78 37 98.6 322 194.0
-81.67 - 25 - 13.0 3.33 38 100.4 32.8 195.8
-28.89 - 20 - 4.0 3.89 39 102.2 33.3 197.6
-26.12 - 15 5.0 4.44 40 1040 33.9 199.4
-23 33 - 10 14.0 5.00 41 105.8 34.4 201.2
-20.56 -5 23.0 5.56 42 107.6 35 0 203.0
-17.8 0 32.0 6.11 43 109.4 35.6 204.8
-17.2 1 33.8 667 44 111.2 36.1 206.6
-16.7 2 85.6 7.22 45 113.0 36.7 208.4
-16.1 3 37.4 7.78 46 114.8 37.2 210.2
-15.6 4 39.2 8.33 47 116.6 37.8 212.0
-15.0 5 41.0 8.89 48 118.4 43 230
-14.4 6 42.8 9.44 49 120.2 49 248
-139 7 44.6 10.0 50 122.0 54 266
-13.3 8 46.4 106 51 123.8
9 11.1 The numbers in the "C" or "F" column refer to tempera-
-12.8 48.2 52 125.6
53 127,4 tures in either centigrade or Fahrenheit degrees. If used to
-12.2 10 50.0 11.7
54 129.2 represent centigrade degrees, the equivalent temperature in
-11.7 11 51 8 12.2
-11.1 12 53.6 12.8 55 131.0 Fahrenheit is listed in the "F" column. If used to represent
-10.6 13 55.4 13.3 56 132 8 Fahrenheit the equivalent is listed in the "C" column.
-100 14 57.2 13.9 57 134.6
- 9.44 15 59.0 14.4 58 136.4 Table 20. CONVERSION OF OUNCES TO
- 8.89 16 60.8 15.0 59 1382 FRACTIONS OF A POUND
- 8.33 17 62.6 15.6 60 140.0
- 7.78 18 64.4 16.1 61 141.8 Ounce Per cent of a Pound
- 7.22 19 66.2 16.7 62 143.6 0.0625 or 0.06
- 6.67 20 68.0 17.2 63 145.4 0.125 or 0.13
- 6.11 21 69.8 17.8 64 147 2 0.1875 or 0.19
- 5.56 22 71.6 18.3 65 149,0 0.250 or 0.25
18.9 66 150.8 60 140 284 0 3125 or 0.31
19.4 67 152.6 66 150 302 0.375 or 038
20.0 68 154.4 71 160 320 0.4375 or 0.44
20.6 69 156 2 77 170 338 0.500 or 0.50
21.1 70 158.0 82 180 356 0 5625 or 0.56
21.7 71 159.8 88 190 374 0.625 or 0.63
22.2 72 161.6 93 200 392 0.6875 or 0.69
22.8 73 163.4 99 210 410 0.750 or 0.75
23.3 74 165.2 100 212 413 0.8125 or 0.81
23.9 75 167.0 104 220 428 0.875 or 0.88
244 76 168.8 110 230 446 0.9375 or 0.94

Table 21. NUMBER OF PLANTS PER ACRE AT GIVEN SPACINGS

No. of No. of No. of
Inches Plants Inches Plants Inches Plants
12 x 1 522,720 20 x a 104,544 30 x 15 13,939
12 x 3 174,240 20 x 4 78,408 30 x 18 11,616
12 x 4 130,680 20 x 6 52,272 3D x 24 8,712

170
 Table 21. NUMBER OF PLANTS PER ACRE AT GIVEN SPACINGS (Continued)
No. of No, of No. of
Inches Plants Inches Plants Inches Plants
12 x 6 87,120 20 x 9 34,848 30 x 30 6,969
12 x 9 58,080 20 x 12 26,136
12 x 12 43,560 20 x 15 20,909 36 x 58,080
20 x 18 17,426 36 x 43,560
1 418,176 86 x 29,040
3 139,382 24 x 3 87,120 36 x 19,360
4 104,544 24 x 4 65,340 36 . 14,520
6 69,696 24 x 6 43,560 36 x 11,616
9 48,484 24 x 9 29,040 86 x 9,680
12 34,848 24 x 12 21,780 36 x 7,260
24 x 15 17,424 36 x 5,808
348,390 24 x 18 14,520 35 x 4,840
8 116,160 24 x 24 10,890
4 87,120 40 x 52,272
6
15 58,080 30 3 69,696 40 x 26,136
9 38,720 s0 4 52,272 40 x 13,058
12 29,040 30 6 34,848 40 x 8,709
15 23,232 30 9 23,232 40 x 6,534
18 19,360 30 12 17,424 40 x 5,227
40 x 4,856
49,782 48 x 12 10,890 60 x 8,712
6 24,891 48 x 18 7,260 60 x 5,808
12 12,445 48 x 24 5,445 60 x 4,356
30
18 8,297 48 x 30 4,356 60 x 3,484
24 6,223 48 x 36 3,680 60 x 2,904
80 4,978 48 x 42 3,111 60 x 2,489
360 4,148 48 x 48 2,722 60 x 2,178
60 x 1,936
48 x 3 43,560 60 x 3 34,848 60 x 1,742
48 x 6 21.780 60 x 6 17.424

