Flower Production Gardening

I S B N 9789390591213
ISBN 939059121-X
9 789390 591213
Flower Production
and
Gardening
About the Editors
Dr P. K. Yadav, born in Bulandshahr district of Uttar Pradesh
is currently Professor and Head, Department of Horticulture,
S. K. Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner. He received
his Post Graduation and Doctoral degree from Agra University
Agra. He has been actively involved in the teaching profession
for more than 25 years in S.K. Rajasthan Agricultural University
Bikaner. During his long illustrious carrier he has guided
numerous M.Sc. and Ph.D. students. He has published around 75
Research papers in national and international journals, and has also written around
50 popular articles. He is the author of two internationally and two nationally
published books and has complied three Compendiums as editor of Winter School
and Training. He wrote two practical manual and five technical bulletins. He has
also handled various research projects and organized one Winter School and has
delivered several Radio and TV talk shows for farmers. He received Scientist of
the Year Award 2012.
Prof. Raksha Pal Singh, a renowned agricultural scientist,

academician and research manager, has been working as
Vice Chancellor, Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan Agricultural
University, Bikaner, Rajasthan, India since August, 2019.
Besides Ph.D. in Agricultural Extension (1996) from B. R.
Ambedakar University, Agra, UP. Prof. Singh was conferred
with the Post P.G. Diploma in Mass Communication and
Journalism from Kendriya Hindi Sansthan, Ministry of Human
Resource Development, Govt. of India, Agra, UP. He has expertise in areas of
Socio-economic-psychological issues in agriculture and rural development,
information communication technology (ICT), human resource management,
participatory development & leadership, farming system research etc. He has
published >200 publications including research papers, books, book chapters etc.
Prof. Singh has been conferred with various prestigious awards and recognitions
as Best Administrator Award by Academy for Environment and Life Sciences,
Agra and Life Time Achievement awards one by Indian Society of Extension
Education on the occasion of ISEE National Seminar 2019 by Hon’ble Chancellor
and Governor of Rajasthan Shri Kalraj Mishra and another by society for Scientific
Development in Agriculture & Technology, Meerut., UP.
Flower Production
and
Gardenin
P. K. Yadav
Professor & Head
Department of Horticulture
S. K. Rajasthan Agricultural University
Bikaner, Rajasthan
. P. Singh
Vice Chancellor
S. K. Rajasthan Agricultural University
Bikaner, Rajasthan
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Preface
The history of systematic gardening in India is as old as it's civilization, which existed
between 2500 B.C and 1750 B.C. Trees related with religious civilization were Ficus
religiosa and Ficus bengalensis. Aryans came to India in 1600 B.C. and appreciated
the beauty of plants, lakes, mountains, forests etc. and named their children after
flowers like Kamal, Rukmani, Kailash etc. A very beautiful description of Ayodhya
city with wide streets, large houses, richly decorated temples and gardens was
mentioned in the famous book Ramayana written by Valmiki. In Mahabharata, it
is described that the pleasure gardens were maintained with flowering plants. The
famous tree of this era was Kadamba (Anthocephalus cadamba), associated with the
Lord Krishna. Lord Buddha was also associated with Asoka, Pipal, Banyan, Mango
and Sal trees. (Source: ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in)
Presently, floriculture is a fast emerging and rapidly expanding industry through
strong research and development. It covers all aspects related to commercial growing,
marketing, arrangement of seeds & bulbs, plants, flowers etc. On the other hand
gardening is all about the planning and planting of an area to secure a relationship
between the landscape and plants to meet the human needs for beauty and function
in the best way. Indian floriculture, occupies 1044 (000 ha) area with 3651 (000 MT)
production and 3.49 (MT/ha) productivity (NHB, 2018). Apart from the utilities of
ornamental plants in outdoor gardening and interior decoration as in-house plants,
cut-flowers, potted plants and dried products also constitute as an important segment
of the international trade. The scenario of floriculture is fast changing due to steadily
widening export opportunities. The total export from the total floriculture products is
around 20703.97 (MT) with a value Rs. 50731.22 lacs (NHB, 2018). The demand for
flowers and ornamental plants in the domestic market is also growing at a fast pace
and a large number of people earn their livelihood by production and marketing of
flowers and ornamental plants.
The present title has been planned and designed to meet the long - felt need for a
book covering major aspects of important floriculture crops. A series of courses
are operational in the curriculum of UG and PG programmes. The courses in the
subject are highly ramified and need specific literature for a particular matter. The
students have to turn - out the pages of numerous books to cover the matter on all
diverse aspects of floriculture. It is in this context, that the work of compiling
various facets of floriculture has been attempted and we feel pleased to present it
in the form to meet out the needs of the readers. This book would serve as a reliable
source of information about all the important and relevant aspects of floriculture and
vi Flower Production and Gardening
ornamental horticulture for various uses including production technology of export

quality flowers to the persons who are associated with or working in floriculture
with the latest information for further advancement. In this book important aspects
of floriculture are explained in a concise and easy to understand format using simple
and lucid language. Encompassing 32 chapters, the book is a detailed summary of
facts figures yet in a comprehensive way.
It is a pleasure to acknowledge with thanks the help and cooperation of the contributors.
Heartfelt thanks to all our colleagues and friends who helped us in this endeavour.
P. K. Yadav
R. P. Singh
Contents
Preface..............................................................................................................v
1. Importance and Scope of Ornamental Horticulture...............................1

S.S. Sindhu and M.R. Dhiman
2. Principles and Elements of Landscape Design.......................................13
Ashutosh Mishra
3. Styles of Gardening and Different Types of Garden.............................25
S.K. Khandelwal
4. Turfgrass Management: Principles and Practices.................................41
S.L. Chawla, Roshni Agnihotri and R.D. Pawar
5. Cultivation and Management of Annual Flowers..................................59
Ajai Kumar Tiwari, Babita Singh, Ritu Jain and Gunjeet Kumar
6. Ornamental Shrubs and Their Management.........................................71
L.N. Bairwa and A.K. Mahawar
7. Climbers.....................................................................................................87
Madhu Bala
8. Trees.........................................................................................................103
Simrat Singh
9. Indoor Plants...........................................................................................125
R.K. Dubey and Simrat Singh
10. Cacti and Succulents.............................................................................151
Sapna Panwar, Namita and Neelam Thakur
11. Bonsai.....................................................................................................165
Reeta Bhatia, Saurabh Singh and Shyam Sundar Dey
12. Rose........................................................................................................179
S.S. Sindhu and Namita
13. Carnation...............................................................................................193
S.R. Dhiman, Puja Sharma, Bharati Kashyap, Arshi Sultanpuri,
Kalkame Ch. Momin and Pratibha Chauhan
viii Flower Production and Gardening
14. Chrysanthemum....................................................................................213
L.N. Mahawer, A.L. Regar and Sadam Hussain
15. Cultivation of Gerbera.........................................................................229
Tanya Thakur and K. K. Dhatt
16. Orchids...................................................................................................239
N.K. Meena and Ram Pal
17. Anthurium.............................................................................................251
Sanchita Ghosh, Ajit Kumar, Tripti Tewari and Syed Khudus
18. Gladiolus................................................................................................263
L.N. Mahawer, Saddam Hussain, A.L. Regar
19. Aster.......................................................................................................283
B.D. Bhuj and Yograj Kushwaha
20. Tuberose.................................................................................................293
P. K. Yadav and Priyanka Kumawat
21. Bird of Paradise and Heliconia............................................................303
K. Nihad
22. Dahlia.....................................................................................................321
Simrat Singh, R. K. Dubey and K. K. Dhatt
23. Lilium.....................................................................................................333
M.R. Dhiman
24. Statice.....................................................................................................355
Ranjit Singh and Parminder Singh
25. Jasmines.................................................................................................365
Safeena S.A.
26. Marigold.................................................................................................377
B.S. Beniwal and Sonu Kumari Sheoran
27. Lotus.......................................................................................................401
P. K.Yadav and Kumari Lata
28. Post-Harvest Handling of Flowers......................................................409
Puja Sharma, S.R. Dhiman, Priyanka Sharma and Panchal Sangmesh
29. Dehydration of Flowers for Value-Addition.......................................427
Bharati Kashyap, Rajesh Bhalla, S.R. Dhiman, Puja Sharma and
Sangeeta Kumari
30. Importance of Cut Foliage and Fillers in Floriculture Industry......441
Vanlalruati, Ritu Jain, Prativa Anand, Babita Singh
and Gunjeet Kumar
Contents ix
31. Flower Arrangement: Principles & Methods.......................................445

Yeshpal Singh, Kumari Lata and P. K.Yadav
32. Essential Oils in Ornamental Plants......................................................465
Ashish, S. Ghormade, Kumari Lata, Parag Sable, Sumed Thorat
List of Contributors
Chapter 1: Importance and Scope of Ornamental Horticulture

S. S. Sindhu, Head, Division of Floriculture & Landscaping, ICAR-Indian
Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi
M. R. Dhiman, Pr. Scientist (ARS), ICAR-Indian Agriculture Research Institute
Regional Station, Katrain, Kullu, Himachal Pradesh
Chapter 2: Principles and Elements of Landscape Design

Ashutosh Mishra, Professor & Head, Department of Floriculture & Landscaping
College of Horticulture and Forestry, Jhalawar, (Agriculture University, Kota)
Chapter 3: Styles of Gardening and Different Types of Garden

S. K. Khandelwal. Professor and Zonal Director Research, S. K. N. Agriculture
University, Jobner, Rajasthan
Chapter 4: Turfgrass Management: Princeples & Practices

S. L. Chawla, Associate Professor & Ex. Head, Department of Floriculture &
Landscape Architecture, Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari, Gujarat
Roshni Agnihotri, Assistant Professor, RPCAU, Pusa, Bihar
R. D. Pawar, Assistant Professor & Ph.D. Scholar, (NAU, Navsari), College of
Agriculture, Kolhapur, Maharashtra
Chapter 5: Cultivation and Management of Annual Flowers

Ajai Kumar Tiwari, Principal Scientist, Division of Floriculture and Landscaping
ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi
Babita Singh, Scientist, Division of Floriculture and Landscaping
Ritu Jain, Senior Scientist, Division of Floriculture and Landscaping
Gunjeet Kumar, Principal Scientist, Division of Floriculture and Landscaping
xii Flower Production and Gardening
Chapter 6: Shrubs and Their Management

L. N. Bairwa, Professor and Head, Department of Horticulture, SKN College of
Agriculture Jobner, Jaipur, Rajasthan
A. K. Mahawar, Research Scholar, Department of Horticulture, SKN College of
Agriculture Jobner, Jaipur, Rajasthan
Chapter 7: Climbers
Madhu Bala, Scientist (Floriculture and Landscaping), Department of Floriculture
and Landscaping, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab
Chapter 8: Trees
Simrat Singh, Scientist (Floriculture and Landscaping), Punjab Agricultural
University Ludhiana
Chapter 9: Indoor Plants

R. K. Dubey, Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, Punjab Agricultural
University, Ludhiana, Punjab
Simrat Singh, Scientist (Floriculture and Landscaping), Punjab Agricultural
Chapter 10: Cacti and Succulents

Sapna Panwar, Scientist, Division of Floriculture and Landscaping, ICAR-Indian
Namita, Senior Scientist, Division of Floriculture and Landscaping, ICAR-Indian
Neelam Thakur, Assistant Professor, Department of Horticulture, School of
Agriculture, Lovely Professional University, Jalandhar, Punjab
Chapter 11: Bonsai

Reeta Bhatia, Senior Scientist, Division of Floriculture and Landscaping, ICAR-
Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi
Shyam Sundar Dey, Senior Scientist, Division of Vegetable Science, ICAR-Indian
Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi-12
Saurabh Singh, Research Scholar, Division of Floriculture and Landscaping
Chapter 12: Rose

S. S. Sindhu, Head, Division of Floriculture & Landscaping, ICAR-Indian
Agricultural Research Institute,New Delhi
List of Contributors xiii
Namita, Senior Scientist, Division of Floriculture & Landscaping, ICAR-Indian

Chapter 13: Carnation

S. R. Dhiman, Professor & Head, Department of Floriculture and Landscape
Architecture, Dr. Y S Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry
Nauni-Solan, Himachal Pradesh
Puja Sharma, Associate Professor, Department of Floriculture and Landscape
Nauni, Solan, Himachal Pradesh
Bharati Kashyap, Associate Professor, Department of Floriculture and Landscape
Architecture, Dr. Y S Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry,
Arshi Sultanpuri, Department of Floriculture and Landscape Architecture,
Dr. Y S Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni-Solan,
Himachal Pradesh
Kalkame Ch. Momin, Scientist, Department of Floriculture and Landscape
Pratibha Chauhan, Scientist, Department of Floriculture and Landscape
Chapter 14: Chrysanthemum

L. N. Mahawer, Professor, Rajasthan College of Agriculture, MPUAT, Udaipur
Rajasthan
Chapter 15: Cultivation of Gerbera

Tanya Thakur, Assistant Floriculturist, Department of Floriculture and
Landscaping, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana , Punjab
K. K. Dhatt, Senior Floriculturist and Head, Department of Floriculture and
Landscaping, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana , Punjab
Chapter 16: Orchids

N. K. Meena, Senior Scientist, ICAR-National Research Centre on Seed Spices
Tabiji, Ajmer, Rajasthan
Ram Pal, Senior Scientist, ICAR-National Research Centre for Orchids Pakyong,
East Sikkim, Sikkim
xiv Flower Production and Gardening
Chapter 17: Anthurium

Sanchita Ghosh, Subject Matter Specialist, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central
Agricultural University, Pusa, Distt. Samastipur, Bihar
Ajit Kumar Kapoor, Professor Floriculture, Department of Horticulture, G.B.
Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand
Tripti Tewari, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology
Pantnagar, Uttarakhand
Syed Khudus, Research Scholar, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture &
Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand
Chapter 18: Gladiolus

L. N. Mahawer, Professor & Principal Investigator, Department of Horticulture,
Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur
Rajasthan
Saddam Hussain, Research Scholar, Department of Horticulture, Maharana
Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur, Rajasthan
A. L. Regar, Research Scholar, Department of Horticulture, Maharana Pratap
University of Agriculture and Technology Udaipur, Rajasthan
Chapter 19: Aster

B. D. Bhuj, Professor (Floriculture & Landscaping) Department of Horticulture,
G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, U.S. Nagar
Uttarakhand
Yograj Kushwaha, Research Scholar (Floriculture & Landscaping), Department
of Horticulture, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology
Pantnagar, Uttarakhand
Chapter 20: Tuberose

P.K. Yadav, Professor & Head, S.K. Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner
Rajasthan
Priyanka Kumawat, Research Scholar, S.K. Rajasthan Agricultural University
Bikaner, Rajasthan
Chapter 21: Bird of Paradise and Heliconia

K. Nihad, Senior Scientist (Horticulture), ICAR-CPCRI, Kasaragod, Kerala
List of Contributors xv
Chapter 22: Dahlia

Simrat Singh, Scientist (Floriculture and Landscaping), Department of
Floriculture and Landscaping, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana
Punjab
R. K. Dubey, Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, Punjab Agricultural
K. K. Dhatt, Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, Punjab Agricultural
Chapter 23: Lilium

M. R. Dhiman, Principal Scientist (ARS), ICAR-Indian Agriculture Research
Institute Regional Station, Katrain, Kullu, Himachal Pradesh
Chapter 24: Statice

Ranjit Singh, Assistant Professor (Floriculture), Department of Floriculture and
Landscaping, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab
Parminder Singh, Professor Floriculture & Landscaping, Department of
Floriculture and Landscaping, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana
Punjab
Chapter 25: Jasmines

Safeena S. A., Senior Scientist (Floriculture and Landscaping), ICAR – Directorate
of Floricultural Research, (Indian Council of Agricultural Reseach), College
of Agriculture Campus, Shivaji Nagar, Pune, Maharashtra
Chapter 26: Marigold

B. S. Beniwal, Professor, Department of Horticulture, CCS Haryana Agricultural
University, Hisar, Haryana
Sonu Kumari Sheoran, Assistant Scientist, Department of Horticulture, CCS
Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana
Chapter 27: Lotus

P. K. Yadav, Professor & Head, S.K. Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner
Rajasthan
Kumari Lata, Research Scholar, S.K. Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner
Rajasthan
xvi Flower Production and Gardening
Chapter 28: Post-Harvest Handling of Flowers

Puja Sharma, Associate Professor (Floriculture and Landscaping), Department
of Floriculture and Landscape Architecture, Dr Y S Parmar University of
Horticulture and Forestry, Solan, Himachal Pradesh
S. R. Dhiman, Professor and Head (Floriculture and Landscaping), Department
Priyanka Sharma, Assistant Professor, R.L.B. Central Agriculture University
Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh
Panchal Sangmesh, Research Scholar, Department of Floriculture and Landscape
Architecture, Dr Y S Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan
Himachal Pradesh
Chapter 29: Dehydration of Flowers for Value-Addition

Bharati Kashyap, Associate Professor (Floriculture and Landscaping)
Department of Floriculture and Landscape Architecture, Dr Y S Parmar
University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan, Himachal Pradesh
Rajesh Bhalla, Professor & Head, Department of Floriculture and Landscape
Architecture, Dr Y S Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan
Himachal Pradesh
S. R. Dhiman, Professor and Head (Floriculture and Landscaping), Department
Puja Sharma, Associate Professor ( Floriculture and Landscaping), Department
Sangeeta Kumari, Horticulture Development Officer (H.P.), Department of
Floriculture and Landscape Architecture, Dr Y S Parmar University of
Chapter 30: Importance of Cut Foliage and Fillers in Floriculture Industry

Vanlalruati, Scientist, Division of Floriculture and Landscaping, ICAR-Indian
Ritu Jain, Senior Scientist, Division of Floriculture and Landscaping
Prativa Anand, Scientist, Division of Floriculture and Landscaping, ICAR-Indian
Babita Singh, Scientist, Division of Floriculture and Landscaping, ICAR-Indian
List of Contributors xvii
Gunjeet Kumar, Principal Scientist-Floriculture, PME Cell, Directorate,

Chapter 31: Flower Arrangements: Principles & Methods

Yesh Pal Singh, Chief Horticulturist, Maurya Sheraton, ITC Hotels, New Delhi
P. K. Yadav, Professor & Head, S.K. Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner
Rajasthan
Rajasthan
Chapter 32: Essential Oils in Ornamental Plants

Ashish S. Ghormade, Research Scholar, Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi
Vidyapeeth, Dapoli, Maharashtra
Parag Sable, Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli
Maharahstra
Sumed Thorat, Assistant Professor, Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi
Vidyapeeth, Dapoli, Maharashtra
1
Importance and Scope of Ornamental
Horticulture
S.S. Sindhu and M.R. Dhiman
Ornamental horticulture consists of floriculture and landscape horticulture. Each

is concerned with growing and marketing of plants used to beautify the outdoor
environment and with the associated activities of flower arrangements and landscape
designs. Ornamental plants provide comfort and peace in our everyday lives.
Floriculture is a dynamic, global, fast growing industry comprises of cultivation and
trade of cut flowers, loose flowers, potted plants, foliage plants, dried flowers and
value added products etc and is becoming popular in both domestic and export markets
(Rikken, 2010). In the recent years, ornamental horticulture has emerged as a profitable
agri-business in India due to improved living standards and growing consciousness
among the citizens to live in environment friendly ambiance. Now-a- days this
activity has assumed the commercial status with great potential for generating gainful
self-employment among small and marginal farmers. Globalization of the Indian
economy and subsequent liberalization of the Seed Act paved the way for the advent
of protected cultivation of flowers in the country resulting in increase the production
of quality floricultural products witnessing their presence in the international flower
markets. The production and trade of floriculture has exhibited considerable increase
consistently over the last decade in the country.
Flowers and ornamental plants have been associated with mankind since time
immemorial, as they have been used for religious offerings and other social ceremonies.
Loose flowers are mostly grown for worship, garland making and decoration. Cut
flowers like rose, chrysanthemum, carnation, gerbera, anthurium, orchids and lily
are mostly grown for export purposes. Some of the flowers are also edible with their
nutritional value e.g. Dahlia tubers, lily, tapioca etc., mainly their roots are rich in
starch and even dahlia roots are considered good to cure the cancer.
Status
Flowers have always remained an integral part of social fabric of human life. Man has
traditionally used flowers for expressing or exhibiting his innermost feelings to God
and deities or presenting to the beloved ones or complimenting any one or versifying
any conceivable emotion. Due to continued growth in demand in the recent years,
flowers cultivation has gained a status of commercial importance and is viewed as a
high growth industry. Export of floricultural products has been on the rise and therefore
2 Flower Production and Gardening
Indian floriculture industry has diversified from traditional flowers to cut flowers for
export purposes. The Indian floriculture market was worth INR 130 billion in 2017.
The market is further projected to reach INR 394 billion by 2023 at a CAGR of 20%
during 2018-2023. India is one of the leading country in floriculture with an area of
3.12 lac ha producing 2058 thousand million tonnes cut flowers and 806, 000 MT
of loose flowers during 2016-17 (NHB database, 2017). On the exports point, it has
steadily growing over 20% annually. The country has exported 22,000 metric tonnes
of floricultural products worth of Rs. 547 crore ($82 m) in 2016-17. Major export
destinations were the United States, Germany, United Kingdom, The Netherlands and
the United Arab Emirates. Major export destinations for Indian Floricultural products
during 2019-20 are as under:
Top ten export destinations of floricultural products from India (2019-20)
S.No. Country of destination Quantity (MT)* Value (Rs. Lacs)
1. U.S.A. 3,276.08 13,902.70
2. The Netherlands 1,377.08 7,852.26
3. Germany 1,112.52 4,093.47
4. United Kingdom 1,236.74 4,091.67
5. United Arab Emirates 1,499.07 3,311.24
6. Singapore 2,037.67 1,279.02
7. Malaysia 843.81 1,760.07
8. Canada 393.05 2,012.07
9. Italy 358.80 1,613.63
10. Japan 205.46 1,311.67
MT=Metric Tonnes (Source: APEDA)
The export basket of the Indian floricultural products comprises of dry flowers
(77.1%), cut flowers (6.1%), bulbs and rhizomes (0.8%), cut foliage (0.02%) and
others (15.9%).
State wise area and production of flower crops in India (2018-19)
State Area (‘000’ ha) Production of flowers
Loose (Metric Tonnes) Cut (Lacs, Nos.)
Andhra Pradesh 28.04 302.53 0.00
Arunchal Pradesh 0.00 0.00 0.00
Assam 5.199 34.892 58.341
Bihar 1.41 10.13 0.39
Chhattisgarh 13.06 54.94 214.81
Gujarat 20.50 195.86 0.00
Haryana 5.96 72.85 2.64
Himachal Pradesh 0.64 12.35 10.56
Jammu & Kashmir 0.28 27.00 4.45
Jharkhand 0.81 4.45 4.17
Karnataka 24.756 178.033 75.211
Kerala 53.26 0.08 44.84
Importance and Scope of Ornamental Horticulture 3
State Area (‘000’ ha) Production of flowers