Table 22. NUMBER OF PLANTS PER HECTARE AT GIVEN SPACINGS

No. of No. of No. of
Centimeters Plants Centimeters Plants Centimeters Plants
2,000,000 75 x 50 26,666 125 x 60 13,333
800,000 75 x 60 22,222 125 x 75 10,400
400,000 75 x 75 17,777 125 x 80 10,000
266,666 100 x 2 500,000 125 x 90 8,888
200,000 100 x 5 200,000 125 x 100 8,000
160,000 100 x 10 100,000 125 x 125 6,400
1,000,000 100 x 15 66,666 150 x 5 133,833
400,000 100 x 20 50,000 150 x 10 66,666
200,000 100 x 25 40,000 150 x 25 26,666
183,333 100 x 80 38,333 150 x 50 18,333
100,000 100 x 40 25,000 150 x 75 8,888
80,000 100 x 50 20,000 150 x 100 6,666
66,666 100 x 60 16,666 150 x 125 5,200
51,142 100 x 75 13,333 150 x 150 4,444
50,000 100 x 80 12,500 175 x 5 114,280
44,444 100 x 90 11,111 17$ x 10 57,140
40,000 100 x 100 10,000 175 25 22,856
666,666 125 x 2 400,000 175 x 50 11,428
266,666 125 x 6 160,000 175 x 75 7,618
133,333 125 x 10 80,000 175 x 100 5,714
88888 125 x 20 40,000 175 x 125 4,571
66,666 125 x 25 32,000 175 x 150 3,809
53,333 125 x 30 26,666 175 x 175 3,265
44,444 125 x 40 20,000
33.330 125 x 50 16.000

171
 Table 23. NUMBER OF TREES PER ACRE AT GIVEN SPACINGS
No. of No. of No. of
Feet Plants Feet Plants Feet Plants
7,260 10 x 1 4,356 18 x 4 605
8,620 10 x 2 2;178 18 x & 404
2,420 10 x 3 1,452 18 x 8 303
1,815 10 x 4' 1,089 18 x 10 242
1,452 10 x 5 871 18 x 12 202
1,210 10 X 6 726 18 x 14 173
10 x 7 622 18 x 16 152
6,223 10 x 8 544 18 x 18 132
2,111 10 x 9 484
2,074 10 x 10 425
1,556 20 8 272
1,244 12 2 1,815 20 10 218
1,087 12 4 907 20 12 184
889 12 6 605 20 14 156
12 7 454 20 16 186
5,445 12 10 363 20 18 121
2,722 12 12 302 20 20 109
1,815
1,361 14 x 2 1,556
1,089 14 x 4 778 24 12 151
907­ 14 x 6 518 24 16 114
778 14 x 8 389 24 20 92
680 14 x 10 311 24 24 76
14 x 12 259
4,840 14 x 14 222
2,420 30 x 20 72
1,613 16 x 2 1,361 30 x 30 48
1,210 16 x 4 680 30 x 40 36
968 16 x 6 454
807 16 x 8 340
691 16 x 10 272 40 x 40 27
605 16 x 12 227
528 16 x 14 194
16 X 16 170
In order to obtain the number of plants per acre, divide 43,560 by the product of the spacing in the rows expressed in feet.

Table 24. NUMBER OF TREES PER HECTARE AT GIVEN SPACINGS

No. of No. of No. of
Meters Plants Meters Plants Meters Plants
2 x 0.25 20,000 5 x 1.0 2,000 8x 1 1,250
2 X 0.50 10,000 5 x 1.5 1,333 8x 2 555
2 x 0.75 6,666 5 x 2.0 1,000 8x 3 416
2 X 1.0 5,000 5 x 2.5 800 8 x 4 312
2 x 125 4,000 5 x 3.0 666 8 x 5 250
2 X 1.50 3,333 5 x 3.5 571 8x 6 208
2 x 1.75 2,857 5 x 4.0 500 8 x 7 178
2 x 2.0 2,500 5 x 4.5 444 8 X 8 156
5 x 5.0 400
3 0.5 6,666
3 1.0 3,333 6 x 1,666 9 x1 1,111
3 1.5 2,222 6 x 833 9X 2 555
3 2.0 1,666 6 x 555 9x 3 370
2 2.5 1,333 6 x 416 9x 4 277
3 3.0 1,111 6 X 333 9 x 5 222
Sx 277 9x 6 185
4 X 0.5 5,000 9 x 7 158

172
 Table 24. NUMBER OF TREES PER HECTARE AT GIVEN SPACINGS (Continued)
No. of No. of No. of
Meters Plants Meters Plants Meters Plants
4 x 1.0 2,500 7 x 1 1,428 9 x 8 138
4 x 1.5 1,666 7 x 2 714 9 x 9 123
4 x 2.0 1,250 7 x 3 476 9 X 10 I1
4 x 25 1,000 7 x 4 357
4 x 3.0 888 7 x 5 285
4 x 3.5 714 7x 6 238 10 x 10 100
4 x 4.0 625 7 x 7 204

In order to obtain the number of plants per hectare, divide 10,000 by the product of the spacing in the rows expressed in meters.

Table 25. RANDOM NUMBERS: I TO 10

I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV

6 10 8 4 8 4 2 3 8 6 1 1 4
5 4 10 10 4 1 4 2 9 9 3 8 9 3
2 9 3 3 3 7 5 10 8 3 2 6 6
7 1 2 8 7 5 7 4 6 10 1 7 4 5
8 5 9 2 10 5 7 5 5 8 10 10 9
3 8 4 7 2
6 6 10 4 9 2 10
9 3 6 9 9 2 9 5 3 2 7 9 2 6
4 7 5 5 8 10 8 4 1 5 3 7 7
1 2 7 I 6 9 6 9 2 6 10 5 3 8
10 6 5 6 1 10 8 1 7 7 4 4 5 2

XV XVI XVII XVIII XIX XX XXI XXII XXIII XXIV

3 10 4 6 4 8 9 4 1 8
5 4 8 4 8 5 2 5 6
1 1 1 10 5 4 7 3 1
9 3 2 2 3 10 7 3 9 9
2 8 10 7 7
6 4 10 5 4
6 5 3 10 2 5 9 8 2
8 5 7 5 2 9
1 7 7
10 7 6 1 4 7 10 2 4 3
7 9 9 9 1 1 3 6 2 10
4 2 3 8 9 3 1 8 10 5