Loose (Metric Tonnes) Cut (Lacs, Nos.)
Madhya Pradesh 31.42 375.62 0.00
Maharashtra 11.36 57.61 0.11
Manipur 0.05 0.02 0.27
Meghalaya 0.01 0.00 0.02
Mizoram 0.17 0.00 2.36
Nagaland 0.04 0.00 24.40
Odisha 6.61 24.91 48.79
Punjab 2.09 13.07 0.00
Rajasthan 4.10 7.60 0.00
Sikkim 0.24 16.50 0.09
Tamil Nadu 39.80 521.78 17.15
Telangana 4.60 20.71 10.96
Tripura 0.00 0.00 0.00
Uttar Pradesh 21.33 46.70 65.58
Uttarakhand 1.55 2.55 12.02
West Bengal 29.10 77.42 208.82
Others 6.54 1.12 0.59
All India total 312.93 2058.72 806.55
(Source: National Horticulture Board)
Importance
India is a home of vast wealth of genetic resources of wild species of ornamental plants
spread over various habitats like forests, gardens, hilly tracts and wild habitats, which
are of great floricultural importance and significance. Large collections of beautiful
plant species like orchids, rhododendrons, primula, camellia, etc., are found wild in
the Himalayan and other mountainous regions. The Kashmir valley and the valley of
flowers are also rich sources of indigenous flowers. A large number of these native
Indian species have been extensively used in the improvement of various flowers in
other countries. Some of these Indian floras have been compiled and described. These
basic genetic resources need to be conserved and effectively utilized in the development
of floriculture in India. Economic aspects of ornamental horticulture are as important
as the aesthetic ones. The floricultural product of commercial importance mainly
consists of cut flowers followed by flowering pot plants, tree and nursery crops, flower
bulbs, dried flower products, propagation material and other value added products
etc. Developed countries account for more than 90 percent of the total world trade in
floricultural products. Netherlands continues to be the world leader in the export of
floricultural products. The liberalized policies of the Government both at centre and
state level have resulted in mushrooming of floricultural units in the country over the
years.
1. Major components of floriculture industry

1.1 Traditional flowers
The domestic consumption of loose flowers especially marigold, china aster, desi
gulab, jasmine, crossandra, grallardia, barleria, etc. has been increased tremendously.
It is clear that area under traditional flowers has increased significantly. This sector,
inspite of its potential, is still an unorganized and often does not get proper importance.
Research is required on developing high-yielding varieties, year round production

of chrysanthemum, china aster, marigold etc. and in promotion of crops like annual
chrysanthemum, desi rose, etc.
Among the traditional crops grown for loose flowers, the largest area is under marigold,
grown all over the country. In most parts of the country only local varieties are grown
for generations. African marigolds occupy more area as compared to the small flowered
French types. Jasmine flowers in view of its scent are also very popular as loose flowers
and for use in garlands and Veni (ornament for decoration of hair by women). The
major areas under this crop are in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka in South and West Bengal
in East. The varieties are mainly improved clones of Jasminum grandiflorum, J.
auriculatum and J. sambac. The chrysanthemum, particularly the white varieties are
much in demand as loose flowers during the autumn period of October-December
when other flowers like jasmine, tuberose are not available for use in garlands etc.
Among other traditional flowers grown in large areas are crossandra in southern states
of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh and aster in Maharashtra.
1.2 Cut flowers
The cut flowers constitute more than 45 percent share of the total world trade in
floricultural products. Rose is the principal cut flower grown all over the country, even
though in terms of total area, it may not be so. The larger percentage of the area in
many states is used for growing scented rose, usually local varieties akin to the Gruss
en Tepelitz, the old favourite to be sold as loose flowers. These are used for offerings at
places of worship, for the extraction of essential oils and also used in garlands. For cut
flower use, the old rose varieties like Queen Elizabeth, Super Star, Montezuma, Papa
Meilland, Christian Dior, Eiffel Tower, Kiss of Fire, Golden Giant, Garde Henkel,
First Prize etc. are still popular. In recent times, with production for export gaining
ground in the country, the latest varieties like First Red, Grand Gala, Konfitti, Ravel,
Tineke, Sacha, Prophyta, Pareo, Noblesse. Virsilia, Vivaldi etc. are also being grown
commercially.
Chrysanthemum and Lilium is another most important cut flower crop in the country.
Earlier it was considered a crop for temperate regions and its growing was restricted to
the hilly areas, particularly in the north eastern region, which still continues to supply
the planting material to most parts of the country. However, with improved agronomic
techniques and better management, the northern plains of Delhi, Haryana, Punjab,
Uttar Pradesh, as well as Maharashtra and Karnataka have emerged as the major areas
for production of these cut flowers in India. Both single and double flower varieties of
tuberose are equally popular and also sold loose in some areas for preparing garlands
and wreaths. The other main cut flower item is orchid. Its production is restricted
mainly in the north-eastern hill regions, besides parts of the southern states of Kerala
and Karnataka. The main species grown are Dendrobiums, Vanda, Paphiopedilums
Oncidiums, Phalaenopsis and Cymbidiums.
1.3 Foliage plants
Another group of ornamental plants of considerable commercial importance are
foliage plants. Its production has gained much importance in the recent years in places
like Bangalore, Kolkata, Delhi, Rajamundry, Trivandrum, Agra, Pune and in many
other cities and towns of the country. Several nurserymen have taken up large –scale
multiplication of the foliage plants to cater to the growing needs of indoor decoration
at homes, offices and hotels. In the metropolitan cities particularly, there has been a
great awareness in recent years of the usefulness of house plants for home decoration.
With the growing population, lack of open space and development of multi-storeyed
building systems, people have to depend largely on indoor plants for decorating their
surroundings. Some exports of the foliage and other ornamental plants have started in
the last few years to the Gulf and Middle-East countries.
1.4 Flower seeds
The demands of flower seeds are increasing worldwide because of rise in socio-
economic status of urban people and awareness towards the healthy environment.
Quality seed production is labour intensive. In floriculture, demand of quality seed of
annual flowers is increasing. Maintenance of genetic purity of seeds is most essential.
Four types of flower seeds can be produced–Mixture or open pollinated seeds, Inbred
or pure-lines, F1 hybrids and F2 strains. Flower seed industry is another field, with
great potential for development in India with the ban on import of flower seeds, during
the World War II, when the indigenous seed industry developed. However, its growth
was slow and on a small-scale only. In recent years, though a few seeds men have
started producing high quality F1 hybrid seeds of certain seasonal flowers for export,
there is still much scope for development of this industry in India. An average home
gardener is often not able to find reliable quality seeds at reasonable price. This has
also affected the development of our gardens as well as the flower industry, to some
extent. In India, with a great variability in soil and climatic conditions, it is possible
to produce seeds of all types of flowers. There have also been instances of large-scale
production of corms/bulbs of different bulbous crops like gladiolus, lilium, dahlia,
crinum, crocus, calla lily, amaryllis to meet the growing demand both in the domestic
as well in the international market.
1.5 High value flowers
High value flowers like Lilium, Asiatic ginger lily, protea, heliconia, orchids, bird
of paradise, etc. are being cultivated in comparatively smaller area but these fetch
higher returns per unit area owing to high flower value. Such high value flowers are
being cultivated in southern states and hilly region of our country where climate is
favourable and remains constant as per crop requirements.
1.6 Essential oils and perfumes
In India, flower crops grown for essential oil production are limited and include mainly
rose, jasmine, tuberose, etc. (Singh, 1990; Irulappan, 1994).The important aspect of
commercial floriculture is the production of flowers for extraction of essential oils
and perfumes. There exists a great demand of these both in domestic and international
markets. Their need in the perfumery trade, in the cosmetic market as well as in the
food industry is continuously increasing. The two most important flowers which find
their use in the perfumes are rose and jasmine. In India, extraction of essential oils from
rose and jasmine has been practised for a very long time. Large areas in Uttar Pradesh
around Hathras and Aligarh and Haldighati in Rajasthan are put under production of
Rosa damascena, the Damask rose, for the extraction of rose oil. There are plantations
at Kannauj (UP) and Amritsar (Punjab) and Himachal Pradesh, where rose attar,
rose water and gulkand are manufactured from Damask rose and the Edouard rose
(Rosa borboniana). Similarly, growers around Coimbatore produce large quantities
of jasmine, particularly Jasminum grandiflorum and J. auriculatum for extraction of
jasmine concrete. Processes for the extraction of these oils have been indigenously
developed. A good R&D work has been carried by Tamilnadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore.
2. Ornamental gardening
This includes, landscape planning and designing, establishment and maintenance
contracts, etc. This is highly money spinner business owing to the growing industries,
population along with general eco-friendly awareness and need for green view.
There is regular demand for systematic avenue plantation, traffic island landscaping,
landscaping of public places and societies.
a. Aesthetical Importance: Establishment of gardens helps in maintaining the

ecological balance by producing large quantities of bio mass. Ornamental trees help
in fighting environmental pollutions and also add beauty to the environment known as
avenue plantation and thus, they are considered as the best component of social forestry.
Waste land, salt affected areas, arid semi-arid regions can be utilized for cultivation
of suitable trees for improvement of surroundings as well as for high returns. The
arboriculture and plantation of seasonal flowers improve the ambience of the locality.
Now a day’s, many corporate houses have set up their offices in India and they are
giving due emphasis to the landscape to improve their ambience and public health.
Even on the road side and as an avenue trees, many fruits plants like lemon, aonla,
jamun, tamarind and mango are planted as avenue on road side. They provide shade,
aesthetic value and serve a purpose of avenue plantation for healthy environment.
Apart from trees, many topiary works, hedges, shrubs and seasonal flowers add value
of colour and design in landscape.
b. Environment
Ornamental horticulture has also played a significant role in improving the
environment. Besides the important parks and gardens described earlier in the post-
independence era, much emphasis has been laid on development of gardens and public
parks in many cities, towns, residential and industrial areas, river bank sides and
alongside the highways. The greater use of ornamental plants certainly contributes to
the improvement of the environment. For instance, some trees have been found to be
useful in preventing air and noise pollutions in urban areas. The trees provide shade
and create better microclimate. There is enough scientific evidence to indicate that the
environment does affect the behaviour of man. These gardens have also served as good
recreation spots.
c. Economy Benefit
Economy of Himachal Pradesh largely depends upon apple and flowers cultivation.
Grapes a have flourished greatly in Punjab, Delhi, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. In Uttar Pradesh, production of mango in the plains
and temperate fruits in the hills has increased substantially in the last few decades.
Production of coconut and cashew nut is showing sharp upward trend due to new
plantation in Orissa, north-eastern states and rejuvenation of old ones in Kerala. Fruits
cultivation is highly profitable as the net return per unit area of land is maximum
compared to many other crops. They are one of the potential foreign exchange earners.
Cultivation of fruit crops generates employment for rural masses. The horticultural
crops besides providing livelihood to a large number of small farmers contribute
significantly to economic security. Covering 6.1 % of the gross cropped area, they
contribute 18.8 % gross value of the agricultural output and 14.5 % of foreign exchange
earned through agriculture.
Ornamental plant is today’s lucrative business where we have a wide range of such
plants based on whole sale or retail, indoor/shade loving plants, tissue culture plants,
commercial flowering plants, shrubs, climbers and tree seedlings for landscaping,
annual plants, bulbous flowers, etc. are flourishing well throughout the country.
Besides, there is high demand of lawn species for landscaping as well as plant rental
services in the nurseries.
A nursery is a managed site, designed to produce seedlings grown under favorable
conditions until they are ready for planting. All nurseries primarily aim to produce
sufficient quantities of high quality seedlings to satisfy the needs of users and earn a
livelihood.
Globalization has improved the chances of export of quality planting material to other
countries. Special techniques and care is required for exporting the nursery material.
Similarly, great care is necessary while importing nursery material from outside.
Ornamental and floricultural crops are numerous and are propagated vegetatively,
like gladiolus, carnation, roses, lilies etc. There is a large group of ornamental plants,
which is propagated by seeds and seedling such as Asters, Marigolds, Salvias, etc.
There is an increasing demand for potted plants for gifts such as bougainvillea,
roses, dahlia, cactus and succulents, etc. Specialized plants like ficus, cycas, roses,
and bougainvillea etc can be multiplied in nursery site. It provides employment
opportunities for technical, skilled, semi-skilled, and unskilled labour as there is a huge
demand of skilled professionals for grafting, budding, potting, re-potting and other
nursery operations. Therefore, nursery can itself be a very remunerative enterprise in
the changing national scenario.
d. Phyto-remediation
Large areas of soils have been contaminated by heavy metals, which are deleterious
to the existence, reproduction, and development of living organisms including plants,
animals and microorganisms. This phenomena has been threatened the health of
ecosystems and human being themselves. Because soils contaminated by toxic heavy
metals have important characteristics such as concealment, delay, accumulation,
regionalism and irreversibility. Soil remediation has not only received more attention
in environmental science and engineering, but also becomes global problems to be
solved urgently. Phytoextraction which makes use of harvestable parts of plants to
remove pollutants represents green and environmental-friendly tools for cleaning
metal polluted soils and waters compared with conventional chemical and physical
remediation technologies which are generally costly and often harmful to soil
ecosystems.
Ornamental plants are an important type of higher plants apart from those in the food
chain, and are quite crucial if they have hyper-accumulation properties and can be
applied to remediation of contaminated soils. Up to now, there was no document
on ornamental plants that had been applied to phytoremediation, which can remedy
contaminated environment and beatify it at the same time. Liu et al., (2008) reported
that three ornamental annuals e.g. Calendula officinalis, Althaea rosea and Impatiens
balsamina had higher tolerance and accumulation ability to cadmium (Cd) and Lead
(Pb).
3. Nursery
Nursery is place where plants are grown for transplanting, for use as stock for budding
and grafting, or for further sale. Commercial nurseries produce and distribute woody
and herbaceous plants, including ornamental trees, shrubs, bulb crops, seasonal plants
and all other allied activities of ornamental horticulture. India has a rich diversity
of ornamental wealth and many native plants can be grown as pot plants and can be
traded in domestic and export markets. Genetically pure planting material is essential
for healthy and vigorous plant growth. The planting material should be satisfactory in
quantity and quality and easily available for further multiplication.
Nursery is consequently the basic need of horticulture. Plant propagation techniques

and practices is the core of horticulture nurseries. The planting materials for
horticultural plantations are raised from seeds and vegetative parts. Role of Mother
Plants is very primary and important. The fate of nursery depends on quality and
truthfulness of mother plants. A good nursery entrepreneur does not depend on others
for procurement of mother plants. Mother plants are required for both stock and scion.
Mother plants should be selected on the basis of its genetic traits and other factors like
availability and adaptation in the growing environment. The various types of nurseries
can be classified based on various criteria. They include, Sale: Retail nurseries which
sell to the general public. Wholesale nurseries; offer opportunities to sell plants on
larger quantity to the other nurserymen or buyers. Some retail and wholesale nurseries
sell their product online like sale seeds, pots and garden tools.
There is sudden increase in the demand for certain commercial plants. It is not possible
to fulfil this requirement by ordinary or common nursery practices. There is necessity
to have special techniques and methods to meet the demand and only Hi-tech nurseries
can satisfy this type of demand. These nurseries grow plants in greenhouse, building
of glass or a plastic tunnel, designed to protect young plants from harsh weather, while
allowing access to light and ventilation. Modern greenhouses allow automated control
of temperature, ventilation, light, watering and feeding. Some also have fold-back
roofs to allow “hardening-off” of plants without the need for manual transfer of plants
to the outdoor beds.
Among the ornamental shrubs, a large number of cultivars have been developed in
bougainvillea, croton, hibiscus and jasmine, which are being used to beautify the
gardens in many parts of the country. The development of trade in decorative and
house plants is of comparatively recent origin in our country. The plants produced at
some nurseries are, however, of very good quality and are being exported. In India,
there is a lack of scientific information on the production of flower crops and other
plans under covers, glasshouses or similar suitable environment controlled conditions.
This needs more attention, particularly in view of strict quality requirements of cut
flowers for export purposes, which is difficult to obtain in cultivation under open field
conditions.
4. Services
Various services are being provided in ornamental horticulture sector include
maintenance of landscape site; providing seasonal requirements of seeds, pots,
garden tools, machinery; shifting of old trees impart technical knowhow to various
stakeholders; to let nursery plants (rental services); shifting of trees; protected
cultivation and accessories. Import of bonsai and various specialized kind of ficus
species are being important from China and Thailand in large quantity to use in ready
landscape project.
5. Tissue Culture
Demand for flowers is increasing globally. India is expected to emerge as a strong
player in the consumer market of biotechnology products in future. There is ample
opportunity in ornamental horticulture especially for micro-propagation of flower
crops such as gerbera, lilium, spathophyllum, carnation, etc. This is very big business
and provides an ample opportunity especially for qualified young youth and girl to
create the job in their locality and to earn foreign exchange through export of tissue
culture plants abroad.
Tissue culture is the in vitro aseptic culture of cells, tissues, organs or whole plant
under controlled nutritional and environmental conditions often to produce the clones
of plants. The controlled conditions provide the culture an environment conductive for
their growth and multiplication. These conditions include proper supply of nutrients,
pH medium, adequate temperature and proper gaseous and liquid.
Plant tissue culture technology is being widely used for large scale plant multiplication.
Apart from their use as a tool of research, plant tissue culture techniques have in
recent years, become of major industrial importance in the area of plant propagation to
produce millions of tree to type plants. A single explants can be multiplied into several
thousand plants in relatively short time period and space under controlled conditions,
irrespective of the season and whether on a year round basis.
Commercial production of plants through micro propagation techniques has several

advantages over the traditional methods of propagation through seed, cutting, grafting
and air-layering etc. It is rapid propagation processes that can lead to the production
of plants virus free.
It has an ample opportunities to set up a small to big unit and finance can be arranged
from the banking sector including subsidy available under MIDH - centre - sector
scheme and NHB also provide such financial support.
References
Altaf Hussain et al., 2012. Current Status and opportunities. Plant Tissue Culture: an open
access and peer reviewed chapter. DOI: 10.5772/50568.
IFTS (International Floriculture Trade Statistics) (2004) Pathfast Publishing. http://www.
pathfastpublishing.com/docs/ITS98101.html.
Irulappan I, 1994. Breeding jasmines of high yield of flowers and floral oil. In: Prakash J and
Bhandary KR, editors. Floriculture – technology trades and trends. Oxford and IBH Pub.
Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, pp. 258–268.
Khan H. 2018. Top 10 flower producing countries in the world. www.worldblaze.in.
Liu, Jia-nv., Zhou, Qi-xing., Sun, T., Ma, L.Q. and Wang, S. 2008. Growth responses of three
ornamental plants to Cd and Cd-Pb stress and their metal accumulation characteristics. J.
Hazardous materials, 15: 261-267.
NHB database published National Horticulture Board, Govt of India, Gurgaon.
Sindhu, S.S. (2016): Ornamental Horticulture, Published by New India publishing House
(NIPA), Pitampura, New Delhi.
Xia Y, Deng X, Zhou P, Shima K and da Silva JAT. 2006. The world floriculture industry:
dynamics of production and markets. Ornamental and Plant Biotechnology: Global Science
books, UK, p336-347.
2
Principles and Elements of
Landscape Design
Ashutosh Mishra
A garden is a place where ornamental plants are grown to put on display various
forms of plant life which are purposely intended for ornamental or practical use or
both. Now days we often use the term landscape gardening, Landscape architecture
and Landscape design. Landscape gardening can be defined as arrangements of trees,
shrubs, climbers and variety of other plants in concert with the building, walks, drives,
artificial and natural features for the use of humanity while Landscape architecture is
the art of arranging land and landscape for human use convenience and enjoyment.A
good landscape design determines the characters of objectsto serve a certain purpose
known in advance.
The subject garden planning is diverse and complex and very difficult to symbolize all
ideas of wholeness. In modern living consciousness of interior decoration including
furniture,woodwork,wall furnishing, carpets painting also needs careful setting and the
services of specialist are considered necessary for this purpose. In order to achieve a
rewarding result a garden should be designed carefully as it is semi-permanent feature
and frequent change in design is not possible.
Principles of design steer designers to organize elements for a visually pleasant
landscape. A melodious composition can be achieved through the principles of
proportion, repetition, order and unity which are alllinked and application of one
principle assists to achieve the others. By using these principles, two important concepts
in garden design i.e. physical and psychological comfort can be achieved. Landscape
that has order and repetition creates more psychologically comfortable feeling.
Psychological comfort is also affected by the sense of satisfaction that a spectator
perceives from a harmonious landscape. Users feel more physically comfortable and
secure in a landscape with proportions compatible to human scale. Garden design
combines the aesthetic beauty, artistic knowledge and at least the principles of
gardening. In order to layout good garden some fundamental principles to be followed
Principles of landscape design

The principles of landscape design serve as guidelines that govern the association of
the design elements and materials in accordance with the laws of nature. Landscape
designers employ following principles of design to create landscape design that are
functional and aesthetically pleasing.
1. Simplicity
Simplicity is the essence of garden design. It is the concept of reducing or eliminating
unnecessary to avoid a messy look and brings clarity and purpose to the design.
This can be achieved by considerately removing features from a design while still
preserving its integrity.Simplicity indesign is also achieved through either repetition
of same species for similar form (silhouette), habit or colour and construction material
(hard cape) or by avoiding too many species in a small place.
2. Proportion and Scale

Proportion is the definite relationship in masses or association that exists among the
components of landscape. Proportion, in a sense is similar to ratio whileabsolute
proportion is the scale or size of an object. A chief absolute scale in design is the human
scale (size of the human body) because the magnitude of other objects is measured
relative to humans therefore; plant material, garden structures, and ornaments should be
measured relative to human scale (Hansen, 2019) Other important relative proportions
include the dimension of the house, lawn and the area to be planted.
Proportion can be established in plant material relative to people, the surrounding
plants, and the house and when all three are in proportion, the composition feels
balanced and harmonious. A feeling of equilibrium can also be achieved by dividing
the whole design in equal proportions of open space and planted space. Planting
of markedly different size of plants help to achieve dominance (emphasis) through
contrast with a large plant. Likewise, planting of similar size of plants in equidistance
also help to achieve rhythm through repetition of size. Tall trees are planted near a tall,
narrow house or buildingto maintain proportions. A small house surrounded by large
trees appears smaller than it actually is while a large house surrounded by small trees
appears larger than it actually is.
Garden features are most functional for people when they are approachable. Patios,
chairs, tables, pathways, arbors, and gazebos work best when people can use them
easily and feel comfortable using them. The hardscape should also be proportional to
the house—a deck or patio should be large enough for entertaining but not so large that
it doesn't fit the scale of the house.
Human scale is also important for psychological comfort in open spaces. People feel
more secure in smaller open areas, such as patios and terraces. An important concept
of spatial comfort is enclosure as most people feel at ease with some sort of overhead
condition that implies a ceiling. The enclosure does not have to be solid; in fact, an
implied enclosure, such as tree branches, serves as a good psychological enclosure that
still allows light and views of the sky.(Hansen,2019)A design is in proper proportion
and scale when a pleasing relationship exists among and between each component and
the design as a whole.
Principles and Elements of Landscape Design 15
3. Balance
Balance is a design principle defined in terms of weight. It is the concept of equalization
of visual weight and attraction, usually around a real or imaginary central axis.
Balanceis affected by form, color, size, and texture of the plant. It may be symmetrical,
asymmetrical, or perspective.
Symmetrical balance is a formal balance and also referred to as bilateral symmetry.

Symmetrical balance is achieved when the same objects (mirror images) are placed
on either side of an axis e.g. the same trees, plants, and structures on both sides of the
axis. This type of balance is used in formal designs and is one of the oldest concepts
and many historic gardens are organized using this concept. In this the mind naturally
divides space by assuming a central axis and then seeks an even distribution of objects
or mass (visual weight).
Asymmetrical balance is an informal balance and implies equal weights on either side
of the central axis. This type of balance is usually achieved by masses of plants that
appear to be the same in visual weight rather than total mass. This can be achieved
by groupings of trees and structures that are approximately equal in visual weight on
either side of the axis. The mass can be achieved by combinations of plants, structures,
and garden ornaments. To create balance, features with large sizes, dense forms, bright
colors, and coarse textures appear heavier and should be used sparingly, while small
sizes, sparse forms, gray or subdued colors, and fine texture appear lighter and should
be used in greater amounts.
Perspective balance is concerned with the balance of the foreground, midground, and
background. The objects in front usually have greater visual weight because they are
closer to the viewer. This can be balanced, if desired, by using larger objects, brighter
colors, or coarse texture in the background. In most cases, either the foreground or
background should be dominant.(Hansen,2019)
4. Repetition
Repetition involves repeating of an identical or similar component more than once
through a design which helps to establish and add order & unity to a design. It is
created by the repeated use of elements or features to create patterns or a sequence
in the landscape. Repetition of line, form, color, and texture creates rhythm in the
landscape. However,excessive repetition creates monotony and too little can create
confusion. Simple repetition is the use of the same object in a line or the grouping of
a geometric form, such as a square, in an organized pattern.
Repetition can also be made more interesting by using alternation (minor change
in the sequence on a regular basis), inversion (selected elements are changed so the
characteristics are opposite the original elements), gradation (gradual change in certain
characteristics of a feature like height,texture and size). Repetition does not always
create a pattern; sometimes it is simply the repeated use of the same color, texture, or
form throughout the landscape. Repetition and pattern can be made most obvious in
the hardscape because duplication is easiest with built materials that are manufactured
to exact dimensions.
5. Order and Unity

Order is the overall organization and arrangement of a design whileunity is the
harmonious relationship among all elements and characteristics of design. Order and
unity areemotional and visual reactions to the overall formation and organization of
the design elements.To achieve unity, consistency is used by fitting different elements
of a landscape together to create a common unit or theme. This can be achieved by
using dominance, interconnection and simplicity to assemble colors, textures, and
form. Although hardscapes and plants can be amalgamated by the combination of
analogous characteristics but some diversity is also important to create curiosity. The
simplest way to create unity is through the use of a design theme or a design style as
design themes and styles have a well-defined set of features that have maintained their
fame over time because they are visually pleasing to many.
6. Focal point or Emphasis

Focal point is the point or area of landscape that attracts the viewer’s eyes and is created
to break the sequence and flow of the landscape. Emphasis is the property of a plant or
object that attracts and grasps concentration, making the object an important feature.
Focal points are used to draw attention to a particular location, move the eye around
the space, or guide circulation. Through the use of emphasis,eye movement is directed
towards a centre of interest that takes a position of prominence in the landscape. Focal
point should be physically powerful and effective which creates as visual break in the
sequence and flow of landscape but do not incorporate too many focal point otherwise,
their effect will be lost. If there is more than one focal point and colour is the elements
to be used as focal point in a site, than blues or whites are used for minor focal point
while warm, dominant or bright colours are used for main focal point. Focal point
could be a single specimen tree, a beautifully designed musical fountain, a piece of
sculpture, or may be similar plants forms of varying size. Most landscape usually
contains visual focal points such as plants and structures. However, running water and
rustling leaves are effective as focal points, capturing the sense of sound.
The focal point in a landscape may also be focal area, which is more popular in present
time, which also attracts the viewer’s eye in the same manners as focal point as it
consists of more than single elements or components. Focal area consists of a group
of parts or components.
7. Rhythm and Sequence

Rhythm is are petitious use of sculpture in
landscape to reduce monotony. This can be
expressed through the placement of plants parks
furniture etc. either individually or as group.
Rhythm and sequence describe the dynamic unity
or the related, orderly movement that implies
continuity. Order and repetition help to establish
rhythm and sequence in design. Rhythm and
sequence characterize continuity and connection
from one part of the design to another part and
group the components together. Effective use of
sequence is often times employed to create visual
movement in the landscape. E.g. sequence could be an orderly natural combination
of plant material in which low objects would appear in the foreground, intermediate
objects in the middle ground and tall objects in the background.
8. Interconnection
Interconnection is a design principle for producing unity in design. Various
components in the design are physically linked together. Although all features are
linked to other features, the key is to make the linkage seamless so that the features
blend or fit together. Hardscape is important to interconnection because it typically
serves to organize and link spaces in the garden. Continuation of a line, such as a path,
the edge of a built object, or a defined edge of a plant bed, can create unity through
interconnection. A designer may incorporate interconnection into the entire design or
into only a small space within the design.
Elements of garden design

The elements of design refers to the basic visual and physical features of the plant and
hardscape components used to establish a design. These elements include line, form,
texture and colour. A landscape designer uses these elements to enhance the design
1. Line
Line is one of the most important fundamental elements of landscaping. Line work as
bones or the framework of the landscape. It creates a sense of direction and physical
or visual movement and is able to direct the attention of the viewers to a focal point.
Line is incorporated in landscape by using contrasting plant material and by forming
pattern with similar plant materials in a repetitive sequence. In landscaping, lines exist
in soft cape (garden plants) as well as hardscape (structures). There are four types of
line in landscaping.
a. Axis line: This is an imaginary
straight line in any garden
around which garden is created
striking balance. Straight lines
are used to represent formality
or a contemporary concept.
b. Curved lines: The curved line
create an informal, natural,
relaxed and flowing effect.
Curved lines are the line
of beauty and are smooth,
give the sense of progress,
moving and natural feeling.
Good examples of curved
lines in landscape are internal
pathway, pathway inside big
lawn, and curved edges.
c. Meandering lines: These

are extended curved lines
made in garden to mimic
a flow of river or a stream.
Small garden pathways
are given naturalistic form
by developing them with
meandering lines
d. Vertical line: Vertical lines
are purposely used to make
a large space feel compact.
These lines in landscape
move the eye up which
creates more excitement in the garden.
Hardscapes such as Poles, pillars,
statutes and other tall ornamental
structures creates vertical line. Soft
capes such as pendulous tall trees,
bottle palm, Phoenix and coconut palm
creates vertical lines in landscape.
2. Form
Form relates to the natural shape of the plant
or is the two or three dimensional shape of
Form relates to the natural shape of the plant
or is the two or three dimensional shape of
an object or space. Form is line surrounding
mass; either it is two or three dimensional.
The air space created by two plant materials
set side by side is also an expression of
form. The shape of trees and areas of lawn surrounded by edge are examples of form
expressed in a landscape. All the components have a peculiar and natural form in a
landscape. Mostly form of the plants contributes to the total design composition. The
basic form of each plant depends on the natural growth habit of plant. Some of the
common forms of landscape plants include conical, oval, weeping, and horizontal and
fastigiated. Plants come in many forms including round, upright, spreading, etc. A
round plant following a curved bed line gives a landscape a flowing and natural feel.
In contrast, an upright or columnar plant placed along a linear walk takes on a more
rigid and formal feel. Landscape plants may also change form when they are grouped
together in a mass.When a design composition is viewed as a whole, the individual
forms become subordinate to the overall mass of the composition. In nature most
deciduous trees and shrubs have a rounded form. A conical form is characteristics
of many evergreen trees while evergreen shrubs have more of a horizontal form.
Incorporation of form into a landscape is done to manipulate a person’s emotions.
Horizontal or spreading forms are used to add visual width to all structure while
vertical forms for strong accents and for adding height. In design, addition of weeping
or drooping or pendulous form is done to create soft lines and to provide a transition
to the ground plane or as interesting accents in the garden. A weeping tree is a great
choice for a focal point in the garden because the unusual drooping growth habit
makes it a real eye catcher. Round or Oval plant forms create large masses and are
effective as border and enclosures. The same kinds of forms, when used repeatedly,
create a “visual theme” that provides consistency, harmony, and order in the landscape.
Forms (left to right) columnar, oval, vase, weeping, pyramidal, rounded

3. Texture
Texture is defined as the representation of the structure of the surface of leaves and
bark, and is determined visually. It is a combined look of all the surface elements of a
garden working together or it is the surface quality of any plant material or structure
in the garden.Texture is relative and it relates to the coarseness or fineness of leaf,
smoothness or roughness of bark and trunk, heaviness or lightness of leaves, usually
defined by fine, medium and coarse or bold textured. Texture is also a feature of the
aggregation of minor units that makeup the plant or structure. It is also linked with the
sense of touch and sight e.g. physical surface of plants (smooth, rough, dull or shiny)
which creates visual texture in landscape. Landscape plants and flowers possess a wide
range of textural attributes, including leaf, flower shape and surface, bark and stems.
All of these can greatly enrich the visual quality of a landscape composition. Actually
texture in garden depends upon the distance from which the plant is viewed by the
observer. Fine textured plants (Casurina, Thuja, Junipers, Gulmohar, Russelia etc.)
and elements are usually whisky and delicate, look better in broad groups and swaths
than alone. It enables certain emotions by the viewer e.g. soft textures create a sense
of comfort, while rough textures (Kadamb, Teak, Kanakchampa, Palash, Spathodea
etc.) add excitement and heighten attention. It creates a sense of space and depth
when rough textures are placed in front and soft textures are found in the distance,
the landscape appears larger. It provides contrast to emphasize or highlight parts of
the landscape e.g. a soft lawn leading up to the course texture of a pillared-building
of a university. It can create lines e.g. if a soft lawn is bordered by a course-textured
hedge, it creates a distinct line for the eye to follow. A nice equilibrium can usually be
achieved by blending about ⅓ fine textured with ⅔course and bold texture.
Fine Medium Coarse
4. Colour
Color is one of the most prominent elements in landscape design. Colour theory is
very complex and very personal matter that expresses individual taste and feelings.
Light is the source of colour which consists of several visible wavelengths. Colour and
light are inseparable as each wavelength produces characteristic colour. White is the
accumulation of all light while black is the absence of light. Colour wheel is useful to
study colours and their relationships in the arrangement of annuals in beds. Red,Blue
and Yellow are referred as the primary colours which cannot be made from any
colour. Combination of these two primary colours produces a secondary colour and
combining equal parts of primary colour and an adjacent secondary colour produces
tertiary color. There are six tertiary colours are in colour wheel. Generally red, orange
and yellow are warm / hard or advancing colour, as associated with colours of sun or
fire. Blue, violet and green are soft or cool colour which express restfulness and have
a receding visual effect. The black, grey and white are called as neutral colour. Color
helps to emphasize, complement, heighten the effect of, or disguise other aspects of
a landscape’s design. Color also unifies the landscape and creates consistency (which
our brains like) throughout the entire design. This colour wheel is useful for the
arrangements of annuals in annual bed/herbaceous border and shrubbery border. The
basic arrangement of colours in annual bed may be classified as follows.
a. Monochromatic: It is arranging of different tones of same colour either of
the same species or in combination with different species e.g. group of blue
petunias of different tones. In a monochromatic arrangement of yellow colour
flowering annuals of different species such as marigold with yellow calendula
or nasturtiumcan be grown in different height.
b. Analogous: This can achieved by using closely related or harmonious colour
such as violet with blue and light blue with green, yellow with green or yellow
with yellow- orange.
c. Complementary or Contrasting: In this two opposite or contrasting colour
producing flowering annuals are arranged such as blue and orange, red and
green and violet and yellow. In this triads arrangements is also possible i.e. one
dominant with two complementary colours (violet pink and yellow)
The use of color and texture will simultaneously add variety and consistency to the
landscape, preventing it from seeming too busy or too boring. The color will highlight
the focal points, lines, and forms found in the landscape and will allow the viewer to
feel the intended mood, the designer wanted the viewer to feel.
References
Hansen, G. 2019. Basic Principles of Landscape Design. https://www.edis.ifas.ufl.edu.
Misra, R.L. and Misra, S. 2012. Landscape Gardening. Westville Publishing House,
New Delhi
Nambison, K.M.P. 1992. Design Elements of Landscape Gardening. Oxford & IBH
Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India
Tiwari, A.K. 2012. Fundamentals of Ornamental Horticulture and Landscape
Gardening, New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi.
Whiting, D. 2014. Principles of Landscape Design, CMG Garden Notes, Colorado
State University.
3
Styles of Gardening and ifferent ypes
of Garden
S.K. Khandelwal
Garden lover has to invent their own styles of gardening commensurate with their
climate of site, budget and taste. Gardens fall under three categories when it comes to
style – formal, informal and wild.
1. Formal style gardens
Formal style gardens are beautiful in the view and have been popular for thousands
of years. Granted, it is not to everyone’s taste but it creates a certain magnificence
and persistence that will probably have meaning and importance in garden design
for many more years in the future. A formal garden is laid out in a symmetrical or a
geometrical pattern. Symmetry is the main characteristic of this style of gardening.
Geometrically designed landscapes with trimmed hedges, paired flower beds, straight
line planting and equal length of the sides of the area are the main features of formal
or symmetrical gardening. The formal design is stiff as all garden features in a straight
and narrow way. In the formal design, the land is forced to fit in the plan. In this type,
an axis is drawn in the centre of the garden which divide whole of the garden in two
equal halves, one half being the exact replica of the other, for every feature, element
or adornment. The outline of the whole garden as well as the outline of different parts
like flower beds, paths, hedges and lawns are of geometrical shape. These shapes are
normally square, rectangular,oval or circular.
The Persian gardens, Mughal gardens and Italian gardens were formal in design.
Geometrical formalism also influenced the French and British gardens of the pre-
Industrial Revolution.
Key features
• A formal garden is laid out in a symmetrical or geometrical pattern. The formal
garden design is stiff as all garden elements in a straight and narrow way. In
such gardens, all garden features are laid out in straight lines.
• Roads and paths are straight and cross to each other at right angles.
• Bilateral symmetry; one side of the garden is the mirror image of the other.
Hardscape, plant material, and shape of the garden beds are similar on either
side of an axis so that the appearance of perfect balance is created. If there is tall
tree on one side of the garden, there will be a similar tree in the same position
on the other side of the garden.
• Trimmed formal hedges, edges, cypress, Ashoka trees and topiary are typical
features of a formal garden.
• Flower beds, borders and shrubbery are harmoniously arranged in geometric
designs.
• Clipped shrubs, hedges, and lawn with everything appearing to be in its place
and under complete control.
• The arrangement of trees and shrubs is necessarily geometrical and kept in
shape by trimming and training.
• Surrounded by a visual barrier such as a wall, clipped hedge or dramatic
elevation change of the ground to give it a clear separation from the surrounding
natural landscape.
• Other features like fountains, water pools, cascades etc. are used for further
attraction
• Usually, gardens of public parks, university/ library gardens, or government
buildings are designed in formal style garden.
• Formal gardens have no ‘secrets’ and the element of surprise is lost. However,
attractive focal points at terminal and intersecting points of paths and roads are
provided to make the formal garden effective.
2. Informal Style Gardens
This style of garden is sometimes referred to as naturalistic or asymmetrical design. It
may draw inspiration from natural habitats. On the whole an informal garden design
is extrovert type. It has asymmetrical balance even though the objects are not arranged
around a central axis unlike the formal designs. However, on either side of the vertical
axis, the dissimilar objects are placed without any similarity but equated to give the
occult appearance of balance.
Informal garden is an exotic attempt to mimic the nature. It is a landscape casually
designed with few straight lines, often depending on curving, organic lines and having
a nice mixture of foliage, colors, textures, heights and varieties. Informal gardens act
as a temporary sanctuary that offers a relaxed ambience from day-to-day stressful life.
An informal garden is naturalistic and usually includes asymmetrically placed design
elements, naturally shaped plants and beds, curved spaces, rustic-looking furnishings,
and more casual paving, like decking and even wood chips. It can be flowery and
colorful or low key to suit the personality of the gardener. This type of gardening
is aimed to imitate nature and strives to produce a natural effect in a closed area. A
completely informal type of gardens provide a natural appearance but are not usually
suited to very small sites. In an informal garden, the whole design looks informal, as
the plants and the features are arranged in a natural way without following any hard
and fast rules. However, the work has to proceed according to a set and well-through-
out plan; otherwise the creation will not be artistic and attractive. Planting is often
with a mixed nature and there is a complete absence of set lines. Smooth, curvaceous
Styles of Gardening and Different Types of Garden 27
outlines are more appropriate in this design rather than rigid lines. Informal gardens are
laid out with open large lawns, bordered by clumps of shady trees or shrubs. The shape
of the garden may not be square, rectangular or circular. Straight paths are avoided
and irregular beds are introduced. Shrubbery and herbaceous borders are so designed
as to fit the periphery of the lawn. In this gardening design, nature is preserved in an
artificial way. In informal gardens plants are often positioned in clumps (a circular
group of three or more plants) or drifts (an elongated grouping of plants). Clumps
and drifts are most often planted with an odd number of the same kind of plants to
give the appearance of a more natural grouping. As noted, informal gardens are often
naturalistic, echoing the surrounding landscape. The Informal gardens tend to be large
to medium sized gardens. Usually implemented on uneven landscape and even sloped
to accommodate the uneven landscape.
Ex: English and Japanese gardens
Key features
• Informal gardens are characterized by gentle curving, asymmetrically
arrangements of garden features and spaces. Plants are allowed to grow in their
natural shapes.
• In the informal garden, the underlying framework is almost entirely disguised
by planting, and the garden should look as grown up naturally.
• Informal gardens are harder to design than formal ones, as they are ruled by
irregularity and natural look of plant growth.
• A site that is not geometric shape can be a sound basis for an informal garden.
• Plan is asymmetrical according to the land available for making the garden. The
garden plan is made to fit the land.
• Some hardscaping structure needs to exist, or everything will relapse into an
untrammelled wilderness.
• Diagonal or curved path work well, and boundaries between the various areas
of your garden are often formed using native mixed hedging.
• In general, planting in informal gardens includes tall shrubs and trees to add the
vertical dimension, and these will often hide the edges of the plot to create a
feeling.
• The garden should revel in colour and should look as natural as possible. If
you would like to introduce water, natural-looking ponds, and pools are ideal
features.
• This style reflects naturalistic effect of total view and represents natural beauty.
• It is contrast to formal style.
• Water bodies are more irregular in shape.
• Features such as hillocks, waterfalls, lakes, islands, cascades, rocks, shola and
rustic hutments are provided to create rural effect.
• Plants are appropriately grouped and they are not trimmed, so as to avoid
geometrical arrangements.
• The most typical features are more flowering shapes, less regulated and
controlled planting and soft curved patterns.
• Asymmetrical design is adopted with non-geometrical beds and borders.
• The plant material includes mostly the local or native plant species predominant
in the region and landscaped in such a way as to merge with the surrounding
nature.
• In an Informal garden, the whole design looks informal, as the plans and the
features are arranged in a natural way without following any hard and fast rules.
But here also the work has to proceed according to a set and well-through-out
plan; otherwise the creation will not be artistic and attractive.
3. Wild style gardens
A comparatively recent style of gardening, namely, “Wild Garden” was expounded
by William Robinson in the last decade of the nineteenth century. His idea was
revolutionary and found many admirers to follow this. The concept of wild garden
is not only against all formalism but it also breaks the rule of landscape styles. His
main idea was to naturalize plants in shrubberies. He also preached that grass should
remain unmowed, as in nature, and few bulbous plants should be grown scattered in
the grass to imitate wild scenery. He also suggested that passages should be opened
in the woodland, and trees, shrubs, and bulbous plants should be planted among the
forest flora to fulfill his idea of a wild garden. His other idea was to allow the creepers
to grow over the trees naturally imitating those of the forests. Before someone starts to
venture into designing a garden it will be wise to get an idea about the major gardening
styles of the world.
Mughal Garden
The gardens that were laid out in the mughal period are known as mughal garden
and are famous till today for their own architectures and beauty. Significant uses of
rectilinear layouts are made within the walled enclosures. Mughal gardens design
derives primarily from the Islamic garden, although there are influences that come
from the Persian and Timurid gardens. The most important feature of Mughal garden
is Charbagh system. The Mughals were obsessed with symbol and incorporated it into
their gardens in many ways. Quranic references to paradise were in the architecture,
layout, and in the choice of plant life. Numerological and zodiacal significances
connected to family history or cultural significance, were often used. The numbers
eight and nine were considered auspicious by the Mughals and were found in the
terraces or in garden architecture e.g. octagonal pools. The design symbolizes 4
flowing rivers of Paradise and reflects the gardens of Paradise derived from the Persian
paridaeza, meaning walled garden abundance with 4 rivers flowing from a central
spring or mountain, separating the garden into north, south, east and west.
From 1494-1707 A.D. quite a few garden were created by Mughal Emperors in
different parts of the country. Babar (1494-1531), the mughal emperor, introduced
gardening techniques of central Asia & Iran with slight modifications in the architect
and plant material that later on was called Mughal style of gardening. Baber laid the
foundation of the mughal empire in India in the year 1526 A.D. He was a great lover
of flowers and gardens. Immediately after his victory over Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat
(1526) he laid out a garden there. There after he laid a garden at Agra, now known as
Ram Bagh. From the Baber Nama, memories of Babar, we find the names of following
flowers, oleander, hibiscus, white jasmine, and keora (screwpine). Babaris credited
with the introduction of Persian rose. In India Akber (1556-1605) built a new capital
at Fatehpur Sikri, completed with gardens, trees and flowers. He was first Mughal to
enter Kashmir and establish garden, Nasim bagh, close to Dal Lake. The tomb garden
of Akber at Sikendra is an example of gardening art during his period.
Jahangir (1605-1627AD) was also a great admire of garden and flowers, and so was
his famous wife Nur Jahan. The garden of Shalimar, Achhabak and Varinag in Kashmir
were created by him. The garden at Itimad –ud –daulah in Agra, in memories of his
father-in-law, was also his creation. Shah Jahan(1627-1658AD) also establish several
beautiful gardens. He built Red fort in New Delhi, which has beautiful garden. The
garden around Taj Mahal in Agra in the memory of his beloved queen Mumtaj Mahal
was also his creation. The small but pretty garden at Chashma Shahi in Kashmir was
laid by one of his Governor. The best garden created by Shah Jahan was the Shalimar
Garden in Lahore (Pakistan). Sher Shah Suri (1540-1544 A.D.) who ruled for a short
period after defeating Babur, constructed the famous Grand Trunk Road and planted
avenue trees on both sides of the road. The Nawabs of Avdh also established several
gardens in their empire especially in Lucknow. One of these was Sikandar Bagh which
was established by the last Nawab Wajid Ali Shah (1847-1856AD), now known as
National Botanical Research Institute.
The Rajput Rajas in India also established several gardens. The garden at Amber fort
near Jaipur was started by Man Singh (1590-1615AD) and completed by Jai Singh
II (1699-1743AD). This beautiful garden is laid in three terraces and has lake. The
Mandore garden near Jodhpur is really beautiful garden still today and was built
by Raja Abhai Singh (1724-1749). The city of Jaipur was founded by Jai Singh II
(1727 AD) who built a palace in the heart of the city with beautiful gardens. The
garden palace at Deeg in the erstwhile Bharatpur state was founded by Suraj Mal with
fountains water sources and other features. It is one of the most beautiful gardens
ever created by any Rajput King. The gardens and the places in Chittor, the capital of
Mewar rulers was also famous. The rulers of Bundi in Rajasthan also were founder of
gardening.
Mughal garden are strictly formal and has straight flowing steam with fountains as the
attraction of garden. Stone edges and path, terraced lawn and trees of formal shape
(Juniprus, Thuja etc.) on either sides of the steam after stone path are planted. Few
flowering, ornamental and sweet scented shrubs like roses, jasmine and ocimum are
also planted for fragrance. Whole garden area are enclosed by high protected walls and
a huge gate and building at the entrance. Fruit trees like mangoes, citrus pomegranates
etc. grown after lawns of either side to act as wind break and provide cooling effect.
Sweet smelling fragrance in fresh air is produced when they are in bloom and these
plants also provide fruits.
Feature of Mughal Garden
Site and design