Table 26. RANDOM ARRANGEMENT OF NUMBERS FROM I TO 30

Taken from Table VI in Field Plot Technique by Leonard and Clark
I It III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XT XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII XVIII XIX XX

29 12 15 20 6 13 16 23 1 10 2 20 15 29 4 18 8 7 6 14
27 1 26 7 22 26 15 9 20 15 29 6 25 26 2 15 13 80 8 22
5 25 23 15 26 22 19 28 4 7 12 5 12 28 5 16 4 14 7 19
20 3 24 30 1 21 22 4 3 13 6 7 16 3 16 21 39 6 14 3
10 25 9 27 25 3 8 14 7 5 30 1 23 23 13 25 20 4 20 2
21 16 12 4 2 23 26 5 24 21 26 3 5 11 17 12 1 15 24 27
11 13 1 13 9 28 20 2 29 29 13 24 26 21 9 22 11 22 11 29
7 19 28 2 8 16 30 18 22 11 19 30 21 6 7 30 21 23 25 1
14 29 19 - 12 3 1 17 24 16 4 20 13 4 7 1 10 23 27 28 12
25 5 8 28 27 4 12 25 6 12 8 25 13 16 30 5 14 1 18 23
2 21 17 26 20 5 7 8 23 6 28 2 6 15 26 19 22 19 1 26
18 26 11 9 21 18 24 1 12 25 4 17 1. 18 6 14 12 24 21 4
4 9 2 21 29 8 5 22 5 18 27 27 10 4 11 4 26 17 10 18

173
 Table 26. RANDOM ARRANGEMENT OF NUMBERS FROM I TO 30 (Continued)

1 II III IV V VI VII Vil IX X XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII XVIII XIX XX
23 17 30 18 18 10 23 26 17 1 24 18 18 12 27 13 18 13 13
30 10 21 16 10 29 4 19 8 26 5 15 22 10 20 7 2 16 9
8 27 25 1 5 30 21 29 11 23 7 14 2 27 12 8 16 9 5
17 6 16 8 17 17 27 12 30 20 11 II 27 1 14 29 3 27 16
13 30 3 14 30 11 9 30 13 2 21 26 3 14 22 9 19 29 8
26 14 10 29 11 15 28 16 27 27 3 23 17 19 10 2 28 22 20
22 11 5 19 7 9 13 3 21 30 16 9 28 5 25 23 7 17 21
24 28 7 11 4 25 6 10 14 8 15 10 i 13 15 17 17 26 11
9 2 6 25 12 7 2 11 10 14 23 4 8 22 18 11 25 8 25
28 24 29 3 28 6 3 15 13 3 9 19 1 8 8 8 6 5 6
15 8 12 5 24 2 14 17 2 19 22 12 30 2 21 6 10 19 17
16 22 20 17 14 14 11 27 26 24 14 16 14 20 28 24 30 2 2
12 7 22 6 15 12 10 6 25 16 10 8 19 9 29 20 27 4 30
6 20 4 22 23 24 29 20 28 28 1 21 9 30 23 28 15 15 24
3 4 18 10 16 19 25 13 19 9 17 22 29 17 19 26 24 23 7
1 15 27 28 18 27 18 7 9 22 25 28 20 24 24 1 9 12 15
19 18 14 24 19 20 1 21 18 17 18 29 24 25 3 27 5 30 10

174
 Chapter 10

BOOKS AND GENERAL REFERENCES

There are many publications dealing with vari­ California Avocado Association. Yearbooks.
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impossible to include all, and often publications Calif.
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The selected list below is given for the convenience 1957. The World in Your Garden. Nat. Geo­
of the horticultural worker when he has no local graphic Soc., Washington, D.C. 231 p. Color Illus.
library available. Prices have been omitted since Index.
they are changing from year to year. Ceiba. Quar. Escuela Panamericana, Zamorano,
Teg.ucigalpa, Honduras.
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Dept. Agr., Agr. Hbk. 313. 65 p. Up-dated an­ 2, Lea Sc Febiger, Philadelphia, Pa. 535 p.
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Christie, J. R. 1959. Plant Nematodes: Their
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Hbk. 273. 210 p.

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Herbert, D. A. 1952. Gardening in Warm Cli­ Miller, C. D., et al. 1965. Fruits of Hawaii. Univ.

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Hill, A. G. G. 1948. Seed production of European Morin, C. 1965. Cultivo de Frutales Tropicales.

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England. and subtropical fruits. Fla. Agr. Ext. B. 156 A.
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Kansas City, Mo. 294 p. Bishop Museum. Spec. Pub. 50. 924 p. Index.
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New York. 444 p. Millan. 689 p. Index.
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Jacob, A. and H. Vexkull. 1963. Fertilizer Use. Ochse, J. J., et al. 1961. Tropical and Subtropical
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Pakistan Gov. Press, Karachi. 158 p. Marcellus, New York. 13108.
Jones, H. A. and L. K. Mann. 1963. Onions and
Plant Disease Reporter. Monthly. U.S. Dept. Agr.,
Their Allies. Interscience. 268 p. Index. Extensive
Beltsville, Md. 20725.
bibliography.
Popenoe, W. 1920. Manual of Tropical and Sub­
Kennard, W. C. and H. F. Winters. 1960. Some
tropical Fruits. MacMillan, New York (out of
Fruits and Nuts for the Tropics. U.S. Dept. Agr.
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Misc. Pub. 801. 135 p. Spanish edition 1963.
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273 p. Index. Publ. 61.
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chemistry and Physiology. Univ. Calif. Press,
New York. 368 p.
Berkeley, Calif. 475 p.
Walker, J. C. 1952. Diseases of Vegetable Crops.
Singh, L. B. 1960. The Mango. Interscience. 435 p.
McGraw-Hill, New York. 529 p.
Extensive bibliography.
Wardlaw, C. W. 1961. Banana Diseases. Long­
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780 p: 72 pl.
Webber, H. J. and L. D. Batchelor. 1943. The
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488 p.
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Stefferud, A. ed. 1964. Farmer's World. U.S. Dept.
488 p.

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table Crops. McGraw-Hill, New York 611. p. W8.

Tindall, H. D. 1965. Fruits and Vegetables in Wood, R. C. 1957. A Notebook of Tropical Horti­
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Tropical Abstracts. Monthly. Advice and Docu­ Trinidad. 256 p.

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cal Institute, 63 Mauritskade, Amsterdam 0, 243 Shepherds Bush Rd., Hammersmith, London

Netherlands. W6.

177
 APPENDIX A

Insects Alphabetically by Common Name

Common Name Scientific Name

Common Name Scientific Name

aphids
Aphis spp.
fall armyworm Spodoptera frugzperda

aphids
Aphididae, spp of (J. E. Smith)

asparagus beetle
Crioceris asparagi (L.) flea beetles Chrysomelidae, spp. of

aster leafhopper
Macrosteles fasczfrons (Stil) fruit beetle Cotinis mutabibs Gory &

banana root borer

Cosmopolztes soididus Percheron
(Germar) fruit flies Anastrepha spp.
bean aphid
Aphzs fabae Scopoli
fruit fly Anastrepha serpenttna
bean leaf beetle
Cerotona trzfurcata
(Viedemann)
(Forster) fruit fly Anastrephastiata Schiner
beetles or cucumber beetles Diabrotica spp.
fruit flies Dacus spp.
beetle Strategus spp.
fruit flies Tephritidae, spp. of
beet webworm Loxostege sticticalis (L.)
fruit &shoot borer Lencinodes orbonales
black citrus aphid Toxoptera aurantil
Guene
(Fonscolombe) fruitworm Euzopheta punicaedla Moore
blister beetles
Epicauta spp.
green peach aphid Myzus persicac (Sulzer)
bollworm
Earias sp.
green scale Coccus virzdzs (Green)
borer
Xyleborus sp.
green shield scale Pulvinariapsidit Maskell
cabbage aphid
Brezncoryne brassicac (L.)
harlequin bug Murgantia hastronica
cabbage maggot
Hylemya brassicae (Bouchd)
(Hahn)
cabbage webworm
Hellula rogaials (Hulst)
honey bee Apis mallfera L.
cabbageworm
Pieris spp.
honworm Manduca spp.
California red scale
Aonidiella aurantlii (Maskell)

imported cabbageworma Pieris rapae (L.)

carpenter bee
Xylocopa sonotuna Smith
Japanese beetle Popellia japonca Newman
carrot caterpillar Pa?lio sp.
katydids or longhorn grass- Sexava coriacea (L.)
canot rust fly Psila osae (F.)
hoppers
celery leaf tier Udea iubzgals (Guen4e)
katydids or longhorn giass- Sexava nubtla StAl
coconut scale Aspidiotus destructor
hoppers
Signoret katydids or longhorn grass- Sexava karnyl Leefmans
coconut weevil Rhynchophorus palmarum hoppers
(L.) katydids or longhorn grass- Sexava novaegumeaeBrancisk
codling moth Laspeyresia pomonella (L.) hoppers
coffee bean borer Hypothenemus (Stephano­ leaf-cutting ants Atta spp.
deres) hampei (Ferrari) leafhopper Dalbulus maidis
coffee leaf miner Leucoptera coffeella (Delong S&Wolcott)
(Guin-M6neville) leafhoppers Empoasca spp.
Colorado potato beetle Lept.notarsa decemlzneata leafhopper Emponsca decipiens Paoli
(Say) leafhopper Homalodisca insolita
corn earworm, tomato fruit­ Helsothis zea (Boddie) (Walker)
worm lesser cornstalk borer Elasmopalpus lignosellus
corn sap beetles Carpophilus dimadatus (F) (Zeller)
cowpea curculio Chalcodermus aeneus lima-bean pod borer Eliella zinckenella
Boheman (Treischke)
cowpea weevil Callosobruchus maculatus loopers (cabbage looper) Trchoplusta nr (Htner)
(F.) mealybugs Planococcoides njatensis
cutworms Noctuidae, spp of (Laing)
diamondback moth Plutella xylostella (L.)
Mediterranean fruit fly Ceratitis capitata
eggplant lace bug Gatgaphia solani Heidemann
(Wiedemann)
European corn borer Ostrinsa nubtlalis (Hubner)
melon fly Daces cucurbitae Coquillett
grape berry moth Paralobesiaviteana (Clemens)
melonworm Diaphanza hyalinata (L.)

178
Common Name Scientific Name Common Name Scientific Name
Mexican bean beetle Epilachna varwestis Mulsant Quetta borer AeolCithes sarta (Solsky)

Mexican fruit fly Anastrepha ludens (Loew) red-banded thrips Selenothrips rubrocinctus

millipedes Diplopoda, spp. of (Giard)

mining scale Howardia bIcavis red spiders or spider mites Tetranychidae, spp. of

(Comstock) rhinoceros beetle Orycles rhinoceros L.

mites Acarina, spp. of San Jose scale Aspidiotus perniciosus

mites Oligonychus sp. Comstock

mole cricket Gyllotalpidae, spp. of scab moth Nacoleia octasema (Meyrick)
moth Artona catoxantha scale Aulacospas tubercularis
(Hampson) Newstead
moth Eucosmophora sp. scale Coccoidea, spp. of
moth Hidart irava (Moore) scale Melanaspis aliena (Newstead)

olive scale Parlatoriaoleae (Colvde) scale Parlatoriaspp.