Mughals gave a prime importance to the site for the construction of their gardens.
Mughals were very choosy about the selection of site and always preferred a site on
a hill slope with a perennial rivulet or along the bank of a river. Mughal gardens are
generally rectangular or square in shape and different architectural features are the
main stay of the design. Its architecture is influenced by the climate of the place, its
political, social and economic conditions.
High wall
The Mughals created the gardens not only for pleasure and recreation but also as forts
and residences surrounded by 15-20 feet high stone walls. The purpose of the high
walls was security from the enemies and shelter against hot winds, rodents and wild
animals. In the days of insecurity the emperor use these gardens as a short-term safe
residence. The gardens were a place of peace for the Emperors to enjoy with their
wives and concubines.
Huge gate
A large main gate was made of stone to match the high enclosing wall. It was made
with beautifully carved stones to produce the greatness to the architect of Emperer’s
garden. Doors are huge and strong wooden structure studded with bold iron nails and
pointed iron spikes. It was also to let the Emperor reach to palatial building while
sitting on the elephant.
Palatial building
Mostly just after the gate a palatial building is made with large decorative rooms on
Ist or second floor for the Emperor. The whole building is made of beautifully earned
costly stones. It is generally open and the rooms have decorated glass windows which
open towards the garden to have a full view of the garden.
Open platform
In front of the main building towards the garden a large platform of costly stone
pieces of geometrical shapes is made for strolling, open darbar and dances etc. in full
moon night for Emperor and his friends. It has beautifully carved stone fencing of low
high about 2 feet all around it.
Swings
In some gardens high gate like stone structure is made at suitable place especially
close to palatial building. It is very beautifully carved which is used to hold the swing
for entertainments.
Running water
It is said that water is present in the garden symbolically and physically as a source
of life. The style for having running water by constructing canals and tanks borrowed
from the Persians. The fascination for water came from the Muslim faith which says
that the promised paradise is the place “where cooling waters flow”. It is always in
the center of garden to divide it in two equal halves. It has uniform width and flows
straight from the base of the palatial building upto the end of the garden. Broad water
canals were made in overall proportion to the area. The central water course was
strong and dominant. In the centre of these canals, there were fountains which make
for the central axis also. The cross formed in the centre by the intersection of water
channels has been the symbol of the meeting of humanity with god. A fall at each
terrace is made to maintain the uniform flow of water. It may have one or two small
stone platforms under which the stream flows as in Taj garden. In some other gardens
mainstream have straight side streams also which may open in geometrical shaped
ponds as in Deeg garden. The base and sides of the streams are pitched and made with
large plain square or rectangular stone pieces. These are firmly joined together to make
the stream waterproof and to give in uniform geometrically shape the stream. The
water canals were paved with tiles (or marble) of blue colour to create the illusion of
depth. The course of water used to be manoeuvred in various ways taking advantage
of each slope, however small it may be, to break up the flow into artificial falls and
ripples. The water canals used to have fountains to throw up the water high in the air.
Running water in the form of cascades and ‘chadars’ made the garden splendid. There
were different types of cascades and ‘chadars’. These white waters shawls (Chadars)
are characteristic features of the Mughal garden. To create a pleasant site at dusk,
tiny lamps placed in the niches behind the artificial water falls were lighted, and the
diffusion of light through the water cast shimmering reflections.
Grills
Narrow horizontal wavy building lines are made on the base lining of the fall through
out the vertical length of it so that the water when moves over these projected lines
may produce tickling sound to provide lively musical effect in peaceful nights.
Baradari
Baradari, a canopied building with twelve open doors on all sides, is another feature
of some of the Mughal gardens. The baradari was generally used by royalty to observe
the play of the water or ‘chardar’ in the twilight. Sometimes one or two small open
building are also on the stream at the center of the garden or at the end of the stream
to rest for a while when roaming in the large garden. Baradari is evolved by Hindus to
sit and enjoy fresh breeze and to watch the dark, clouds during the rainy season. But
Mughals used these baradaries to sit with their slaves and listen to the songs of the
dancing girls and watch pillars of baradari with their favourite design of bouquets of
flowers in the vases and furnished them with thick carpets and cushions.
Stone path
The either sides or stream and firmly and beautifully paved width rectangular and
squire stone pieces which are used as a garden walk. Such stone paths are also made
all around the terraced lawn in the garden for convenient movements all around the
green lawns. Generally, paths ran parallel to the canals so that a person walking on
them could see and admire the beauty of the colourful paved marble reflected in the
crystal-clear water and enjoy the beauty of the spray from the sparkling fountains by
moonlight.
Stone cut work
At a little distance to the stone paths in the lawns a series of stone cut work is layed
all along on one side of each path. These are generally star shaped having 6-8
angular points. The inner cutwork space of such stones is full of green grass. This
stone cutwork gives a beautiful site as border to the path and stream and also adds
architectural beauty in the center of the garden. Now a day some flowering annuals
are grain on with in the space that hampers the ture mughal style however addition of
flower improves the beauty in traditional English style. The permanently built flower
beds were geometrical patterns, with one or two exceptions, where the natural shapes
of flowers of various types were adopted for the flowerbed designs.
Terrace
The Mughals came from the hilly terrains and so they were fond of terraces in the
gardens. For this reason they used to select the location of gardens near hill slopes.
To maintain the proportion of land in view of the garden, the basic plan extended into
terraces, irrespective of the topography of the land. The presence of seven, eight or
twelve terraces in the garden symbolized plants, paradise and the zodiac, respectively.
On either sides of the water fall on each terrace stone stairs of the width of the path
are made. Such stairs are also made at the sides of platform from where the stream
flows under neath. The gardens were divided into two or more terraces with a small
brick-paved canal of running water flowing down from the tanks provided with
fountains. In many gardens, the entrance is at the last terrace, with the exception of the
Pinjore Garden, where the entrance is on higher ground and the seventh terrace is the
lowest. Terraces were also made on flat ground by dividing land into terraces. Their
fascination for terrace was so intense that even in the plains of Punjab they created
artificial terraces.
Terraced lawns
Square and rectangular lawns are made in terraces in the garden. These are very
much symmetrically planned on either sides of the stream. Lawn are regularly mowed
and neatly cut to maintain velvety effect.
Water Ponds
These are made of Hexagonal or Octagonal shapes and are connected with flowing
streams coming from main stream. The fountains are so arranged that they produce a
dome shaped water structure while in flow. The Mughals generally preferred a garden
site on a hill slope with perennial rivulets, an unbroken site of water or along the banks
of a river.
Fountains
Small fountains are arranged in straight line at the center of the stream or at inside
edges of the water pond. These are made of stone and beautifully carved in pointed
conical shape. The fountain body is hardly visible above the water surface except the
water jet coming out of it. Such jet fountains are also fixed at the either edge of main
path as Sahelion kibadi. Generally such fountains are made have in nozzles and not
at all visual except water jet coming out from the surface of the path. Use of such jet
water fountains give additional beauty and also make the garden atmosphere humid
and cool. Height of water of such fountain was low in old days as the gravitational
system was used for fountains and not the power pumps.
Lake
At the end side of the garden mostly a huge water pond or natural lake or river was
utilized for receiving water from the flowing stream. It also act as a source of water
supply to the flowing stream by lifting water for it through adjusted channels and
lifters.
Trees and shrubs
The trees were selected with careful planning and thought, as each tree symbolized
something, like life, youth, death, etc. Fruit trees were considered symbols of life
and youth, Cypress represented death and eternity. White kachnar (Bauhinia alba)
represented the youth of life. The traditional planting of alternate cypress and
flowering trees along the waterways represented immortality and the renewal of life,
respectively. The Mughals had bias for spring flowering trees and flowers. Plant
materials were selected carefully for formal effect in the garden. Selection of plants
was dependent upon the local climatic conditions. Fruit trees, flowering plants, shrubs
and colourful annulas were planted in the garden to give a new life to it. The seasonal
flower beds were of geometrical pattern and constructed along the water canals or near
the main buildings. The favourite flowers were rose, jasmine, carnation, hollyhock,
delphinium etc. Fragrant flowers were the main attraction of the garden. Fragarant
flowering shrubs like harsinghar, queen of the night, jasmine, rose and screwpine
were commonly planted. Herbaceous plants like narcissus, daffodils, iris, carnation,
hollyhock, larkspur, stock, sunflower, amaranthus and coxcomb were dominant. In
Kashmir, the Mughals planted chinar, white poplar, cypress, apple, peach, plum, sour
or sweet cherries, quince, pomegranate and fig. in the plains. The gardens were planted
with fruit trees like mango, garpe, fig, orange, citron, peach and plum.
Trees by the side of stream: Symmetrically shaped trees like Juniprus, Thujas etc.
were grown in the lawn at equidistance on either side of streams path. These being
evergreen do not shed leaves and do not make water of the stream and the garden
dirty. Being cylindrical in shape and less in width do not interfere with the over all
view of the garden and very much match with the formal designs of the garden.
Shrubs and bushes: Some small flowering shrubs like jasmines Ocimum, Marigold,
Harsingar, Champa, roses and other bushes were used at the edges of terraced lawn
for flowers etc. In those days most of the present time beautiful shrubs were not
available.
Trees on edges of the garden: Mostly trees like Mangoes, Citrus, Pomegranate etc.
are planted in between the terrace and the boundary walls to fill the gap. These trees
hides the unrightfully view of the walls and produce green background all either
sides of the garden. Such trees produce sweet fragrance when they are in full bloom
and fruits for consumption. Besides this the trees made the garden cool and change
the microclimate of the garden, which helped in growing other flowering and tender
plants in good condition. Garden in temperate and subtropical regions were planted
with Apple, Pear, Peches, Litchi and other suitable plants of the region.
Mughal garden now a days are more beautifully decorated because of the introduction
of more and more number of spps, of flowering trees, shrubs, hedges, annuals,
climbers etc. which are planted in beds and suitable places in the garden in English
time. Some garden adornments are also included like Arches, Standard, Pergola and
conservatory etc. in mugul garden.
Japanese Garden
The art of gardening is believed to be an important part of Japanese culture for many
centuries. The Japanese are the great lover of plant and flower and infact no nation
has such deep passion for flower as the Japanese. The Japanese garden designs were
based on ideas of heaven. Shinto, Buddhism and Taoism were used in the creation of
different garden styles in order to bring a spiritual sense to the gardens and make them
places where people could spent their time in a peaceful way and mediate. Core values
of Japanese gardening have been largely shaped by Chinese culture and tradition.
Japan is known for its gardens, tea ceremony, ikebana and bonsai. Japanese gardens
are famous in the world for their unique style, natural and spiritual beauty, quietness
and calmness. Japanese gardens are also known as ‘nature in miniature’. Japanese
gardens were influenced by the Chinese philosophy of Daoism and Amida Buddhism.
These gardens have been made by Zen Buddhists.
Another strong basis of the Japanese garden is its immutability, i.e., except some
seasonal changes in the deciduous trees the Japanese garden hardly goes through any
other strong visible changes during different seasons. The immutability is achieved
also because rather than a grand mixture of flowers, shrubs and trees more emphasis
is placed on natural elements such as a simple path, a group of rocks, stepping stones,
streams, waterfalls, bridges, stone lanterns, and so on. Water, stone, and plants are
three most important elements to achieve these objectives.
These gardens have passed through different development phases under the influence
of religion, culture and likings of rulers of different era. Main historical periods can be
summarized as follows:
(i) Asuka period (538-749 A.D.): During this period Nara was the capital of
Japan. The influence of Chinese culture was prominent. Gardens were designed
to capture the landscape in its natural form. Artificial hills or rockeries were
constructed which were 100 feet high with running water. The stones were
selected for interesting shapes and kept near running water. eg., Gigantic
Buddhist, Todaijii, kofukiji and Biodo inn at uji temples are best for this style.
(ii) Heian period (794-1185 A.D.): The capital of Japan was shifted from Nara to
kyota. The gardens made during this period were highly decorative. Aristocratic
style of gardens where created in front of the mansion with artificial ponds and
islands. Big shrines were made having large lakes. Bridges, stepping stones.
eg., Heianji temple is famous for its style.
(iii) Kamakura and Muromachi period (1186-1399 A.D.): During this period
stone, hills and lakes were essential feature. A lot of importance was attached to
the selection of stones with religions and moral attributes. Various names were
given to different islands like ‘Hill island’, ‘Wood island’, ‘cloud island, mistry
island, Dry beach island eg., Ryoanji temple of Kyoto.
(iv) Ashikaga period (1400-1600 A.D.): Yoshimitsu Ashikaga, the 3rd Ashikaga
shogun got the construction done of very important garden along with three
storied golden pavilion called kinkakuji in the year 1397. Another important
garden of this era is silver pavilion (Ginkakuji).
(v) Edo period (1615-1867 A.D.): During the Edo period, the making of small
gardens dominated and no major change or feature was brought to the garden.
The garden could be enjoyed from inside of a house. These gardens were similar
to tea garden. eg., Katsura imperial Villa (1642) lay kobori Enshu (a master of
tea ceremony).
(vi) Meiji period (1876-1912 A.D.): The capital of Japan was shifted from Kyoto
to Tokyo in 1867 by emperor Meiji. The Meiji period saw the modernization
of Japan and the re-opening to the Japan to the west. Many of the old private
gardens had been abandoned and left to ruin in 1871, a new law transformed
many gardens from the Momoyama and Edo periods into public parks.
Types of Japanese gardens: The Japanese gardens are further classified based on
positions, shape, and purpose. The important types are:
1. Hill garden: This Japanese style garden represents a miniature of natural
scenery that includes ponds, hills, stones, trees, fishes, bridges, moss, paths,
flowers, small plants and streams. This style is known in Japanese as Tsukiyama
niwa or Tsukiyama-sansui meaning hills and water because main features of
such gardens are hills, streams and ponds along with other features. The hill
garden is made up of one or more hills designed with earth mounds and exposed
weathered stones. The other features of this garden area include water in the
form of a stream or a pond or waterfalls or all the three with or without islands
and also bridges, lantern, stones, and trees. The important points in the garden
are decorated with stones and selected trees. But pine trees may be planted to
give the effect of being swept by wind. Untrimmed stepping stones are placed
over the walks. An island is generally a usual feature in a hill garden.
2. Flat garden: As the name implies, Hira-niwa or flat gardens are laid out in
flat ground without hills or ponds. Flat gardens are supposed to represent a
mountain valley or a meadowland. Such gardens lacks ups and down and are
devoid of hills, streams or ponds. These gardens were popular during the era of
Muromachi (1392-1573). A flat, garden is not necessarily as flat as a pan -cake.
Since it stimulates a mountain velly, low rounded hill designed with the help of
stones or earth mounds or both will look quite appropriate in a flat garden eg.,
Ryoanji temple. Mostly ‘Moore’ type gardens are developed to create scenic
beauty, other adornments like stones, wells, water basins, trees, etc., are used.
Water current of an ocean effect is produced by covering the land surface with
pure sand. The rocks or pebbles are so arranged that they give an effect of
diversion or rush or water.
3. Tea garden: In Japanese culture, the tea ceremony has gained the status of
national ceremony and has been intricately woven with life style. Tea garden is
a type of beautiful Japanese garden that has a tea ceremony house along with
the garden. The tea garden is laid out based on certain principles and customs
of the Japanese tea ceremony and hence needs a considerable space of at least
about 200 square meters, for its designing. Since the performance of the tea
ceremony needs an atmosphere of intimacy, it is essential that the garden be
enclosed by a fence. But the fence should be rustic in mature, with a gate made
of very light material such as bamboo.
The present day Japanese tea garden is sectioned into three areas viz., sotoroji (outer
section) machi (middle section) and uchiroji (inner section)
Outer section: The outer tea garden is comparatively a narrow area, with a waiting
place where the guests are supposed to wait until the master of the house appears to
welcome them. The guests are supposed to wait after removing shoes. Paths will be
provided with stepping stones to lead to middle section. Stone benches of irregular
size are provided and the area is not planted with many kinds of plants except grasses.
Middle section: Stone troughs with water are kept for the guests to clean themselves
before making entry into the inner section. Here also the stepping stones and naturally
looking objects are located in a improper manner.
Inner garden: The inner garden contains the tea house. The tea house of the classical
time was nothing but a small straw hut with an outside waiting place, a small side room
for washing the utensils, and the main ceremonial tea house itself having a capacity to
accommodate only five persons.
The most important feature at the entrance of the tea house is a water-basin or a well
or both for the visitors to rinse their face before entering for the tea ceremony. To
illuminate the water basin and resting place stone lanterns are set in appropriate places.
The selection of water-basin and stone lanterns is done with scrupulous care so that
both the purposes of utility and beauty and elegance are fulfilled.
As far as tree planting is concerned, a contrast is maintained between the outer garden
and the inner garden. The outer garden will have simple plantings and stone groupings.
The trees, shrubs, annual and grasses are put in an informal manner. Hedge walls are
provided to look natural. The selection of trees is such that when the outer garden is
exposed to the light the inner must be darkened by shady evergreen trees.
4. Passage garden: The passage gardens, the Roji niva, are those which are
laid in narrow passage, as for example a narrow space between two houses
or approaches to buildings. As such areas are generally narrow, the garden
layout should be simple and not over crowded. In such gardens there should
be hardly any ornaments such as lanterns, basins or other man-made features.
The common feature of a passage garden are a few key rocks, slabs of stones,
and only a sample of types of plant. Bushy shrubs and trees are unsuitable in a
passage garden, plants with open form and slender shapes are selected.
5. Sand garden: It is the simplest style of gardening, though not liked by many
as it is totally devoid of plants. Instead of using water in this type of garden,
sand or gravel is used to represent river or sea. The main feature of this style
of gardening is to arrange a few vertical and prostrate stones in groups of 2 or
3 and to fill in the gap between the stones with fine white gravel. This style of
gardens looks pleasant and effective only when confined to a limited area. The
gravel is raked in most simple patterns simulating the ripples of flowing water.
The raking has to be repeated often to keep the garden in its best shape. This
style of garden looks pleasant and effective only when confined to a limited
area.
English Garden
English garden is a style of landscape garden which emerged in England in the early
18th century and spread across Europe, replacing the more formal, symmetrical 17th
century principal gardening style of Europe. The English garden represent an idealized
view of nature. It drew inspiration from paintings of landscapes by Claude Lorrain
and Nicolas Poussin and in the Anglo-Chinese garden from the classic Chinese of
the East, which had recently been described by European travelers. English garden
is the most beautiful garden amongst all European gardens. Due to high rainfall, the
natural groundcover in the English countryside is grass. British garden architects
Repton and Capability brown advocated the concept that British garden should look
like countryside.
The reasons are
i. The UK enjoys the typical grassland climate with well distributed rainfall. This
is favourable for the growth of herbaceous perennials.
ii. Since they were ruling many countries, valuable plant collection was possible
from diverse areas.
iii. Gardening is a high cost technology and British were rich enough to afford
luxury.
iv. English people are very fond of flowers.
The history of gardening in England dates back of fourteenth century. When monks
and priests conceived the idea of gardening and they started with kitchen gardens with
the objective to supply the fruits and vegetables with a sole purpose of getting food
for monasteries and grew herb gardens for medicinal purpose. Gradually, the spirit
of gardening was imbibed among the people who realized the value of residing in
pleasant surroundings. By the middle of the sixteenth century the English gardens saw
flower beds, topiary, and terrace gardens. Gardens consisted of symmetrical walks of
clipped evergreens, statutory and masonry metal stages, statues of Greek gods were
scaled on architectural fantasies. Introduction of various exotic plants though new
trading companies. Flower garden got a special stimulus. It is formal in design with
topiary and carpet garden.
The predecessors of the landscape garden in England were the great parks created
by Sir John Vanbrugh and Nicholas Hawksmoor at Castle Howard, Blenheim palace
and the Claremont landscape garden at Claremont house. These parks featured vast
lawns, woods and pieces of architecture, such as the classical mausoleum designed by
Hawksmoor at Castle Howard. At the centre of the composition was the house, behind
which were formal and symmetrical gardens in the style of the garden with ornate
carpets of floral designs and wall of hedges, decorated with statues and fountains.
The new style that became known as the English garden was invented by landscape
designers William kent and Charles Bridgeman.
• William Kent (1685-1748) was an architect, painter and furniture designer
who introduced Palladian style architecture to England and compose gardens
look like landscape paintings. Kent is recognized as the Father of the English
landscape garden and a pioneer of picturesque. Kent’s inspiration came from
Palladio’s architecture of the houses he built.
• Charles Bridgeman (1690-1738) was the son of a gardener and an experienced
horticulturist. He collaborated with Kent on several major garden, providing the
botanical expertise which allowed Kent to realize his architecture visions.
In the middle of the 18th century, the gardens were laid out with more emphasis on
architectural features. The main features of the gardens of this period were; curved
paths, informal groups of trees, rivulets or streams, waterfalls and clipped hedges.
The flowering annuals, the main stay of an English garden, came into prominence
during the nineteenth century which subdued the architectural features. The English
climate suit admirably well for the growth of herbaceous annuals. This prompted them
to evolve a large number of hybrids of annuals as well as to collect the best flowering
plants from all over the world. Most of the flowering annuals that we see today in the
Indian gardens, with the few exceptions of amaranthus, balsam, gomphrena, marigold,
etc., were brought here by the British.
The English garden usually included a lake, sweeps of gently rolling lawns set against
groves of trees and recreations of classical temples, gothic ruins, bridges and other
picturesque architecture, designed to recreate an idyllic pastoral landscape.
1. Tree groves: were spread throughout the landscape with paths that allowed the
gardens users to wander in and out of the groves and provide a view of rolling
against mass tree plantings.
2. Ha ha wall: The purpose of ha ha wall was to separate garden from the grazing
land but was invisible from the distance. Cattle could be kept securely in their
fields without the use of hedge or fence to interrupt the view.
3. Grottos: Grottos were used as romantic hide outs. They were manmade but
build to resemble a dark natural forming cave.
The Key features of English gardens in India are:
1. Lawn: Lawn is a principal feature of English garden. A lawn can be of any shape
and it may be plain or undulating. It can be laid by seed, turfing or plastering.
2. Rockery: It is the second important feature of an English garden. There are
various types of rockeries.
• Cold weather rockery of annuals like Alyssum, Calendula, Candytuft,
Dianthus, Ageratum, Gaillardia, Verbena, Zinnia.
• Rockery of succulents for dry areas.
• Rockery of ferns in humid areas.
3. Herbaceous border: Flower beds or borders are characteristic feature of a
British garden. The height of the plant, time, duration and overall colour scheme
are taken into consideration.
References
Arora, J.S. 1999. Introduction to Ornamental Horticulture. Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana, India.
Bose, T.K, Maiti, R.G., Dhua, R.S. and Das, P. 1999. Floriculture and Landscaping. Naya
Prakash, Calcutta, India.
Randhawa, G.S. and Mukhopadhyay, A. 1986. Floriculture in India. Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi.
www.HortiAgri.com
www.uahs.in
4
urfgrass Management: Principles and
Practices
S.L. Chawla, Roshni Agnihotri and R.D. Pawar
Turf is an English word, which traces its origin to India from the Sanskrit word
“Darbha” means “tuft of grass” or “Kusha” in hindi. Kusha has been mentioned
numerous ties even in Hind mythologies (Turgeon, 1985). Turf, is a grass which is
smooth, has quality texture and a soothing colour surface that is used in the golf courses,
lawns, fields, nurseries, gardens, etc. Turf is a piece of earth of about 5 cm thickness
with grass thickly grown over it. Turfgrass has become increasingly important in
today’s society as people’s needs increase for recreation, comfort and aesthetics.
Turfgrasses are considered as major component of landscape industry which provides
aesthetic value. They provide arena for various functional, recreational and social
activities.
Turfgrasses enhance the appearance of land and increase the utility of sports fields,
lawns, parks, golf courses and other greenbelt areas in and around urban as well as sub
urban centres. They improve the environment of urban centres by reducing erosion,
temperatures, noise, dust and glare. And, turfgrasses improve the safety of sports
fields and playgrounds by adding resiliency to the playing surface. Turfgrasses are
increasingly being used by National Highway Authority of India for reducing dust
pollution and decreasing vehicle glare by planting on central verge and sides. Only
turfgrasses are used by airport authorities for planting besides runway. The grasses
being of perennial nature also help in carbon sequestration thus helping combat
climate change. The grasses which grow well on sandy soil will help to reduce the dust
and control erosion and dust pollution on river banks.
The turfgrass industry is growing rapidly due to strong demand for residential and
commercial property development, rising affluence, and the environmental and
aesthetic benefits of turfgrass in the urban landscape. Increased area under aesthetic
and utility turfs is mainly because of increasing awareness about the sports, degrading
environment and the increase in real estate value. The economic value of the turfgrass
industry in India is yet to be determined as there is no single government agency
handling or collecting the authentic data on turfgrass cover, use or import. All the
agencies dealing with turfgrasses are either private companies, nurseries or corporates.
But, according to the scarce data gathered by golf associations, sports experts and
Association of Indian Nurserymen, turfgrass industry covers an area of more than
30000 acres, in which around 6000 acre is under turfgrass cultivation (sod production).
States leading in turfgrass cultivation and marketing are Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Maharashtra, etc. The total number of international
cricket grounds in India are 50 and 8 are under construction, more than 520 domestic
cricket grounds and athletic fields are also in operation. Indian turfgrass industry is
growing around 10 per cent annually. Landscape business contributes 2-3 per cent of
total construction and turf has 50 per cent of landscape business.
Management practices often have an overriding influence on turfgrass selection and
quality. If a site cannot be watered, a drought tolerant grass is required. If a turf is
not mowed for longer time, only the low maintenance grasses are suitable, a high level
of maintenance implies frequent mowing, regular watering, several applications of
fertilizer each year and a pest control program. In contrast, a low level of maintenance
suggests no supplemental watering, monthly mowing, perhaps annual fertilization and
no chemical pest control. Selecting the best turfgrass for a site does not guarantee
success. But, planting a grass not adapted to a site insures failure.
Characteristics of Ideal Turf
Selection of Turfgrass
Selecting the best adapted turfgrass for a site improves the quality of a landscape
and reduces the cost of turf maintenance. Knowledge of the adaptation, use and
maintenance requirements of turfgrasses is essential for selecting the best grass for a
site thus there is an urgent need to do an evaluation trial of different grass species which
does well in different agro-climatic zones of India and also takes into consideration the
prevailing edaphic factors.
Characteristics of ideal turfgrasses are as follows:
1. It should remain fresh and green throughout the year.
2. It should be cold or drought resistant.
3. It should not look patchy.
4. Quick growing and should persist regular mowing and traffic.
5. Soft to touch.
6. Not giving fowl or bad odour.
7. Tolerance to diseases and pests.
8. Tolerance to smog, salinity, compaction, cold traffic (wear) and other
environmental adversities.
9. Adaptability to wide range of climatic conditions.
Classification of Turfgrasses
Turfgrasses can be classified on the basis of type of shoot growth, function, maintenance
requirements, and quality and temperature requirement
Turfgrass Management: Principles and Practices 43
Based on Temperature Requirement: Selection of turfgrass species for a site is