olive fruit fly Dacus olcac (Gmelin) seed-corn maggot Hylemya platura (Meigen)

onion maggot Hylemya antiqua (Meigen) seed weevil Conotrachelus perseae

onion thrips Thrips tabaci Lindeman Barber

orange dog Papilio spp. silky cane weevil Metamasius himipterus
oriental fruit fly Dacus dorsais Hendel sericcus (Olivier)
oriental fruit moth Grapholitha molesta
southern green stink bug Nezara viridula (L.)
(Busck)
Rhynchophorus spp. sowbugs Isopoda, spp of
palm weevil
papaya fruit fly Toxotrypana curvicauda spider mite Tetranychus spp.
Gerstaecker spotted cucumber beetle Diabrotica undecimpunctata
pea weevil Bruchus pisokum (L.) howardi Barber
peach tree borer Sannznozdea exittosa (Say) squash bug Anasa tristis (De Geer)
peach twig borer Anarsia lineatella Zeller squash vine borer Melittia cucurbitae (Harris)
pear leaf blister mite Eriophyes pyri stalk borer Papaipema nebris (Guende)
(Pagenstecher) stink bug Pentatomidae, spp. of
pear thrips Taeniothripsinconsequens striped cucumber beetle Acalymma vittatum (F.)
(Uzel) sweetpotato weevil Cylas formazcarius elegantulus
pepper weevil Anthonomus eugenii Cano (Summers)
phylloxera Phylloxera sp. sweetpotato whitefly Bemisia tabact (Gennadius)

pickleworm Diaphanianitfdatis (Stoll) thrips Frankliniellaspp.

pineapple mealbug (scale) Dysmicoccus brevipes Aculus lycopersic (Massee)

tomato russet mite

(Cockerell)
treehopper Aconophora pugionata

pineapple scale Diaspis bromeliae (Kerner

(Germar)
plum curculio Conotrachelus nenuphar
vegetable weevil Listroderes costirostris
(Herbst)
obliquns (King)
pod borer Acroceicops cramerella
(Snellen) wasps Polistes spp.
potato flea beetle Epitrix cucumers (Harris) weevil. Anthonomus unipustulatus
potato leafhopper Empoasca fabae (Harris) (Champion)
potato tuberworm Phthoimaea operculella whiteflies Trialeurodes spp.
(Zeller) white grubs Phyllophaga spp.
pustule scale Asterolecanium pustulans white-fringed beetles Graphognathusspp.
(Cockerell) wireworms Elateridae, spp. of

179
 APPENDIX B
Insects Alphabetically by Scientific Names

Scientific Name Common Name Scientific Name Common Name

Acalymma vittatunt (F.) striped cucumber beetle Coccoidea, spp. of
scale

Acarina, spp. of mites Coccus viridis (Green)

green scale

Aconophora pugionata treehopper Conotrachelus nenuphar

plum curculio

(Cermar) (Herbst)
Acrocercops cramerella pod borer Conottachelusperseae seed weevil
(Snellen) Barber
Aculus lycoPcrsci (Massee) tomato russet mite
Cosmopolites sordidus banana root borer
Acolesthes sarta (Solsky) Quetta boser
(Cermar)

Anaisia lineatella Zeller peach twig borer

Cotinis nutabihs Gory &
fruit beetle
Anasa tristis (De Geer) squash bug
Percheron

Anastrepha spp. fruit flies

Crioceris asparagi (L)
asparagus

Anastrepha tudens (Loew) Mexican fruit fly

Cylas formicariuselegantulus
sweetpotato weevil

Anastrepha serpentina fruit fly

(Summers)
(Wiedemann) Dacus spp. fruit flies

Anastrepha striata Schiner fruit fly

Dacus cucurbitae Coquillett melon fly

Anthonomus eugeni Cano pepper weevil

Dacus dosalis Hendel
oriental fruit fly

Anthonomus unipustulatus weevil

Dacus oleac (Gmelin)
olive fruit fly

(Champion) Dalbulus maidis

leafhopper

Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell) California red scale

(Delong & Wolcott)
Aphididae, spp. of aphids or plant lice
Diabrotca spp. beetles or cucumber beetles
Aphia spp
aphids
Diabrotica undecimpunctata Barber spotted cucumber
Aphis fabae Scopoli
bean aphid
howardi
beetle
Apis mellifera L.
honey bee
Dzaphania hyalinata (L)
melonworm

Artona catoxantha
moth
Diaphanianicsdahs (Stoll)
pickleworm

(Hampson) Diaspis bromelfac (Kerner)

pineapple scale

Aspidiotus destructor coconut scale Diplopoda, spp. of

millipedes

Signoret Dysmicoccus brevipes pineapple mealbug (scale)

Aspidiotus peiniciosus San Jose scale (Cockerell)

Earaios sp
bollworm

Comstock
Asleolecanium pastulans pustule scale Elasmopalpus legnosellus lesser cornstalk borer

(Cockerell) (Zeller)
Atta spp,
Elateridae, spp. of wireworms

leaf-cutting ants

Aulacaspis tubercularis
scale
Empoasca spp.
leafhoppers

Newstead Empoasca decipiens Paoli

leafhoppers

Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) Empoasca fabac (Harris)

potato leafhopper
sweetpotato whitefly
Epicauta spp.
blister beetles
(on eggplant)
Eplachna varivestis Mulsant
Mexican bean beetle
Brevicoryne brassicae (L) cabbage aphid
Bruchus pisorum (L.)
Epilrix cucumeris (Harris)
potato flea beetle
pea weevil Eriophyespyri (Pagenstecher)
pear leaf blister mite
Callosobruchus maculatus cowpea weevil Eticlla zinchenella
lima-bean pod borer
(F.)
(Treischke)
Corpophilus dimedialtus (F.) corn sap beetles Eucosmophora sp. moth
Ceratiscapsiata Mediterranean fruit fly Euzophera punzcaella eggplant lace bug
(Wiedemann) Moore
Ceotoma trifurcata bean leaf beetle Franklinsella spp. thrips
(Forster) Gargaphia solani Heidemann fruitworm
Chalcodermus aeneus cowpea weevil Graphognathusspp. white-fringed beetles
Boheman Grapholiha molesta (Busek) oriental fruit moth
Chrysomelidae, spp. of flea beetles Gryllotalpidae, spp. of mole cricket

-180
Scientific Name Commron Name Scientific Name Common nam
Hehothis lea (Boddie) corn eanorm, tomato fruit­ Pentatomidae, spp. of stink bugs
worm Phthorimaea operculela potato tuberworm
lellula rogatalis (Hulst) cabbage webworm (Zeller)
Hidari irava 'Moore) moth Phyllophagaspp.
white grubs
Homalodisca insolita leafhopper Phylloxera sp.
phylloxera
(Walker) Pieris spp.
cabbagewormn
Howarda biclavis mining scale Pieris rapae (L.)
imported cabbageworm
(Comstock) Planococcoides njalensis
mealybugs
tylemya antrqua (Meigen) onion maggot (Laing)
tylemya brassicae (Bouch6) cabbage maggot Plutella xylostella (L.)
diamondback moth
Hylemya platura (Meigen) seed-coin maggot Polistes spp.
wasps
Hypothenemns (Stephano­ coffee bean borer Popillia japonica Newman
Japanese beetle
deres) hampel (Ferrari) Psila rosae (F)
carrot rust fly
Isopoda, spp. of sowbugs Pulvnariapsidii Maskell
green shield scale
Laspeyresia pomonella (L.) codling moth Rhynchophorus spp.
palm weevil
Leptinotarsa decemlineata Coloado potato beetle Rhynchophorus palmarum
coconut weevil
(Say) (L.)
Leucinodes orbanalis fruit & shoot borer Sanninoidea exitiosa (Say) peach tree borer
Guende Selenothrips rubrocinctus red-banded thrips
Leucoptera cofleella coffee leaf miner (Giard)
(Gubrin-Mdneville) Sexava cot facca (L.) katydid, longhorn grass­
Listroderes costitostris vegetable weevil hopper
obliquus (Klug) Saxava nublaStAl katydid, longhorn grass­
Loxostege sticticalis (L.) beet webworm hopper
Macrosteles fasctfrons (St&l) aster leafhopper Sexava harnyi Leefmans katydid, longhorn grass­
Manduca spp. hornworm hopper
Melanaspis aliena scale Sexava novaeguineae katydid, longhorn grass­
(Newstead) Brancsik hopper
Melitfia cucurbitac (Harris) squash vine borer Spodoptera ftugiperda fall armyworm
Metamosius henpterus seri­ silky cane weevil (J. E. Smith)
ceus (Olivier) Strategus spp. beetle
Murgantiahistonica harlequin bug Taeniothrps inconsequens pear thrips,
(Hahn) (Uzel)
Myzws perstcae (Sulzer) green peach aphid
Tephritidae, spp. of fruit flies
Nacoleia octasema (Meyrick) scab moth
Tetranychidae, spp. of red spiders, spider mites
Nezara viridula (L.) southern green stink bug
Tetranychus spp.
spider mite
Noctuidae, spp. of cutworms
Thrips tabaci Lindeman
onion thrips
Oligonychus sp. mites
Oryctes rhinoceros (L) rhinoceros beetle Toxopteia aurantii
black citrus aphid
Ostrinia nubulalis (Huabner) European corn borer (Fonscolombe)
Papaipena nebris (Guende) stalk borer Toxottypana curvicauda papaya fruit fly
Papilio spp. orange dog Gerstacker
Papiho sp. carrot caterpillar Trialeurodes spp.
whiteflies
Paralobesiaviteana grape berry moth Trichoplusiani (Hdibner)
cabbage looper
(Clemens) Udea rubigalis (Guende)
celery leaf tier
Parlatonaspp. scale Xylebotus sp
borer
Parlatoriaoleae (Colvde) olive scale Xylocopa sonorina Smith
carpenter bee

181
 INDEX

A page
Page Bassia longifolia 64
Acerola 4 Beans
84
Achras Sapota 64 Broad
84
Actinidia chinensis 27 Dry
84
Albizzia 72 Hyacinth
84
Albizzia falcata 70 Lima
85
Aleurites fordii 71 Mung 85
Aleutites montana 72 Snap 85
Allium ascolonicum 99 Soy 86
Allium cepa 98 Beets 86
Allium porrum 99 Be, tholletia excelsa
9
Allium sativum 99 Beta vulgaris
86, 95
Alts naria 88 Betel nut
9
Alternaria solani (Ell. and G. Martin) (Sor.) 110 Blackberries
9
Amaranths 95 Black pod rot
1
Amaranthus gangeticus 95 Bleeding stem
28
Ananas comosus 59 Botryodiplodia theobromae Pat. 28
Anacardium occidentale 17 Brassicarapa 111
Anastrepha ludens (Lw.) 65 Brassica oleracea var. botrytis 86
Annona cherzmola 27, 68 Brassica oleracea var. capitata 87
Annona diversifolha 38 Brassica oleracea var itaica 86
Annona glabra 68 Brazil nut
9
Annona reticulata, 27, 31, 38, 68 Breadfruit
10
Annona senegalensis 27 Broccoli
86
Annona squamosa 27, 68 Bronze leaf wilt
28
Anthracnose 111 Bullocks heart
31
Aphelenchodes cocaphiius 28
Apium gravelens var. duce 89 C
Apple 5
Apricots Cabbage 87
5
Arachis hypogea Cacao 10
100
Areca Catechu Linn. 9 Cajanus indicus 103
Arecanut 9 Calocarpum mammosum Pierre 65
Arrowroot Calocarpum sapota (Jacq.) Merr. 65
106
Artichoke Calocarpum sp. 65
75
Artocarpus communis Calopogoniun mucunoides 70
10
Artona catoxantha (Hamps) Canna edulis 106
28
Asparagus Canarium commune 58
75
Asparagus officinalis Canartum ovatum, 58
75
Asterolecantum pustulans (Ckl1.) 65 Cantaloupe 97
Australian nut 41 Capsicum annum 102
Avocado Capsicum frutescens, 102
5
Carica papaya 50
Carrots 88
B Cashew 17
Casimiroa 18
Bacterial wilt 110 Casimiroa eduls 18
Bananas 7 Castmiroa tetrameria 18
Barbados cherry 4 Cassava 104
Basella alba 95 Cattley guava 38
Basella rubra 95 Cauliflower 89
Bassia latifolia 64 Celery 89