dependent upon many factors but priority should be given on the basis of climatic
condition.
1. Cool Season Grass: Cool season species grow well in cool temperature range
between 15° to 24°C. A typical growing season starts with a flush of growth in
the spring, then slowed (sometimes to dormancy) in the summer, followed by
another flush of growth in the fall. Cool season areas have cool winters with
temperatures that fall below freezing and having warm/hot summers. These
grasses turn brown during the hot seasons. They maintain their green color
during colder times. Their leaf types and textures are compatible with each
other. Typical cool season grass types include bent grasses (creeping bent grass,
colonial bent grass), blue grass, fescue, rye grass and many different genera.
Such grasses are not utilized in India because majority of part comes in tropical
and subtropical climate. But high altitude areas viz., hilly parts of J&K, Himachal
Pradesh, Uttarakhand and eastern states having temperate climate are suitable
for cool season grasses.
2. Warm Season Grass: Warm season grasses are of tropical origin and can
thrive during the scorching summer heat. Warm season turfgrass species are
believed to be more diverse in geographical origin and ecological habitat than
cool season species. The optimum temperature range for better growth and
development of the grasses is 27o to 35oC. They are tough, resistant to drought,
disease and insect attacks but susceptible to the cold spells of winter. The grass
thins out over time and has a low tolerance to many weed control herbicides.
These grasses cover maximum part of the country. Bermuda, Bahia, Buffalo,
Carpet, Centipede, Saint Augustine and Zoysia grasses are some of the warm
season grasses.
Based on Type of Shoot Growth
1. Bunch type: It spreads by forming tillers. At sufficient seed rate, it forms a
uniform turf while in case of lower seed rate it forms small clumps.
2. Rhizomatous type: It spreads by below ground shoots called rhizomes. It
forms uniform turf with upright aerial shoots.
3. Stoloniferous type: It spreads by below ground lateral shoots called stolons.
The examples may include St. Augustine and creeping bents.
Based on Function, Maintenance and Quality
Frequently, turf grasses are divided into three groups based on function, maintenance
requirements and quality.
1. Utility Turfgrasses: Turfgrasses that serve mainly as erosion control, receive
minimal maintenance and have maximum quality are termed as utility
turfgrasses. Pasture-type tall fescues, fine fescues, common Kentucky blue
grasses and buffalo grasses in cool season group while St. Augustine, centipede
and shade loving grasses under warm season group fall into this category.
Grasses from this group are commonly used on roadsides, industrial

areas, low-use park areas, and other low-maintenance settings. The prime
functions of this type of turf is soil stabilization means it has a binding effect
of an interconnecting system of fibrous roots and aerial shoots to prevent soil
erosion from air and water. The aerial shoots also provide a cooling effect in
warm weather. On roadside, it absorbs toxic emissions from vehicles. Along
airport runways, it reduces dust and prolongs the engine life of aeroplane. It also
reduces the formation of water puddle.
2. Lawn Turfgrasses: Turfgrasses grown for their aesthetic appeal, moderate
maintenance and moderate to high quality are placed in the lawn turfgrass
category. Lawns serves decorative function also as it is called as heart of the
Garden. It enhance the beauty of a landscape. It can also act as mulch. Mowing
leftover can be fed to cattle. Common and improved types of Kentucky blue
grasses, perennial rye grasses, turf-type tall fescues, fine fescues, Bermuda
grasses, Zoysia grasses and buffalo grasses are included in this group. These turf
grasses are commonly planted on home lawns, commercial areas, park settings,
and other landscape areas requiring turf having a good appearance.
3. Sports Turfgrasses: Sports turfgrasses function as athletic or recreational play
surfaces, generally receive high maintenance, and are of high quality. Improved
Kentucky blue grasses, perennial rye grasses, creeping bent grasses, turf-type
tall fescues, Bermuda grasses, and zoysia grasses are used as sports turf grasses
in various parts of the mid west. These grasses are often grown on golf course
greens, tees, fairways, and roughs, baseball, football and other sports sites.
Turfgrasses Grown in India
Different grasses are chosen based on the utility, climate and traffic expected.
Generally, varieties of Cynodon dactylon like ‘Selection-1’ (strain of Calcutta doob),
‘TifDwarf ’, ‘Calcutta doob’, Zoysia japonica ‘Nilgiri’, etc. are employed in landscaping
of lawns due to their wear tolerance and minimum maintenance. Huge area under
recreational turf is in golf course which requires immaculate selection, establishment
and maintenance under constant supervision. On greens of golf courses, varieties of
Cynodon like ‘TifDwarf ’, ‘TifGreen’, ‘Mini Verde’, ‘TifEagle’, etc. are preferred which
has been released from University of Georgia (USA); a world leader in turfgrass
research. For other parts of golf course like tees, fairways and roughs, ‘Selection-1’
of Cynodon dactylon is preferred. Cynodon dactylon is widely grown in the country
(Chawla et al., 2016 and Chawla et al., 2018).
A wide range of environmental conditions occur all over India. Mostly extremes of
temperature limit the adaptation of several species in many areas when combined with
other climatic and edaphic factors. There are many abiotic factors involved. In the
temperate climates of Himalayan states, cool season grasses such as bluegrass, bent
grass, rye grass and fescue are grown whereas in coastal areas, Paspalum vaginatum
(salt tolerant) is preferred.
Table 1: Commonly used perennial turfgrasses for turf, sports and amenity purposes
S.N. Common name Botanical name Climate Special traits Use and utility
1. Kentucky Blue grass Poa pratensis (L.) Temperate Broad adaptation,apomixis Lawns, sports, golf (fair
ways, rough and tees)
2. Tall Fescue Festuca arundinacea Temperate Broad adaptation, drought Lawns, golf (far rough)
Schreb. tolerance
3. Perennial Rye grass Lolium perenne (L.) Temperate Rapid establishment, broad Lawns, sports, golf
adaptation
4. Creeping Bent grass Agrostis stolonifera (L.) Temperate Low growth habit,
aggressive spreading
5. Bermuda grass Cynodon dactylon (L.) Tropical/ sub-tropical Aggressive spreading, Lawns, sports, golf, low
drought tolerance, narrow maintenance areas
leaves
6. Zoysia grass Zoysia japonica, Tropical/ sub-tropical Dense sod, slow growth Lawns
Z. tenuifolia rate, narrow leaves
Z. matrella
7. Centipede grass Eremochloa ophiuroides Tropical/ sub-tropical Low-fertility, acid-soil, Lawns, low maintenance
(Munro) Hack. and drought tolerance, medium areas
leaves
8. Seashore paspalum Paspalum vaginatum Tropical/ sub-tropical Salt and drought tolerance, Lawns, sports, golf, low
Swartz medium leaves maintenance areas
9. St. Augustine grass Stenotaphrum secundatum Tropical/ sub-tropical Aggressive spreading, Lawns, low maintenance
(Walt.) Kuntze shade tolerance, broad leaves areas
10. Bahiagrass Paspalum notatum Tropical/sub-tropical Drought and low-fertility Low maintenance areas
Flugge tolerance
Planting
Land Preparation
Establishing a durable turfgrass/lawn requires soil testing and proper site preparation.
The initial investment in site preparation should be considered over the many years
that a field provides recreational use. For example, improper root zone construction
and grading inhibits the movement of water away from the surface and consequently
increases the duration of wetness of the lawn particularly during wet weather. Lawns
can be grown in wide varieties of soils but for a better establishment, the soil should
be fertile and well drained with good water holding capacity. Ideal pH range is 5.5-7.0
but it is grown even at high pH of 8.2-8.4. Proper liming is essential for vigorous and
healthy root and shoot growth of turf. Applied fertilizers and other soil nutrients are
used more efficiently by the germinating turfgrass seedlings or newly transplanted sod
when the soil having proper pH (6.5 to 6.7). Soil should first be solarised in summer for
killing microbes, pests and weeds. Before planting the lawn, ground should be levelled
to give a gentle slope for drainage of extra water. Generally, 2-3 cm slope is necessary
for every 50 meters towards the natural source of drainage. Removing debris such
as rocks, lumber, concrete, etc. should be followed by tilling and addition of organic
matter such as well decomposed manure, well decomposed sawdust to improve soil
structure. Soil should have adequate organic matter. Rotary tilling should be done to
mix 1 to 2 inches of organic matter into 3 to 4 inches of top soil. The tilling is followed
by grading the seedbed to provide drainage away from the house, walks and driveway.
Application of water is done as often as needed to allow the soil to settle and form
a firm seedbed. It is advised not to overwater the point of runoff and soil erosion.
Thereafter, the soil is raked to remove any large clods and fill depressions. Glyphosate
herbicide eliminates most of the undesirable weedy grasses and broad-leaved weeds. It
moves or translocates down in plants to kill underground portions.
Different Turf Establishment Methods
After land preparation, it is mandatory that turfgrass should be established or planted
as quickly as possible. Lawn grasses can be propagated by both sexual and asexual
means but asexual methods are widely adopted as it takes less time to establish
properly. Different methods of turfgrass establishment are as under (Chawla et al.,
2013 and Chawla et al., 2019)
1. Seeding
Many turfgrasses that can be established from seed include common Bermuda grass,
centipede grass, carpet grass, bahia grass, buffalo grass and all the cool season grasses.
When establishing grass from seed, seed quality, seeding rate, seeding date and seeding
method must be considered.
Seeding rates depend on grass species, the purpose for the turfgrass and the time
available to develop a cover. Grasses with a creeping type growth habit are generally
seeded at lower rates than bunch-type grasses. Seedling survival, a function of
environmental conditions and management practices during the germination period,

also influences seeding rates. Generally, 25-30 kg seeds required for one hectare area.
Any factor that increases the time required for germination or the time the grass is in the
seedling stage, also increases seedling losses. Extremely high or low soil temperatures,
drought or excessively wet soils, low soil fertility, improperly sown seeds (covered too
deep, left uncovered on the surface or non-uniform distribution), excessive seedling
densities and the presence of some pre-emergence herbicides all increase seedling
losses. Thorough seedbed preparation, proper planting techniques, correct planting
date and proper post planting care all can reduce seedling losses.
Date of planting is critical when establishing turfgrass from seed. Soil temperature and
the expected duration of favourable soil temperatures are the primary considerations
for selecting the planting date. Cool season grasses should be planted in the fall when
soil temperature is low and months of favourable growing conditions remain. If cool
season grasses are planted too early, high soil temperatures create stressful conditions
during the seedling stage and result in high seedling losses.
Late spring and early summer are ideal seeding time for warm season grasses. Soil
temperatures are favourable by late spring and a long growing season is ahead for the
warm season grasses. Late summer is another suitable time for seeding warm grasses
since soil temperatures are favourable.
Seeding methods have a tremendous influence on the successful establishment of
grasses. Ideally, grass seed should be uniformly distributed at recommended seeding
rates, covered with an inch of topsoil and rolled to firm the field. Grass drills, or
planters, are made to perform all these tasks in a single pass over the site. Other options
include broadcasting the seed uniformly over the surface and covering seed with straw
or mulch.
Seeding Methods
i. Broadcasting: It is the easiest method but is not advisable owing to non
uniformity and higher seed cost.
ii. Seed spreader: To obtain an uniform turf, seed should be evenly distributed
over the prepared soil. A drop-type spreader is ideal for distributing seed
on small areas. Seeding in two directions resulted in fewer skips and a more
uniform application. Thus, it is required to calibrate the spreader to deliver half
of the desired amount of seed and cover the entire lawn area twice in opposite
directions. Starter fertilizer should be applied just before or just after seeding.
Starter fertilizer will provide sufficient nutrients to ensure rapid establishment of
the new seedlings. Using a light weight roller to roll the entire area is advisable
as rolling presses the seed into the soil.
On small sites, seeds can be broadcasted with a hand seeder or fertilizer
distributor over the surface of a lightly raked seedbed. After seeding, firm
the soil with a roller and lightly water the site. If watering is limited to light,
frequent applications, this method works well. But, excessive watering will wash
the seeds and result in a non-uniform stand of grass field.
iii. Hydroseeding: Hydroseeding is a method of lawn seeding that has become