182
 Page Page
Centrosema pubescens 70 Cyphomandra SI
Cephaleurosvirescens Kunze 37 Gyphomandra betacea 31
Ceratatis capitata Wied. 31, 65
Cercospora 80, 88
Ceroxyline 46
D
Ceylon gooseberry 18 Dacus dorsalls Hendel
Ceylon spinach 95 IDacus melon fly
Chard 95 Docus Oeae (Gmel.)
Chayote 90 Dasheen
Cherimoya 27 Dates
Chickasaw pea 85 Daucus carota
Chick-peas 90 Derris microphylla
Chinese cabbage 95 Diaphonia hyalinata
Chinese gooseberry 27 Dieback
Chinese mustard 95 Diobrotica beetles
Chinese spinach 95 Dioscorca alata
Chiysophyllum cainito 66 Dzospyrus haki
Cicer arietinum 90 Disease control
Cichorium endivia 94 Fruits
Cztrullus vulgaris 111 Vegetables
Citrus aurantzfolia 39 Dolichos lablab
Citrus auranttum 47 Dothidella ulei (P. Henn)
Citrus hybrids 68 Dovyalis abyssinica
Citrus mitis 16 Dovyalis cofla
Citrus paradisi 34 Dovyalis hebecarpa
Citrus reticulata 42 Downy mildew
Citrus sinensis 48 Dry bean
CladosporTiumfulvun Cke. 108 Durian
Cladosporium leaf mold 108 Durio zibethinus
Clutocybe tabescens (Scop. ex Fr.) Bres. 37
Coconut 27
28
E
Diseases of
Insects attacking 28 Early blight 108
Coconut weevil 28 Eggplant 93
Cocos muctfera 27 Elacia guineensis 46
Coffea arabica 28 Endive 94
Coffee 28 Etiobotrya japonica 40
Diseases of
30 Erythrma - 72
Processing
31 Erythrina subumbrans 76
Pruning
50 Escarole 94
Colletotrichum 42 Eucosmophara sp. 65
Colocastw antiquorum 106 Exobasidium vexans Massee 70
Colocasia esculenta 106
Conversion factors 166 F
Convolvalus arvensis 185
Figs 23
Corchorus olitorius 95
Foot-rot 48
Corn 90 Foriunella spp. 38
Cowpeas 107 Fragoria spp. 67
Crataegus oxyacanthus 40 Fragaria vesca 67
Crotolaria spp. 28 Fruit and tree crops 3
Crototariaspectablia 28 Fruit fly, Mediterranean 65
Cucumber 92 Fruit fly, Mexican 65
Cucumber mosaic 110 Fungicides, quantities 115
97 Fungicides, names and formulas 115
Cucumis Mel
Fusarium oxysporum (Schlect) 7
Cucumis sativus 92
Fuarsum wilt 107
Cucurbita spp. 103, 108
Custard apple 31, 68
Cynara Scolymus 75
G
Cynodon dactylon 135 Genoderma locidum (Leys.) Darst 9
Cypetus spp. 135 Garcinia mangostana 45

183
 Page Page

Garlic 99 Lettuce 96
Gandul 72 Leucaena 72
Gliricidia
84 Leucanea glauca 70
Glycine max.
103 Leucinodes orbonalis 94
Granadilla 51 Limequat 68
Grapefruit 34 Limes 39
.84 Litchi chenensis 41
Grapes
Gray leaf spot 108 Loquat 40
Guanabana 66 Lychee 41
Guava 86 Lycopewsicon esculentum 108
Gummosis, Diplodia 49
Gummosis, Phytophthora 48 M
Gummy stem bhight 97
Macadamia
Macadamia integrifolia
H Mace
Hairy lychee 61 Malabar spinach
Helminthospotium 91 Malphigia glabra
Herbicides 141 Malphigia suberosa
Hevea brasihensts 61 Malus sylvestris
Hibiscus esculentus 98 Mamey
Hibiscus sabdartifa 61 Mamey sapote
Hzdati irava (Moore) 28 Mammea americana
Horse bean 84 Mamoncillo
Howardia biclavis (Comst.) 65 Mandarin
Hyacinth bean 84 Mango
Hyparheniarufa 135 Mangifeta indica
Mangosteen
Manihot utdissima
I Manioc
llama 28 Marasmius perniciosus
Imbu 38 Melicocca bijuga
lmperata cylindrzca 135 Melon worm
Indigofera endicaphylla 70 Mildew, downy
Insect control 148 Mildew, powdery
Insecticides, common 143 Mimusops hexandra
Insect dilution table 143 Monilia pod rot
Ipomoea batatas 104 Monulia sp.
Mu oil
Muse Paradsiaca
AMsa spp.
Jute mallow 95 Muskmelon
Mustards
K Mu-Yu-Shu
Mycosphaerella cs trullina
Kaki
57 Myristica argentea
Katydids 28 Myristica fragrans
Keiapple 27
Kitembilla. 18
Koleroga fruit rot 9 N
Kumquats 38
Naranjilla 45
Nematodes 113
L Nephelium lappaceunm 61
Nutmeg 45
Lactuca sativa
96
Lantana camara
114
Late blight 108
Leaf spot 100
0
Lecythis elliptica 66 Oil palm 46
Lecythis Zabucayo (Aubl.) 66 Okra 98
Leeks 99 Olea curopaea 47
Lemon 39 Olive 47

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Olive scale 47 P unius salicina 59
Onions 98 Prunus texana 59
Orange, sour 47 Pseudococcus brevipes (Ckll.) 59
Orange, sweet 48 Psoudococcus njalensis (Laing.) 18
Oregon pea 85 Pseudopernospora cubensis (Berk. and Curt.) Rostow 97
Oriental fruit fly 37 Pszdzum cattleianum Sabine 38
Oryctes rhinoceros L. 28 Psidium guajava 38
Pueraria avanica 62
Puerariaphaseoloides 8, 70
p Pulvinoria psidit 65
"Palo de tomate" 31 Pumpkin 103
Panama disease of bananas 7 Punica granatum 60
Pangola grass 114 Puislane 95
Papaya 50 Pyrenochaeta terrestris (Hans) (Gowenz et al) 99
Paradise nut 66 Pyrus communzs 55
Parlatoria oleac 47 Pyrus pyrifolia 55
Passiftora edubs var. flavicarpa 51 Pyrus set otina 55
Passion fruit 51 Pyrus spp. 55
Peaches 52
Peanuts 100 R
Pears 55
Peas 101 Radish 104
Pepper 57 Rambutan 61
Pepper, bell 102 Raphanus sativus 61
Pepper, hot 102 Raspberries 28
Pepper, sweet 102 Red beetle 28
Pepper, tabasco 102 Red ring 104
Peronosporadesiructor (Berk.) (Casp) Rhizobum 86
99
Persea americana Rhinoceros beetle 28
5
Persimmon, Japanese 57 Rhynchophorns palmarum (L.) 28
Pestalotiapalmarum Cke. 2g Root vegetables io4
Phascolas aureus 81, 84 Rortpa Nastutium-aquaticum 92
Phaseolus cocciens 84. Roselle 61
Phascol s hmensis 85 Rubber 61
Phaseolus lunatus 84 Rubus albescens 61
Phaseolus vulgaris 81 Rubuzts glaucus 9
Philippine lime 16 Rubus spp 9
Phoenix dacthzfera 32
Photinia serrulata 40 S
Phytophthora arecac (Col.) Pethy 9
Phytophthora Cinnamonia Rands 7 Sapodilla 64
Phytophthora infestans (Mont) 108 Sapote 65
Phytophthrapalmiorew But 28 Sapucaia nut 66
Pigeon pea 103 Scale, green 65
Pili nut 58 Scale, mining 65
Pineapple 59 Scale, pustule 65
Pink root 98 Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. 97, 100
Piper nigrum 57 Scopella sapotae (Mains ex. Cumm.) 65
Pasum sativum 101 Sechium edule 90
Plant material 162 Senecio cineraria 114
Plums 59 Septoria 65
Pomegranate 60 Septoria leaf spot 65
Popcorn 108 Sesame 107
Portulaca oleracea 95 Sesame indicumn 107
Potatoes 105 Sexava coriacea L 28
Powdery mildew 97 Sexava katnyi Leefmans 28
Prunus armeniaca 5 Sexava novaeguinea Brancs. 28
Prunus besseyi 52 Sexava nubila Stal, 28
Prunus cerasifera 59 Shallots 99
Prunus occidentalis 59 Sigatoka disease of bananas 8
Prunus Petsica 52 Sinaps juncea 95

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Solanum grandiflorus 114 Tomato 108
Solanum melongena 98 Tung 71
Solanum quitoense 45 Turnip III
Solanum tuberosum 105
Soursop 66 U
Southern blight 66
Southern pea 107 Uredo sapotae (Arth. and J.R. Johnston) 65
Spinach, Ceylon 95
Spinach, Malabar 95
Spinach, New Zealand 96 V
Spondias tuberosa, Arruda 28 Vanilla 72
Squash 108 Vanilla planifolia 72
Star-apple 66 Vegetable crops 73
Stem end rot 123 Estimated yield 76
Siemphylium solani (Weber) 110 Planning and temperature requirements 77
Sterculiaceac 16 Proximate composition of 78
Stizolabstum sp. 28 Verduga 95
Strategus spp. 28 Vicia faba 84
Strawberries 67 Vigna hosei 28, 70
Strawberry guava 38 Vigna sinensis 28, 107
Sugar apple 68 Vitis spp. 34
Supplies, source of 163
Sweet potato
Sweetsop
104
68
W
Swollen shoot 13 Water cress 92
Watermelons 111
T Weeds and their control 135
West Indies cherry 4
Tagetes spp 114 Witches' broom 13
Tampala 95
Tangelos 68
Tangerines 68 X
Tangors 68 Xanthosoma 106
Tanier 106
Tapioca 104
Taro 106
V
Tea 69 Yams 105
Tephrosia sp. 28 Yautia 106
Tetragonia expanso 96 Yuca 104
Thea sinensis 69
Theobroma cacao 10
Thielaviopsts paradoxa (De Segn.) Hoehn. 28 z
Tobacco mosaic 116 Zea nays 90, 103

186