popular in recent years. It involves preparing a mixture of seed, water, fertilizers,
and mulch in a large tank and pumping the mixture through a hose or gun onto
a prepared ground. Although lawn/turf of any size can be established through
hydroseeding, this method is most efficient for large sites or steep slopes.
Most hydroseeding equipments consist of a large tank equipped with an agitation
system to keep the mix of seed, water, fertilizer and mulch in suspension. The
hydroseeder operator moves the hose or gun back and forth until the entire area is
covered with the prepared mix.
Advantages of hydroseeding over other methods of lawn establishment from seed are
that large areas can be seeded quickly and sloped areas are easier to seed. Disadvantages
include the high cost of hydroseeding equipment, the fact that seed is placed on the soil
surface and may not be in close contact with the soil (sometimes resulting in seedlings
drying out), and a hydroseeder takes some experience to operate. Hydroseeding was
developed for planting sites that were difficult to reach with conventional equipment.
Steep slopes, rocky slopes, reclamation sites and other inaccessible areas were well
suited for hydroseeding. Since its development, the hydroseeder has found much
broader use in grass establishment and is used today for seeding lawns, golf courses,
sports fields and other sites.
2. Sprigging
All for the Bermuda grasses, the zoysia grasses and seashore paspalum are readily
established by sprigging. St. Augustine grass and centipede grass can also be established
from sprigs, but the risks are greater. For large plantings such as golf courses and
sports fields, sprigging provides the most practical method of establishment. A grass
sprig consists of a stem or rhizome segment with at least one node or crown (multiple
nodes) with some leaves and roots that might be attached to the node. Usually, 3 or
more nodes are found on a single sprig.
Sprigs are harvested by shredding sod, by rototilling sod and raking, by verticutting
or by a sprig harvester. Sprigs consisting of rhizomes, crowns and only a few green
leaves are most desirable. Such sprigs will transport and store much better than green,
leafy sprigs. Rhizomes are also more drought tolerant and survive several days without
water; whereas, a green leafy sprig without a crown or rhizome segment may die within
hours if not kept moist after planting.
Bermuda grass, zoysia grass and seashore paspalum are the only vegetatively propagated
warm season grasses with rhizomes. Thus, those grasses are best suited to sprigging.
St.Augustine grass, centipede grass and buffalo grass sprigs that consist only of stolons
are much more susceptible to drought stress after planting. Such sprigs are also more
likely to overheat and deteriorate during shipment. Sprigs that appear mouldy when
they arrive at the planting site should not be planted. Such sprigs desiccate rapidly after
planting and replanting is often required.
The quality of sprigs, like that of seeds, is critical for successful establishment. Just as
weed seeds are undesirable in a lot of grass seed, off-type grasses are undesirable in a
bushel of sprigs. Common Bermuda grass sprigs can cause serious problems in a
bushel of hybrid Bermuda grass sprigs. Likewise, Bermuda grass sprigs in zoysia grass
or other turfgrasses lead to serious weed problems for the turf manager. In addition
to purity, sprig vigor is another aspect of sprig quality. Sprigs harvested by digging
are usually the most vigorous since they include rhizomes, crowns and the large
stolons found near the soil surface. Such sprigs are more vigorous than the leafy sprigs
harvested above the soil level. The more vigorous sprigs tolerate stress and develop a
root system rapidly than the less vigorous sprigs. Consequently, sprig survival is much
greater for the vigorous sprigs.
Sprigging rates depend on grass varieties, planting method, sprig quality and the
time available for a complete cover. Bermuda grass sprigs spread faster than all other
grasses and can be planted at lower rates. Planting method also influences sprigging
rates. Most sprigs are broadcasted over the site with a distributor or hydroseeder at
rather high rates of sprigs. However, row planters are available for sprigging that
use much less planting material. If the row planter functions properly, it places the
sprig in a narrow furrow, covering 50 to 80% of the sprig with soil. If water is applied
immediately (within 30 minutes), a very high percentage of sprigs survive. In contrast,
broadcasting sprigs over the surface and depending on an irrigation system to keep
them moist results in high sprig losses. Covering broadcast sprigs with mulch helps to
reduce their losses.
Sprigging rates can also be reduced by planting high quality sprigs. Sprigs harvested by
digging are more vigorous and have a higher survival rate; thus, lower rates of planting
can be used. Where only the “tops” of Bermuda grass are planted, twice the quantity of
planting stock may be needed when dug sprigs are used.
Finally, the time available to develop a complete cover will significantly influence
planting rates. The higher the rate of sprigging, the faster a cover will develop. However,
the cost of sprigging also increases with increase in planting material.
3. Stolonizing
Stolonizing is a form of sprigging that involves broadcasting sprigs or stolons over
moist soil. The sprigs are then pressed into the soil, again leaving about 25% of the
sprig’s length exposed. This process can also be used with a hydromulcher, where
sprigs are broadcasted in a spray with mulch onto the soil surface, often referred to
hydrosprigging.
4. Plugging
Plugging refers to the setting out of small sod blocks or plugs (2 to 4 inches in diameter)
to establish a turfgrass. The plugs need to be rolled so that the soil on the sod block, or
plug is levelled with the soil surface. Rooted plugs are available which have been grown
in about 2 inches of soil or organic matter. When rooted plugs are planted, a hole about
2-inches deep should be dug. Do not simply place the plug on the soil surface.
St. Augustine, zoysia and centipede grasses are frequently established from plugs. St.
Augustine grass plugs will cover the site in about 2 months while Centipede and zoysia
grasses need one growing season for same spacing. Although plugging requires
lesser planting material than sodding, the labor requirement for plugging is greater
than that for sodding. Rooted plugs, however, require less attention after planting than
sod since their root system is developed prior to planting.
5. Sodding/Turfing
Sodding is usually the most expensive method of establishing turfgrasses. However,
it is the quickest way to achieve a perfect lawn. Sodding is the laying of blocks or
rolls of sod directly over a prepared ground to provide an instant lawn. Solid sodding
obviously requires more planting material than other methods, but it eliminates many
of the problems associated with seeding, sprigging or plugging. When sodding a site,
lay sod blocks or sod rolls like bricks on a smooth surface that has been firmed by
rolling or settled by rainfall or irrigation. The ground needs to be moist, but not wet,
at the time sod is laid. After the sod is laid, roll it lightly to eliminate air pockets and
to develop firm contact with the soil. In addition to avoid many problems with other
methods of establishment, sodding can be done any time of the year if irrigation is
available at the site. Frequent mistake on commercial sites is poor seedbed preparation
prior to sodding. Although, sod will cover up a lot of problems, the turf manager is left
to deal with them. All of the steps of good seed bed preparation should be followed
prior to sodding a site.
Advantages of sodding over seeding
• The quickest way to establish turfgrass
• Gives immediate soil erosion control
• Eliminates problems with dust and mud
• Minimizes the need for weed control after planting
• Can be planted nearly year-round
• Can be used sooner than other methods
• Available for some of the best turfgrass varieties
• Can be used for a total turf installation or the repair of smaller areas
Synthetic Turf (Astro turfing)
The development of synthetic fibers and their integration into a carpet to try to simulate
the conditions of natural grass was first successfully achieved by the Monsanto
Company in the United States of America in 1964. It is a synthetic lawn popularly
used in developed countries in roof gardens as well as in play grounds. It dispenses the
normal maintenance usually required for normal lawns.
High-quality and consistent surface (even ball roll/bounce), no requirement of water,
relatively low maintenance requirements, tolerance to adverse weather conditions,
potential to generate significant rental income, intensive programming, potential of
multi-use, recyclable content and reusability, reduction in pesticide and fertilizer use,
increased predictability of sports fixtures and events and ability to be programmed
intensively both in terms of time bandwidth (day and night), as well as subdividing field
space and increasing participation are its merits over the natural grass. However, high
initial capital cost, requirement of high fencing to protect the facility, costly to repair
if damaged, heat retention and reflection in certain circumstances, need of upgradation
or replacement every eight-fifteen years, variability of performance across the range
of high value to low value surfaces and the difficulty for new adopters to differentiate
are major drawbacks of Astroturf along with the perception that it is more expensive
to establish, maintain and upgrade, increased injury potential in sports fields, negative
environmental impact and negative health impacts.
Mangement of Turfgrasses
Care After Turf Planting

Irrigate newly planted turf areas regularly. Water lightly and frequently to prevent the
surface from drying. As the young seedlings develop or as the sprigs or sod begin to
take root and spread, reduce the frequency of watering and increase the amount of
water applied per watering. This permits the development of a deep root system and
ultimately reduces the amount of water needed.
The time to mow will depend on the species planted. The area is mowed as soon as the
grass is 1 to 2 inches high. It is done frequently enough to prevent removing more than
half of the growth.
1. Nutrient Management for Turf
The term ‘nutrient management’ refers to additions of fertilizer in efforts to positively
influence plant growth. Chemical fertilization is the most common means of supplying
turfgrasses with their nutritional requirements as inorganic fertilizers are the sources
of nutrients available instantly to the plants. Inorganic fertilizers have been used in
various forms to improve the productivity of the growing soil.
Careful consideration of the nutritional requirements of the turf, based on soil fertility,
expected quality of the turf, use of the turf, suitability of the growing environment, grass
species and varieties present, and available management resources is must for proper
nutrient management. The necessary nutrients needs to be added at proper timing
(late summer, late spring for cool season, late spring to midsummer for warm season)
proper application rate, proper material selection and proper placement. In today’s
world, need of the hour is reduction of fertilizer application to the lowest possible level
to maximize efficient use of nutrients by the plants in the turf system while eliminating
waste and minimizing nutrient losses. Awareness of the potential for adverse impact
from nutrient contamination on precious natural resources, particularly water, from
off-site movement of nutrients due to factors such as improper application, runoff,
erosion and leaching. In general, top-dressing refers to application of thin layer of
manure or fertilizers, but in case of turf management, it refers to the distribution of a
thin layer of soil over turfgrass area. After spiking, raking or scrapping, the turf should
be top-dressed with the mixture of well decomposed weed freee FYM or neem cake
powder and sand in a proportion of 1:1 of 1 cm thickness. After top-dressing, sprinkling
with a hose is advisable. Top dressings are often applied on newly established turfgrass.
Nitrogen application for turf grass is divided into two categories of fertilizers viz.
quick release and slow release. Quick release fertilizers are those that are soluble in
water, relatively inexpensive, can be applied in spray and granular form in any season;
most important is that they provide quick response to turfgrass. Such fertilizers are
ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulphate, potassium nitrate, etc. Slow release N
fertilizers are those that are not readily soluble, from moderately to highly, with one or
two exceptions can only be applied in granular form and provide a slow and constant
N release over a long period. Examples of slow release fertilizers are methylene urea,
sulfur coated urea, isobutylidenediurea (IBDU), neem coated urea (NCU), etc.
Fertilizing the turf thrice a year is adequate to maintain turf in low maintenance
condition. Application of urea or ammonium sulphate @ 1 kg / 50 sq. m. during
February - March, June - July and October - November is quite beneficial. At the same
time, well decomposed compost @ 1 kg/sq.m. area will be sufficient as top dressing.
After the emergence of seedlings, surface applications of N are applied when decline
in shoot color, growth and vigor is evident.
Mowing practices related to nutrient management are leaving grass clippings and other
organic materials in place when feasible for in-situ utilization of nutrients. Recycling
removed turf clippings as a nutrient resource (compost, mulching, organic matter
supplement, etc.). It is not required to mow the turf during periods of severe plant
stress or intensity of disease. Mowing frequency should be increased during rapid,
vigorous plant growth and decreased during dry stressful periods.
Methods of fertilizer application:
There are two methods for application of fertilizers
a. By sprayers: for liquid application of soluble and suspended fertilizers
b. By spreaders: for dry application of granular fertilizers
2. Irrigation Management
Irrigation is the artificial application of water for the growth of plant. On the basis
of location, species, weather and maintenance, tropical turfgrasses use from 2-3 mm
water per day and that is why proper irrigation is necessary to provide an adequate
supply of moisture for turfgrass growth. Turf is also irrigated to wash out fertilizers
and some pesticides following application, maintain sufficient surface moisture
to promote germination of inter-seeded turfgrasses along with modification of soil
temperatures. Lesser frequencies of irrigation required for deeply rooted turf while
irrigation frequency is higher in shallow rooted turfs. Moreover, the amount of water
required per irrigation depends on the volume of the turfgrass root zone, method of
irrigation and canopy resistance (shoot density, leaf orientation, leaf area growth rate).
Shallow-rooted turfs require more frequent but less intensive irrigations than deep-
rooted turfs. Various environmental factors and cultural practices influence rooting
depth. Poor soil aeration due to compaction or waterlogged conditions, close mowing,
excessive fertilization, and frequent irrigation are sometimes associated with shallow
turfgrass rooting. Irrigation requirement of turfgrass changes with the undergoing
changes in the growing season.
Irrigation Frequency
Frequency of irrigation depends on climatic conditions, growth stage of turf and soil
type. High disease incidence, reduced wear tolerance, low vigor, and high susceptibility
to injury from climatic stresses are identified as problems associated with frequent
irrigation of turf. As irrigation frequency is reduced, turfgrasses typically improve until
inadequate moisture limits growth. First principle of irrigation management is deep
(field capacity) and infrequent. The standard rate is 10-15 mm/3-4 days.
Irrigation Timing
Irrigation can be performed at any time of the day or night as long as the rate of
application does not exceed the infiltration capacity of the soil.
The best time to irrigate is early morning hours which avoids interference to play or
use in moist situations. In morning hours, water loss through evaporation is minimum
and wind disturbance is least. Always maintain appropriate soil moisture for better
growth and development as per turf species, soil type, weather, etc.
At night, the absence of solar radiation results in much less evaporative losses of
irrigation water thus more efficient use of the water for satisfying turfgrass moisture
requirements but there are more chances of attack of fungal diseases.
Irrigation Systems
The function of an irrigation system is to supply water in sufficient quantity. The
system should supply water in the entire field uniformly and appropriate soil depth. An
irrigation system’s capacity to perform its function is limited by its design, construction
and operation. Turf is irrigated by four main systems:
Portable irrigation systems: It can be easily moved and shifted from one place to an-
other place in turf field but it is not much efficient.
Travelling irrigation system: These systems consist of rotating sprinkler attached to
hose. The sprinkler continue propelling and winding itself.
Quick coupler system: In this system, a series of underground pipes with quick
couplers permanently installed in the ground and valves are constructed. Hose pipes
and sprinklers can also be attached directly to the system.
Installed irrigation system: This is most efficient system of turf irrigation. It is
automatic and reliable system. To irrigate large turf area, pop up sprinklers are installed.
Soil moisture sensors may be installed.
Irrigation management to prevent nutrient loss as runoff is also a sustainable practice.
It is required to irrigate lightly after application to wash fertilizer from surface of turf.
Irrigation intensity should be low enough to allow infiltration. Irrigate turf based on
weather and soil water availability (as needed) and not on a calendar schedule.
Irrigation controller technology should be optimized to ensure efficient irrigation
patterns for efficient use of fertilizers.
3. Weeding
Weeds are the biggest menace to a beautiful lawn. Weeds deter the quality due to
competition for nutrients, light and water. Weeds also detract uniformity and beauty
of lawns due to the distinct contrast in colour and texture between the desired grass
plants and weeds. Weed proliferation should be avoided by purchasing pure planting
material free of weed seed, by pre-treating the lawn area with herbicides (Glyphosate)
before planting but after planting, regular hand weeding is better way. Although, some
herbicide like Metsulfuron-methyl (8 g/100 liter water) is used to control broad leaved
weeds in standing turf.
4. Mowing & Rolling
These are most important practices for a visually pleasing and well trimmed lawn.
Mowing improves turfgrass appearance and uniforms its surface by periodic removal
of a portion of leaves or tillers. The objective of light mowing is to help the grass
anchor itself firmly and keep the surface levelled. Accordingly, proper cutting height
and mowing frequency must be defined in order to maintain an attractive and vigorous
turf. Never remove more than 1/3 of the grass blade length at any time. A healthy
lawn can survive an occasional close cut. Repeated close mowing produces a brown
lawn and has several harmful side effects. Cutting height may extremely vary (from
≈ 0.3 up to 10 cm) on the basis of the intended use of turfgrass, species/cultivar and
the period of the year. In addition, mowing frequency should be tailored to the shoot
growth rate of the turf and environmental conditions by avoiding single removal of
more than 30–40% leaf tissue. Mowing interval is expressed as number of days between
successive mowings and is dependent on the increase in culm length of the turfgrass.
Very frequent mowing can result into less rooting, reduced rhizome and shoot growth,
depleted carbohydrate reserve and increased shoot density and succulence. There are
many patterns by which a lawn can be mowed.
Rolling is process in which cylindrical roller is used to make soil compact and remove
air gaps in newly established turf and to correct minor variations in turf surface caused
by traffic. It is important for rhizomatous roots to get proper anchorage on the ground
and also in levelling.
5. Aeration
Aeration or aerification refers to the process of mechanically removing small plugs of
thatch and soil from a turf area to improve soil aeration (coring, spiking and slicing).
The aeration process is also commonly called core aeration or simply aeration. It
helps in improved air exchange between the soil and atmosphere, enhanced soil-water
uptake, improved fertilizer uptake and use, reduced water runoff and puddling,
improved turfgrass rooting, reduced soil compaction, enhanced heat- and drought-
stress tolerance, improved resiliency and cushioning and enhanced thatch breakdown.
Equipment with hollow tines removes soil cores. Equipment having solid
tines penetrates the soil surface. The turf should be spiked, raked or scrapped during
February or September. Annual aeration is beneficial for most of the grasses. Lawns
growing on heavy clay or sub-soils, and lawns exposed to intense use benefit from
more than one aerations each year. After proper watering to turf, spiking can be
done by inserting fork about 10 cm deep at 10-15 cm interval. Tines at least 1/2 inch
in diameter or more are suggested for severe compaction or thatch problems. Using
a garden rake, raking of turf should be done after mowing and removing the grass
clippings. Applying fertilizers after aeration helps the lawn compete against weeds.
Water the lawn carefully after aeration, particularly in areas where drought and high
temperatures are common.
6. Thatch Control
Thatch control is most important practice for smooth and even looking turf. Thatch is
a layer of living and dead grass stems, roots and other organic matter developed due to
imbalance of organic matter produced by the turfgrass and the rate of its decomposition.
It depends on growth rate and growth habit of the turf along with its maintenance.
Any species of grass that spreads by above ground stolons or below ground rhizomes
develops thatch. e.g. Cynodon and Zoysia are prolific thatch producers. Some amount
of thatch is necessary for some places like sport field but excessive thatch is always
undesirable. Development of thatch is influenced by grass species, fertilization, soil
pH, mowing height, pesticide application, frequency of raking and soil type. High
fertilization and intensive maintenance develope moderate to heavy thatch.
Efficient use of fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation water helps in reducing production
of more roots and leaves. When thickness layer of thatch exceeds 1.5 cm, it can
become problem and should be reduced by dethatching. One of the most common
methods of thatch control is vertical mowing, sometimes called ‘verticutting’. The
blades of vertical mower cuts vertically into the turf canopy, severing lateral stems
and removing thatch that develops on the surface of the soil, then it is raked and
removed. Dethatching should be performed at times of vigorous growth and should
be avoided before anticipated periods of environmental stress such as drought. After
dethatching, light fertilizer and irrigation should be applied for speedy recovery of turf.
Power rake – It is used for thatch removal. This is a lawn- mower type machine with
tines instead of blades that rip the thatch out of the ground. Hand raking is then needed
to remove the debris.
Vertical mower – Also called a verticutter which is similar to a power rake but cuts
down through the thatch into the soil. A verticutter is better than a power rake if
the plan is to overseed after thatch removal. It cuts deeper into the soil and therefore
provides better seed-to- soil contact. Raking up the debris is necessary before sowing
the seed.
7. Turf/Lawn Renovation and Total Re-establishment
Renovation refers to the repair and improvement of an existing lawn without complete
re-establishment of the turf cover. Renovation practices reduce the labour and cost
of completely re-establishing the lawn. In most cases lawn renovation is preferable
over total lawn re-establishment because it is less labour intensive, leads to minimum
erosion, some foot traffic can be tolerated during the process and generally results can
be observed more readily. Where lawn quality is unacceptable, complete renovation

might be necessary. Renovation involves planting grass into a pre-existing lawn area,
often adding new grass varieties to repair damage or increase tolerance to drought,
shade or wear. Renovation usually isn’t necessary until approximately 20-25% of the
lawn is bare or covered with weeds. Knowing the cause for lawn failure can make
awareness of changes in cultural practices such as mowing, watering and fertilizing
that may be necessary.
Diseases and Pests
The major diseases of turfgrasses and their management practices are as below
(Janakiram et al., 2015):
Dollar Spot: It is a fungal disease caused by a Sclerotinia homoeocarpa. The grasses
such as annual blue grass, bahia grass, Bermuda grass, fine-leaf fescue, colonial bent
grass, creeping bent grass, perennial rye grass, Kentucky blue grass, creeping and
spreading fescue are its important host plants. The symptoms of this disease include
bleached or blighted areas of turf with silver colour and size of dollar appears initially
which further may merge to form large areas. Tan lesions appear with a dark border
girdle blades. It is prevalent in nitrogen deficit turfgrasses. The management of this
disease includes maintaining adequate nitrogen level, reducing thatch accumulation;
avoid over or late irrigation and application of systemic or contact fungicides such as
COC, propiconazole, triadimefon, etc. It can also be controlled with a bacterium called
Enterobacter cloacae.
Fairy Rings: Many fungi such as Marasmus oreades, Lepiota spp., Agaricus spp.,
Lycoperdon spp., Agrocybe pediates, Bovistra plumbea, etc. are the cause of this
disease which hosts all the turfgrass species. The initial symptoms of this disease are
the appearance of circular patterns of dark green grasses or growth of mushrooms
around the perimeters that tend to grow in a circle through the organic matter in the
soil, mat and thatch. It is due to the fungi that break down organic matter. A ring of
dead grass occurs due to the interference of water permeability by the dense fungal
mycellial growth present in the soil. It often appears after rains or heavy irrigation and
is a more serious problem on golf greens. For the management of this disease apply
sufficient nitrogenous fertilizers, apply sufficient irrigation to sufficiently wet the root
zone, frequent mowing, application of soil fumigants to eradicate the fungus and spray
application of triademefon, azoxystrobin, flutolanil.
Pythium Blight: It is a fungal disease caused by Pythium aphanidermatum that
commonly hosts annual bluegrass, Kentucky bluegrass, rough bluegrass, velvet bent
grass, tall fescue, fine-leaf fescue. It is very common in cool and wet conditions.
Symptoms of this disease include round to irregular water-soaked “greasy” sunken
patches which turn yellow to brown before collapsing. Damage may appear in streaks
following drainage or mowing patterns. In pre-emergence attack, the seed rotting takes
place. While in post-emergence infestation we can see the thin stands of grasses with
irregular dying grass patches. To control this disease improve the drainage, avoid
excess irrigation and high seeding rates, avoid creating excessively lush turfgrass and
apply strobilurin fungicides such as pyraclostrobin, azoxystrobin.
Major insect-pests of turfgrasses are as under:

Ants: It is a pest of turfgrasses which burrow into the soil and form the colonies or
nests in the soil thus destroying the turf. To control the ants, trace the line of march of
ants to the nest location and apply chlorpyriphos @ 2.5 ml/l or methyl parathion dust
@ 20 kg/ha for their control.
Termites: Termites like ants burrow into the soil and form the colonies underground
causing massive damage to the turf grounds thus destroying the turf. To control the
termites, destroying the colonies along with queen is the quickest method. It can also
be controlled by drenching with chloropyriphos @ 0.05%.
White Grubs: The C-shaped larvae feed on the roots of turfgrasses while the adult
stage of this pest feeds on the grasses thus destroying the turf above and below ground.
The root feeding damage can be identified by the brown areas development or rolling
up like a carpet. The attack is high during the dry summers. The damage can be
identified by lifting the grasses that breaks away easily at root level. To control the
white grubs, spray chloropyriphos @ 25 ml/l or malathion 50EC @1 ml/l or apply
chlorpyriphos @ 50 ml/100 m2 area by mixing with soil and sprinkle over the turf
followed by a heavy irrigation.
References
Chawla S.L., Sudha Patil, Patel M.A., Patel R.B. and Patel R.M. (2013). Turfgrass Management.
Manual published by ASPEE College of Horticulture and Forestry, Navsari Agricultural
University, Navsari, Gujarat.
Chawla, S.L., Roshni Agnihotri; Patel, M.A.; Sudha Patil and Shah, H.P. (2018). Turfgrass: A
Billion Dollar Industry. Paper presented in National Conference on Floriculture for Rural
and Urban Prosperity in the Scenario of Climate Change during February 16-18, 2018 at
CAE and PHT, CAU, Ranipool, Silkkim.
Chawla, S.L., Roshni Agnihotri; Sudha Patil, Patel, M.A.and Shah, H.P. (2019). Turfgrass
Establishment Techniques. Paper presented in National Conference on Ornamental
Horticulture to Uplift Rural Economy during January 11-13, 2019 at MPUAT, Udaipur,
Rajasthan.
Chawla S.L., Roshni Agnihotri, Sudha Patil and M. Sree Devi (2016).Prospects of Turfgrass
Industry in India. Paper presented in National Conference on Floriculture and Landscaping
for Urban and Rural Prosperity February 28-29, 2016 at ICAR-IARI, New Delhi during.
T. Janakiram, Namita and Ritu Jain (2015). Introduction to Turfgrasses. Westville Publishing
House, New Delhi
Turgeon, A.J., 1985. Turfgrass Management. Reston Publishing Co., Inc., Virginia
5
Cultivation and Management of Annual
Flowers
Ajai Kumar Tiwari, Babita Singh, Ritu Jain Jain and
Gunjeet Kumar
Annual flowers are a cluster of herbaceous plants which grow from seeds, produce
flowers, set seeds and complete their life-cycle within one year or one season. They
offer a gorgeous display of colours within the garden. Whether it is a small homemade
garden or a giant public garden, it is incomplete without beds of annual flowers.
They enhance the ornamental value of a garden within a small span of time. At their
blooming time, one feels elated when rainbows of colours appearin the garden.
Classification of Annuals
Flowering annuals are grown in beds and pots. They’re used for several purposes in
the garden. In beds, they are grown individually with or without perennial plants in
borders. They are developed in hanging baskets, window boxes or rock gardens, for
training on walls and trellises and for planting in the form of edges, borders or ground
covers. Dried flowers of some annuals are similarly used for interior decoration. Some
annuals provide sweet fragrance.
1. Based on season: the annual flowers are divided into 3 groups—winter, summer
and rainy season.
Winter season annuals

These annuals are grown in Sept. -Oct. and transplanted in Oct. -Nov. and they yield
flowers in winter season. Majority of annuals grown in this season. This group includes
a large number of seasonal flowers. The important ones are acroclinium, agrostemma
anchusa, annual carnation, annual chrysanthemum, antirrhinum, arctotis, bells-
of-Ireland, brachycome, calceolaria, calendula, campanula, candytuft, China aster
cineraria, clarkia, cornflower, daisy, delphinium, dianthus, dimorphotheca, echium
eschscholzia, gazania, godetia, helichrysum, helipterum, hollyhock, gypsophila
limonium, linaria, linum, lupin, marigold, matricaria, mesembryanthemum mignonette
mimulus, myosotis, nasturtium, nemesia, nicotiana, nemophila, nigella pansy, petunia
phlox, pimpinella, poppy, rudbeckia, salvia, saponaria, scabiosa, schizanthus, senecio
stock, sweet alyssum, sweet pea, sweet sultan, sweet william, venidium, verbena
viola, wall flower etc.
60 Gardening and Flower Production
Summer season annuals

These flower can grow on higher temperature during summer. The seed are sown in
Jan. -Feb. and transplanted in the month of Feb. -March. The common warm season
annuals are coreopsis, cosmos, gaillardia, kochia, marigold, portulaca, sunflower
tithonia, zinnia etc.
Rainy season annuals

The rainy season annual are tolerating high heat and humidity and can stand in rains.
This group includes all summer season annuals and others like amaranthus, balsam
celosia, gomphrena, coleus and torenia etc.
2. Based on Utility: These can be categorized for different purposes for which it has
been used.
• For cut Flowers: Antirrhinum, annual chrysanthemum, annual carnation, bells-
of-Ireland, cornflower, China aster, Coreopsis, gypsophila, gaillardia, larkspur
piminella, statice, stock, sweet sultan and sweet pea are grown commercially
for cut flowers for interior decoration.
• For Loose flowers:Marigold, Annual Chrysanthemum, Marigold, Gomphrena
Zinnia, Gaillardia, Straw flower, Paper flower,
• For hanging baskets: Nasturium, Partulaca, Daisy, Verbena, Phlox, Sweet
Alyssum Petunia etc.
• For pots: Annual Carnation, Antirrhinum, Pansy, Ice Plant, Candytuft, Balsam
Marigold, Stock, Salvia, Calendula etc
• For Dry flowers: Limonium, Helichrysum, Acroclinum, Nigella etc
• For Shade: Alyssum , Begonia, Cineraria, Impatiens, Nicotiana , Phlox, Salvia
Torenia, Verbena, Viola (Violet),
• For Fragrance: Alyssum, Lemon Bergamot, Tobacco, Nasturtium, Moonflower
Vine(Ipomoea Alba), Phlox, Stocks, Sweet Williams, Sweet Sultan, Sweet Peas
etc.
• For Rock gardens: Ice Plant, Verbena, Phlox etc
• For Screening: Kochia, Hollyhock, Sweet pea, Ipomoea
• For Border plants: Almost every annual can be used for this purpose
• For edging: Ageratum, Alyssum, Dianthus, Candytuft, Brachycome, Marigold
Portulaca, Pansy, Phlox, Petunia, Zinnia etc.
• For Cut greens: Kochia, Amaranthus, Coleus, Cineraria and Celosia
3. Based on height: Annuals can be categorized into 3 groups viz. , dwarf, medium
and tall.
• Dwarf Annuals: Acroclinium, Ageratum, Sweet Alyssum, Arctotis,
Daisy Brachycome, Cacalia, Calceolaria, Campanula, Wallflower, Cuphea
Cynoglossum, Dianthus, Echium, Eschscholzia, Felicia, Gaillardia
Gazania, Godetia, Candytuft, Linaria, Linum, Lobelia, Matricaria, Stock,
Cultivation and Management of Annual Flowers 61
Mesembryanthemum, Mimulus, Nemesia, Nemophila, Nierembergia, Pansy

Petunia, Phacelia, Phlox, Portulaca, Mignonette, Salpiglossis, Scabiosa, French
Marigold, Torenia, Nasturtium, Venidium, Verbena and Viola.
• Medium-Tall Annuals: Agrostemma, amaranthus, anchusa, antirrhinum
calendula, celosia, sweet sultan, cornflower, cineraria, clarkia, coreopsis
cosmos, larkspur, carnation, digitalis, dimorphotheca, gomphrena, gypsophila
balsam, kochia, limonium, lupin, bells-of-ireland, nicotiana, nigella, garden
poppy, rudbeckia, salvia, schizanthus and african marigold.
• Tall Annuals: Hollyhock, Chrysanthemum, Sunflower, Helichrysum
Heliotrope, Pimpinella and Zinnia, Lupin, Malvika, Salvia.
4. Based on Colour Scheme: These can be classified into monochromatic, analogus
and complementary colour scheme.
• Monochromatic Colour scheme: In this colour scheme, only one colour or its
different shades and tinges are used. For instance, if blue colour is to be used
annuals like blue corn flower, blue larkspur, ageratum, anchusa, etc. can be
used. For yellow colour annuals like yellow dahlia, yellow antirrhinum, yellow
calendula, yellow nasturtium, yellow marigold, yellow annual chrysanthemum
yellow coreopsis etc. can be used.
• Analogous colour scheme: In this colour scheme, the annuals of closely
related colours are used as per colour wheel. Since, the arrangement harmonizes
with the surroundings beds hence called a harmonious colour scheme. The
arrangement of colours will follow the order as white, creamish yellow, light
yellow and finally deep yellow. In case of red colour the order of colours used
will be light pink, deep pink, light red, deep red and crimson, or vice a versa.
• Contrast colour scheme: In contrast colour scheme, the opposite colour of
colour wheel are used and plants of contrast colours are planted accordingly
e. g. red salvia against the background of green or next to blue corn flowers
creates a good contrast. For yellow colour, violet, blue and red are divergence.
Yellow marigold, red phlox or petunia and white brachycome can be planted
for a creation of contrast. The width of the border is roughly divided into three
parts in proportion of 5:3: 2 or 6:3: 1 for tall, medium and dwarf plants.
5. Based on Colour: These can be classified into array of colours viz. , white, red,
pink, yellow, blue, purple, mauve, violet etc.
• Annuals with White Flowers: Ageratum houstonianurn (Mexican
Ageratum), Alyssum maritimum (Sweet Alyssum), Antirrhinum majus
(Snapdragon), Arctotisgrandis (Arctotis), Argemone grandiflora
(Pricklepoppy), Brachycome iberidifolia (Swan River Daisy), Browallia
demissa, Campanula (Annual Canterbury Bells), Centaurea (Royal
Sweet-sultan, Cornflower, etc.), Centranthus macrosiphon (Spur-valerian)
Chrysanthemum , Clarkia , Cleome spinosa (Spiderflower), Clintoniapulchella
Collinsiabicolor, Crepis barbatarubra (Hawkweed), Datura fastuosa
Dimorphotheca aurantiaca (Cape-marigold), Echium Plantagineum Hybrids
Gilia tricolor, Godetia amoena and G. grandiflora, Gypsophila elegans
Helichrysum bracteatem (Strawflower), Iberis amara (Candytuft), Impatiens

(Balsam), Lathyrus odoratus (Sweet Pea), Lavatera trimestris (Tree mallow),
Limonium sinuaturn (Statice or Sea-lavender), Lobelia erinus and L. tenuior
Lupinus mutabilis (Lupine), Malcomia maritima (Virginian-stock), Matthiola
incana (Stock), Nemesia strumosa, Nemophila maculata, Nicotiana (Flowering
Tobacco), Oenothera americana (Evening primrose), Papaver somniferurn
(Opium Poppy), Petunia hybrida, Phlox drummondii, Portulaca grandiflora,
Saponariavaccaria (Soapwort), Scabiosa atropurpurea, Schizanthus pinnatus
(Butterfly Flower), Senecio elegans (Purple Groundsel), Verbena erinoides
(Moss Vervain), Vinca rosea (Periwinkle), Viola tricolor (Pansy), Xeranthemurn
annuum (Immortelle), Zinnia elegans.
• Annuals with Red, rose, and pink Flowers: Abronia umbellata (Sand-Verbena)
Alonsoa acutifolia (Maskflower), A. warscewiczii Amaranthus caudatus (Love-
lies bleeding), Antirrhinum majus (Snapdragon), Calandrinia grandiflora,
C. speciosa, Callistephus chinensis (China Aster), Campanula (Annual
Canterbury Bells), Celosia (Cockscomb), Centaurea eyanus, C. imperialis
C. moschata Centranthus macrosiphon, Clarkia, Collinsia bicolor (Chinese-
houses), Collomia coccinea, Cosmos bipinnatus, Crepis barbatarubra
Cupheaignea (Fiery Cuphea) Diascia barberm (Twinspur), Echium creticurn
E. plantagineurn hybrids, Emilia flammea and E. sagittata, Eschscholtzia
californica (California Poppy), Gilia, Godetia Gypsophila muralis, Helichrysum
bracteaturn Helipterum manglesii and H. roseurn, lberis umbellata (Candytuft),
Impatiens (Balsam), Lathyrus Odoratus (Sweet Pea). Lavatera trimestris and
L. rosea (Treemallow), Leptosiphon hybrida, Limonium Suworoni (Statice or
Sea-lavender), Linaria bipartita (Toadflax), Linum grandiflorurm (Flowering
Flax), Lupinus hartwegii (Hartweg Lupine), Lychnis (Rose-o f- heaven)
Malcolmia maritima (Virginian stock), Myosotis dissitiflora grandiflora
(Mallow wort) Mathiola (Stock), Mimulus (Monkeyflower), Myosotis
dissitiflora (Forget-me-not) Nemesia strumosa, Nicotiana sanderc and N.
sylvestris, Papaver rhocas (Shirley or Field Poppy), P. somniferum (Opium
Poppy), Petunia hybrida, Phlox drummondii, Portulaca grandiflora (Portulaca)
Rehmannia angulata, Salvia splendens, Silene armeria (Sweet-William)
Saponaria calabrica (Calabrian Campion), Tropeolum (Nasturtium), Scabiosa
atropurpurea, Schizanthus pinnatus (Butterfly-Periwinkle), Senecio elegans
(Purple Groundsel).
• Annuals for yellow flowers: Marigold, Dimorphotheca, Zinnia, Coreopsis
• Annuals for blue/purple/mauve coloured flowers: Ageratum, Anchusa
Browalia, clitoria, Corn Flower, helipterum, ipomoea, Larkspur, Linaria lobelia,
petunia, salvia, verbena.
• Annuals Orange colour flowers: calendula, dimorphotheca, California poppy
Helichrysum, marigold, nasturtium, zinnia
5 Based on Hardiness: These can be categorized as hardy, half hardy and tender
annuals
• Hardy annuals: Hardy annuals are the most cold-tolerant of all of the types
of annuals. The term hardy, as it applies to plants, refers strictly to the ability
to withstand cold. Hardy annuals may be planted in early spring or in the fall
allowing them to bloom again the following spring. Examples: Pansies and
Johnny jump-ups (Viola tricolor).
• Half-hardy annuals: Half-hardy annuals will tolerate periods of wet or cold
weather but may be damaged or killed by frost. Along with the hardy seasonals
these are the plants that we typically consider of as spring annuals. Examples:
Calendula and Nasturtiums
• Tender annuals: Tender annuals need warm soil temperatures and should only
be planted after all danger of frost has passed. Examples: Celosia, Zinnias and
Petunias
6. Based on Day Length: The annuals can be classified based on the requirement of
sunlight for the flowering as short day, long day, day neutral and intermediate annuals.
• Short day annuals: Cosmos, Salvia, Amaranthus
• Long day annuals: Antirrhinum, Petunia, Carnation
• Day Neutral annuals: Balsam, Gomphrena
• Intermediate annuals: Ornamental Coleus
7. Annuals for problematic soils: Based on this annuals can be classified as
• Annuals for very poor soil: Mentzelia aurea (Bartonia), Eschscholtzia
californica (California poppy), Coreopsis tinctoria, Papaver rhoeas, Celosia
plumose (Cockscomb), Mirabilis jalapa (Four-o’clock), Gaillardia lorenziana
(Gaillardia), Impatiens balsamina (Garden Balsam), Godetia grandiflora
(Godetia), Amaranthus caudatus (Love-lies-bleeding), Tropeolum majus
(Nasturtium), Petunia hybrida (Petunia), Portulaca grandiflora (Rose Moss)
Cleome spinosa (Spiderflower), Alyssum maritimum (Sweet Alyssum)
Amberboa moschata (Sweet-sultan).
• Annuals for a neutral or alkaline soil: Impatiens, lberis, Papaver, Phlox
Reseda odorata (Mignonette), Tropeolum majus, Zinnia elegans.
8. Based on blooming time
• Early blooming: Ageratum, Alyssum, Amaranthus, balsam, Celosia, Coreopsis
drummondii, cosmos, gomphrena, marigold, salvia, Stock and zinnia
• Late blooming: Anchusa, Hollyhock, Salvia, Snapdragon, Sweet Sultan, Sweet
William, Wall flower
• Annuals with a short season of flower: Several Sowings should be made
for Succession of Bloom. Coreopsis tinctoria (Coreopsis), Iberis umbellate
(Candytuft), Dimorphotheca aurantiaca (Cape-marigold), Centaurea cyanus
(Cornflower), Myosotis spp. (Forget-me- not), Gypsophila elegans (Gypsophila)
Nigella damascena (Love-in-a-mist), Reseda odorata (Mignonette), Phlox
drummondii (Phlox), Papaver spp. (Poppy), Alyssum maritimum (Sweet
Alyssum).
Climate
The annual flowers are grown successfully in all parts of the country. In north Indian
plains, winter season annuals are grown during winter, while summer and rainy ones
during summer and rainy seasons respectively. In northern hills, all annual flowers
are grown during summer season. Under warmer temperature of south India, where
there is no distinct wintertime, common winter annuals, i. e. carnation, sweet pea
antirrhinum, pansy, viola etc. do not grow well. In the milder climate, particularly in
Bangalore and Pune, almost all types of annuals can be grown.
Soil
Annuals thrive best in well-drained, sandy loam soil rich in organic matter. The soil
should be neither too acidic nor too alkaline. The soil pH should be between 6. 0 and
7. 5. In acidic top soil, lime should be added for making it neutral. In clay soil, organic
matter is added to make it porous. In sandy soils, add sufficient organic matter for
improving its texture.
Propagation
Almost all annuals can be propagated by seeds. Marigolds can be propagated by cuttings
also. Their sowing time depends upon climate. It varies in different parts of India.
In the northern plains, winter season annuals are sown during September–October.
However, late-flowering types—China aster, carnation and cineraria are sown during
August–September. Summer season annuals are sown during January–February, while
rainy season annuals during May–June. In south India, September–October is ideal
time for sowing annuals. In northern hills, March–April is most appropriate time for
sowing annual flower seeds, whereas March–May in southern hills.
The seeds of annual flowers are sown in nursery beds, earthen pots, seed pans or
wooden seed trays. The seeds of a few annuals like sweet pea, morning glory, lupin
nasturtium and hollyhock which have bold seeds can be sown directly at permanent
places. Mixing of fine sand in very small seeds is advisable for even sowing. The seeds
of echium, lobelia and flowering tobacco do not germinate unless first exposed to
sunlight, while seeds of nigella and cineraria germinate only in dark. The seeds recently
harvested from the plant, although given required conditions, fail to germinate. This
may be due to physical condition or chemical reaction of seed coat of seeds. Seeds of
clianthus need stratification or scarification for germination. Some seeds require after
ripening period for germination.
Location and Layout of seed bed

For selecting an area for establishing seed bed it is worthwhile to consider the following
points:
• Seed bed should be prepared in such place where no water stagnation is
experienced, and have good drainage system.
Land for seed bed should be well drained and located at on a high level.
•
The soil for seed bed should be sandy loam and normal in pH (around 6. 5-7. 0).
•
The plot for seed bed should be selected near to a water source.
•
Seed bed plots should be chosen near the farm building so that frequent
•
supervision can be made easily.
• Seed bed should be away from the shady places.
• Seed bed plots should be selected at one side of the field to isolate the other
fields for doing cultural practices easily.
• Site should be safe from stray animals and excessive diseases and pest attacks.
Methods
Soil preparation for seed bed

Seed bed preparation is an important step in crop management because it largely
affects crop stand and its performance at field level. Therefore, soil should be worked
to a fine tilth by repeated ploughing and spading. Dead plant parts which are seem
to be occupiers of pathogens and pests should be collected, removed and burnt. Well
decayed organic manure @ 40-50 kg/10sqm, should be mixed thoroughly in the soil.
The seed bed compost should consist of one part each of garden soil, coarse sand,
farmyard manure and leaf-mould. For making the nursery beds, the topsoil should
be turned up thoroughly and sufficient farmyard manure should be mixed in soil.
Raised nursery beds of convenient size (normally 60cm wide and 15cm high) should
be prepared. If soil is heavy, some amount of sand may be added. It is better if the soil
of nursery bed or earthen pots is sterilized with 2% formalin. For this, soil is drenched
with formalin solution and is protected with polythene sheet for 45hr. afterwards, the
polythene is removed and soil is dried before sowing the seeds. Before sowing, the
seeds should be treated with Cerason (0. 2%) and Captan or Bavistin (0. 2%) to avert
the seedlings from damping off disease. The seeds should be sown delicately and
evenly as thick sowing causes damping off of seedlings.
Soil treatment
Soil treatment is an essential step in a successful Seed bed management because
it the base for seedlings stand, source of nutrition and pathogens. In humid region
damping-off caused by soil borne fungi like Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Phytophthora etc,
is a common disease in the nursery beds. In addition, pests like snails, cutworms and
termite and mites are also damages young seedlings. There are numerousmethods for
soil treatment like soil solarization, chemical treatment, biocontrol treatment etc. Soil
solarization can be completed with transparent polythene of 25-100 mm thickness
during the hot and dry periods. For this soil should be moist before mulching because it
increases latent heat and thermal sensitivity for resting of soil borne pathogens, harmful
pests and weeds which can be reduced to a sustainable level. Chemical treatment of
nursery beds can be completed by Formalin solution (1:100: Farmaline: water) @ 5
lt/sqm. The treated area should be covered with polythene sheets for 7-8 days and
after that it should be remained open for next 7-10 days for facilitation of formalin
emission. Besides, the seed beds and seeds can be treated with some fungicides like
Ceresan or Bavistin @ 2g/litre before sowing. The insect-pests can be controlled by
treating soil with Chlorpyriphos or Sewin dust powder (20-25g/sqm) before seeding
and or at the time of nursery preparation. Presently a large number of bioagents like
Trichoderma, Pseudomonas and Bacillus formulations are available for soil as well
as seed treatment which performs as antagonist to harmful microorganisms. Selected
botanicals like NSK, Neem cake, Karanj cake etc. also can be used for nursery bed
treatment.
Seed bed preparation

In nursery beds, the seeds are sown in rows spaced 6 cm apart. Then, they are covered
with finely sieved leaf-mould. Watering is to be done with a watering can having a
fine rose both in beds and pots. In beds, when sprouting is over, water is given for
proper moistness. Thereafter, the beds should be kept weed-free. Aoccupied area of 60
cm between the beds is necessary. This facilitates ease in sowing of seeds, weeding,
watering, spraying and lifting of seedlings. Irrigation channels are to be laid out
conveniently.
Once sowing seeds the beds should be levelled and pressed gently to make it firm.
Nearly 15-20 cm raised beds width are always preferred for raising nursery. Beds of
1-meter width of any convenient length are to be made. However, its length should
be made according to the requirements or size of plots but should not exceed 5-6 m.
In between beds, drains of about 30-45 cm width are prepared and connected to the
main drain for removal of excess water during heavy pour. This space facilitates easy
movement during intercultural operations and acts as physical barrier for inoculums
spread. The drains are flooded during dry period to modify microclimate of nursery
beds in favour of seedlings. In recent years various advancements have been made in
Seed bed management for bed preparation to avoid possibilities of pathogen spread
like use of soil less media, plug tray technique, perforated poly trays etc.
Cultivation
Planting
Their seedlings are transplanted 25 days after sowing at 4-leaf stage. Before
transplanting, seedlings are hardened off by withholding water for 1 or 2 days or by
exposing them gradually to sunlight. Transplanting is, usually, done either on a cloudy
day or in the evening. Transplanting in sunset is good as the night cool temperature is
beneficial for the establishment. Light irrigating every day in early morning or late in
the afternoon is required for about a week for proper establishment of the seedlings.
Dwarf annuals should be planted at a distance of 30cm × 30cm, whereas medium-tall
annuals should be planted at a spacing of 45cm × 45cm. The plants of tall annuals
should be planted 60cm apart.
Manuring and fertilization

The farmyard manure or compost @ 3kg/m2 is mixed in the soil. Chemical fertilizers
@ 20g urea, 60–120g superphosphate and 30–60g muriate of potash/m2 should also
be added. Half quantity of urea and full of superphosphate and muriate of potash
should be applied at the time of bed preparation. The left over quantity of urea must be
applied one month after transplantation. Spraying plants with 2% urea twice or thrice
is beneficial for good growth and flowering. Fertilizers should on no occasion come in
the direct contact of the foliage since they cause scorching. Fertilizers should never be
applied in the pot-grown annual flowers. However, some readymade pot-mixtures can
be used. The pot-mixture should consist of 2 parts of garden soil and one part each of
coarse sand and farmyard manure. Instead of fertilizers, it is better if pot-grown plants
are given liquid feeding. The liquid manure is prepared by fermenting 1–2kg each of
fresh cowdung and oil cake in 10 litres of water in a drum for one week. It is diluted
to tea shade and sieved with the help of a muslin cloth. It is applied @ 500–1000 ml/
pot at 7–10 days intervals.
Growth and flowering

Environmental causes and various cultural conditions affect progression and flowering
of many annuals. The Cosmos bipinnatus, Nicotiana sp. and Callistephus chinensis are
classic short-day plants for vegetative growth and flowering, while Dianthus barbatus
and Nigella damascene are classic long-day plants for vegetative growth as well as
flowering. On the opposite hand, some seasonal need long days for flower initiation
followed by short days for flower development. An imbalance of N either hastens or
delays flowering. Clarkia, candytuft and salvia flower too early if the soil is deficient in
N. If N level is high in soil, sunflower, lupin, flowering tobacco and African marigold
flower hastily.
Growth delaying or stimulating substances play a foremost role in getting dwarf plants
or higher flower yield. Growth retarding chemicals—CCC (1, 000–2, 000ppm), B-Nine
(2, 000–5, 000ppm) and SADH (1, 000–3, 000ppm)—are used to control growth and
flowering in hollyhock, arctotis, sweet sultan, coreopsis, cosmos, phlox and pansy.
These chemicals retard plant tallness, produce more number of leaves and branches
and improve flowering, Similarly, GA3 (100–400ppm) gives beneficial results in
respect of growth and flowering in African marigold, China aster and antirrhinum.
Use of these growth substances is more effective at vegetative stage.
Aftercare
After transplanting, beds are cleared, hoed and sprayed regularly. As soon as plantlets
are established in beds, pinching is done for creating the plants bushy. Pinching is
not accomplished in antirrhinum, lupin, larkspur, stock and hollyhock. Sweet pea,
carnation, morning glory and nasturtium, have weak, slender or straggling stems.
They want support when they are 15–20cm tall. The stakes prepared from split
bamboos are painted green so that they can be accorded with the foliage colour of the
plants. Annuals which benefit from pinching are Ageratum houstonianum, Calendula
officinalis, Chrysanthemum, Petunia, Phlox, Dianthus chinensis, Salpiglossis sinuate

Schizanthus, Piñatas, Antirrhinum, Verbena and Zinnia.
Occasionally, seedlings of carnation, marigold, China aster, cosmos and zinnia produce
flower buds at an initial stage. These buds should be removed as soon as they seem.
The number of buds/ stem is reduced by disbudding the axillary buds, if large blooms
are wanted.
Irrigation
Slight water is desirable everyday up to 7–10 days after transplantation. When the
plantlets start new growth, plentiful watering once or twice a week is required in beds.
Later, regularity and quantity of irrigating depend upon soil and season. In lighter soils,
added frequent irrigation is needed than that in heavy soils. The season of planting also
regulates the frequency of irrigation. During hot season, irrigation should be done at
weekly breaks in beds, while at 10–12 days intervals in winters. Irrigation throughout
rainy season depends upon prevailing weather conditions. Potted plants need daily
watering during summer, whereas on alternate days in winter.
Harvesting and postharvest management

Most of the annual flowers are grown for garden demonstration purpose in various
ways. However, marigold, China aster, antirrhinum, gypsophila, statice, gaillardia,
annual carnation, annual chrysanthemum, cornflower and bells-of-Ireland are grown
commercially for cut flower or loose flower purpose. Their flowers are reaped when
they are fully open and are sold in the local shops. Antirrhinums are cut when one-third
of the florets are unfurled. China aster flowers are cut along with their stems when they
develop their unique colour. Marigold flowers are gathered when they are fully open.
Gypsophila flowers are cut when these are open, but not over mature. The flowers,
in general, are cut either late in the evening or very early in the pre-lunch. After
harvesting, cut flowers should be put in a bucket of liquid filled up to one-fourth of the
volume as it helps in their recovery from the shock of being cut away from the plant.
As far as possible, the recently opened flowers should be cut as freshness improves
their shelf-life. In African marigolds, produce of 20 to 22 tonnes of fresh blossoms is
obtained from one hectare crop, whereas in French marigolds 10–12 tones/ha of fresh
flowers is attained. China aster gives the produce of 10–12 tonnes/ha of fresh flowers.
Some annuals are used as cut flowers. Therefore, suitable postharvest managing is
necessary for lengthening their vase-life. The flowers are sorted according to stem
length, flower size, flower shape, flower colour and freshness. The cut flowers/loose
flowers of most of the annuals are sold in local markets. However, cut flowers of
gypsophila, bells-of-Ireland and Limonium are traded in the international marketplace.
Woody-stemmed flowers should have their stems split or crushed to expand the surface
in contact with water. Eliminate all foliage from stems which are underneath water
otherwise they deteriorate and clog up the xylem vassels of stem. It is better to cut
stems obliquely because it exposes more surfaces to water.
If flowers are not sold the day they are harvested, to stock them in a cold storage is
imperative. Antirrhinum flowers can be kept for short duration at a temperature –0.
6°C to 1. 7°C. For keeping stock cut flowers, 4°C temperature is optimum. Gypsophila
flowers can be stored for 1–2 days at 4°C. Statice cut flowers can be stored for 2–3
weeks at 2°C. A temperature of 0°–2°C is suitable for the storage of cut carnations.
Herbaceous border or bed

The establishing of annuals in the border of a plot is called as herbaceous border. It
is developed in flower beds to provide bulk effect of different colors. Borders are
uninterrupted beds of more length than width containing plants of one type only.
Due to varied range of flowers obtainable in winter it becomes a site of attraction in
the garden. The concept of herbaceous border has been familiarized in Indian gardens
by Britishers and now it has become a common feature.
Type of Herbaceous Border

The herbaceous edge can be of two types i. e. Single and Double face.
Single face Herbaceous Border: Single face herbaceous border is prepared when
border is positioned on one side of plot and having certain background like wall or
shrubbery border. Annuals are organized in the border according to their height i. e. big
plants in back; mediocre in center and dwarf in front line.
Double face Herbaceous Border: Double face border is more absolute when border
is to be prepared in between a big plot. In such border, there is no background and
tall annuals are planted in the middle; medium and dwarf on both sides in descendent
direction so that attractiveness can be watched from both sides.
Site Selection
The selection of spot for herbaceous border is very vital and desired picturesque
effect may not be obtained if place is not selected appropriately. The site should be
original sunny and fronting towards south side so that plants get adequate sunlight
for maximum hours of the day. If this way is not available, it should face east and last
choice is for the west.
Back and Fore Grounds

To make an actual herbaceous border, there should be appropriate back ground as
well as fore ground. Back ground may be of dwarf flowering trees, shrubbery border
or back ground prepared by training of sweet peas, brick wall in arrangement of both.
Fore ground is usually of turf grass which may or may not have other garden decorations
like lily pool, sun dial, statue etc. Green turf in opposite of herbaceous border is a
living green carpet which serves a place for enjoying beauty of flowers while resting.
Size of the Border

The size of border depends upon the obtainability of space. The border can be of
every length but width should be about 1-1. 5 m or more subjects upon the area of fore
ground vacant. Therefore, the width can be attuned accordingly.
Colour Scheme of the Border

The preparation of these annuals according to colour scheme expresses the mood and
spirits of the gardener. Dominance of a specific colour in border is suggestive worth of
that colour. Hence, the prearrangement of these annuals should be done very carefully.
In environment green colour being the colour of foliage dominates in garden all over
the year. Warm colour alike red dominants in winter whereas, yellow colour in spring.
There are three main colour schemes according to which these annuals can be
arranged
1. Monochromatic scheme
2. Analogous or harmonious colour scheme, and
3. Contrast colour scheme.
Monochromatic colour scheme hampers the use of single colour or its shadows which
may be obtainable in the same or altered annuals. For instance, if blue colour is to be
used, annuals like blue corn flower, blue larkspur, ageratum, anchusa, etc. can be used.
For yellow colour annuals alike yellow dahlia, antirrhinum, calendula, nasturtium
marigold, annual chrysanthemum, coreopsis etc. can be used.
The trouble may be in receiving the seeds of pure colours. According to analogous
colour scheme, annuals are organized according to the adjacent wave length of colour.
This preparation harmonizes with the neighbouring beds and, hence, it is called a
harmonious colour scheme. The arrangement of colours will follow the order as white,
creamish yellow, light yellow and finally deep yellow which will follow the similar
but in descending order.
If red colour is to be used the order will be light pink, deep pink, light red, deep red
and crimson and colours will incline in the same order. In contrast colour scheme, the
conflicting colour of colour wheel are used and plants of contrast colours are planted
consequently e. g. red dahlia in contradiction of the background of green or next to
blue corn flowers makes a good contrast. For yellow colour, violet, blue and red are
divergence.
Yellow gamolepis, red phlox or petunia and white alyssum can be planted for aintense
contrast. The width of the border is unevenly divided into three parts in proportion
of 5:3:2 or 6:3:1 for tall, medium and dwarf plants. Similarly, the plots are made
sideways.
The front line of border is not a conventional line, but it is made curvaceous and thus
plots become irregular in form. In these plots planting is also done irregularly at an
estimated distance so that the border looks natural at the time of blossom.
6
Ornamental Shrubs and Their
Management
L.N. Bairwa and A.K. Mahawar
Shrubs are defined as woody, semi woody or herbaceous perennial plants, branches
arises from the base of the plants and grow up to height of about 0.5 to 4.0 meters.
These plants are commonly erect and bushy. Most of the shrubs are very hardy, require
little attention and grow in all types of soils. Although some plants flower almost
throughout the year, in most cases it is seasonal and selection can be made in such a
way that some plants in the shrubbery will be in bloom in different seasion of the year.
Shrub flowers regularly every year and produce flowers of almost all the important
colors white, light yellow, golden pink, scarlet, crimson, violet, blue, and some are
sweet scented.
In gardens, shrubs are usually planted in three ways:
(1) In the form of shrubbery, on the long strip of land where taller shrubs are grown
at the back with medium height in middle and dwarf once at the fronts. Colors
of flowers and time of flowering are also considered so that shrubbery remains
colorful throughout year with bloom and foliage.
(2) In small garden or to break monotony of open space shrubs are often grown in
groups and in this case few plants of the same variety or of different species are
selected.
(3) Shrubs are also grown as a specimen plant or in only one row along the border
of the garden or a wall.
Shrubs are used in gardens for decorative purposes as these shrubs are found more
in ornamental and provide a variety of interests. They are evergreen and best against
noise and dust. Any perennial woody, perpetual and thick plant of relatively low
height that branches into a few stems or trunks arising from the ground base is known
as shrub. They are littler than a tree but taller than herbaceous plants. They are also
called as bushes when they are much-branched and dense. They grow upwards up
to 0.5-4.0meter and may be flowering and ornamental. Shrubs play important role
in permanent landscaping i.e. formal decoration which contributes pattern, colour,
fragrance and utility. They may be either evergreen or deciduous in nature. Some shrubs
have attractive foliage, flowers and attractive berries. Shrubs are planted as borders on
the sides of paths and at the corners of lawn in a curving line. Shrubs are used for back
ground, boundary wall, screen, shade, wind breaks and foundation planting. Hence,
knowledge on the form, growth habit and habitat is essential to select the shrubs for
planting. Shrubs are important part of landscaping or landscape designing is an art of
modifying the overall appearance of a given piece of land using different ornamental
plants. It is an artificial process. A garden or national and international playgrounds are
the example of artificially landscaped area. Ornamental plants are a group of different
flowering, foliage and stylish plants. These plants are used for the beautification of
selected part of a site or other places.
A shrubbery is an area planted with various types of shrubs and a shrub border is one
where only one kind of shrub is used. The shrubs which are used for topiary work
require frequent pruning and trimming. Tall growing shrubs can be used to screen the
displeasing object and backyard. Handsome shrubs can also play an important role to
make attractive pot plants for indoor and outdoor decoration.
Shrubs have different types of shape, size, colour of flowers and fragrance according
to their growth habit. They form the chief features of landscape gardening placed in
front of tall trees and joining the spacious lawn etc. Shrubs which are amenable for
frequent training are chosen for topiary work. Tall growing shrubs generally serve as
screen purposes. Hardy dwarf Shrubs like Gardenia Jasminoides, Lantana Camara
Depressa, Malpighia Coccigera, Plumbago capensis, Russelia juncea are also grown
in rockery to add colour. They are usable as a single specimen in the lawn. They can be
trained to make standards viz., trained to single stem and assent to branch out and form
a handsome head only above a particular height e.g. Bougainvillea, Ixora, Murrya
exotica.
Characteristics of a shrub
• Lack of a trunk is the main feature of shrubs. They branch near the ground
hence do not have a well-defined trunk and rather have several narrow stems.
• Shrubs are smaller than trees usually less than 1-3 m tall as they are less rigid
than a single thick trunk.
• Shrubs are usually broad leaved plants.
• Shrubs are hardy plants that can be grown in all kind of soils.
• Shrubs are seasonal, since they generally thrive in a sunny environment
conditions well.
Functions of shrubs
• Shrubs play an significant role in preventing soil and water erosion.
• They are a source of fuel wood.
• They are good source of foodstuffs such as fruits, leaves, tuber shoots and roots.
• Shrubs are also used in the landscapes.
• They can be grown as backdrops, garden beds and in public gardens.
Ornamental Shrubs and Their Management 73
Purpose of planting of shrubs

• To glorify overall appearance of surrounding.
• To provide wind break.
• To provide Shelter for birds in summer.
• Used as live boundary.
• For avenue planting.
• Rookeries.
• Cut flower and foliage.
• Terrace garden.
• Hedge and edge.
Ideal site for planting shrubs
Avoid shade of tree for planting of shrubs. Shrubs should planted in sunny situation
and they are not produce attractive flower in shade. Planting of shrub should be done
in South-East direction. They require availability of ample space.
Classification of Ornamental Shrubs: The Ornamental shrubs can be divided into
two groups:
i) Hedge
ii)Edge.
Hedges: When the tall hedges are planted at the border of nursery, crop field or around
a building or garden, it is called hedge.
A garden should be appended by a good hedge or fence. It protected from cattles and
provides shelter from wind and privacy. The best plant material for forming a hedge
would be quick growing and hardy shrub with attractive foliage, handsome flowers
and drought resistant. It should also stand trimming to different shape and capable of
being easily and quickly raised from seed or from cuttings to fill up the gaps promptly.
The decorative internal hedges are formed of small growing or under shrubs which have
handsome foliage and in some cases bear handsome flowers as well. The usual height
for an ornamental internal hedge varies from 30 to 65 cm. The main objective is to that
justly divide the garden into a number of parts and each part containing the distinctive
feature of it sown as a rosary or flower bed or collections of bulbs etc. Boundary
hedges or screen hedges or the ornamental hedges are meant to be permanent features
of a garden and proper care should also be exercised in planting them. Trenches are
made in the size of 30-40 cm wide and 40-45 cm deep and refilled with the layer of
top soil, farmyard manure and red soil. Rainy season is the best time for planting the
hedges either with the seed or cuttings. Shoots of hedge should be tipped as they grow
and induce to branch out and side shoots should be cut back to the desired dimensions
as possible. If, possible, a compact or thick hedge is trimmed as often as necessary,
cutting back the overgrowing shoots strictly to the desired dimensions (Arora, 2007,
Randhawa and Mukhopadhyay 1986, Pal and Krishnamurthi 1967) .
According to height hedge can be classified into two groups.
1. Tall ornamental hedge
2. Dwarf ornamental hedge
3. Tall protective hedge
4. Dwarf protective hedge
Tall ornamental hedge: These type of shrubs growth to a height of 1-3 metres and
are characterized by having attractive foliage or flowers. Following are the examples
of tall ornamental hedge:
S. N. Scientific Name S.N. Scientific Name
1. Polyalthia longifolia 6 Casuarina equisetifolia
2. Murraya peniculata 7 Tecoma stans
3. Thuja orientalis 8 Poinsettia pulcherima
4. Bougainvillea spp. 9 Calliandra hematocephala
5. Narium indicum 10 Ficus retusa
Dwarf ornamental hedge: These type of hedges growth to a height of 1 metres
and they possesses attractive foliage or flowers. Following are the examples of tall
ornamental hedge:
S. N. Scientific Name
1. Russelia juncea
2. Russelia floribunda
3. Acalypha spp.
4. Pedilenthus
5. Lantana camera
6. Agave spp.
7. Opuntia spp
Tall Protective hedge: The height of such edge is about 1-3 meters. Such hedge is
characterized by having thick growth that possesses thorns. examples
S. N. Scientific Name Remarks
1 Bougainvillea spp. Native to S. America
2 Inga dulcis Native to laconic coast
3 Carissa carandus Fruits are used to make pickles
4 Acacia farnensiana Vachellia farnensia var.
farnensia is wild species
5 Lawsonia alba Source of dye hina
Dwarf protective hedge: Dwarf shrubs grow about 1 metre and posses thorns.
S. N. C. N.
1. Opuntia
2. Agave
Plants suitable for ornamental internal hedges

S.N. Scientific Name S.N. Scientific Name
1 Acalypha sp. 7 Cupressus macrocarpa
2 Barleria sp 8 Duranta plumieri
3 Bougainvillea sp. 9 Eranthemum sp
4 Hamelia patens 10 Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
5 Lantana camera 11 Malpighia coccigera
6 Meyenia erecta 12 Pedilanthus tithymaloides
Plants suitable for boundary or tall hedges

S.N. Scientific Name S.N. Scientific Name
1 Acacia farnesiana 6 Agave Americana
2 Acalypha 7 Aralia
3 Bougainvillea 8 Caesalpinia pulcherrima
4 Casuarina equisetifolia 9 Carissa carandas
5 Pithecelobium dulce 10 Punica granatum
6 Tecoma stans 11 Thevetia nereifolia
Edge: When low growing dwarf perennial plants are employed at the border of plant
nursery, path, roads, flower beds, lawns or other place of demarcating spaces and beau-
tification, it is called edge.
Edging are two types

Formal edging: It is also called as mechanical edging. Formal edging is done by us-
ing following materials viz. bricks, tiles, rough or irregular stones, broken bottles and
bamboo pieces.
Informal Edging: It is also known as live edging. It is created by using grass verge
and other low growing plants viz. Eupatorium, Coleus, Echeveria, Iresine, Pilea, min-
iature rose etc. The edging plants should be dwarf growing in habit with handsome fo-
liage and responsible for regular trimming. They are perennial, hardy, easily propagat-
ed and should have lasting foliage or flower or both. Frequent trimming is necessary
operation to maintain proper shape and height. The height of an edge should be about
15 to 20 cm. A strip of grass at the side of road, track or path, originally in a garden is
known as grass verge. The usual size of grass verge for edging is about 60 cm.
Examples of dwarf ornamental edge: These have dense foliage i.e. Lantana sellowi-
ana, Linustrum ovalifolium
Examples of dwarf protective edge: These edges are dwarf in nature and are protec-
tive by thorn. Berberis spp. , Opuntia spp.
Foliage plants suitable for edging: These plants are low growing (less then 50cm)
example Alternanthera, Coleus sp., Eupatorium cannabinus, Iresine sp., Santolina
chamaecyparissus, Echeveria, Cineraria maritime
Flowering plants suitable for edging: Low growing shrubs and some small annuals
are suitable for this prpose are: Alyssum, Amaryllis, Gerbera, Lobelia, Gazania
splendens, Plumbago capensis, Zephyranthes.
Shrubs can be classified easily according to the beauty of plant parts

1. Flowering shrubs:-These shrubs produce very attractive and spectacular
flowers which are grown for mass effect and carpetting purchases. Suitable
shrubs are Hibiscus rosa sinensis, Hibiscus mutabilis, Bougainvillea sp.,
Ervatamia divericata, Nerium indicum, Caesalpinia pulcherrima, Ixora
parviflora, Callindra sp., etc.
2. For foliage:-These shrubs are grow in the garden for handsome and richly
variegated foliage e.g. Acalypha tricolour – Medium shrub and colour full
foliage, Manihot variegata – Pale yellow and green variegated foliage, Codium
variegata (Croton) – Variegated leaves, Hamelia patens – Variegated.
3. For flowered and foliage:-Some shrubs have foliage and produce good flower
also. They add beauty in the garden tremendously. Bougainvillea sp. (Thimma
and Dr. Rao Varieties) Tall shrub and all type colour flower, Hamelia patens –
Tall shrub and red type flower, Hibiscus variegated – Tall shrub and red colour
flower, Nerium odoratum – Tall shrub and white, red & pink colour flower.
4. For fragrant flowers:- These shrubs produce fragrant flowers eg. Cestrum
diurnum (Din Ka Raja) – Medium shrub, white colour flower, C. nocturnum
(Raat Ki Rani) – Medium shrub, white colour flower, Murraya panniculata
(Kamini) – Tall shrub, white colour flower, Jasminum sambac (Mogra) – Dwarf
shrub, white colour flower, J. grandiflorum (Chameli) – Dwarf shrub, white
colour flower and Buddelia asiatica – Tall shrub, white colour flower.
5. Specimen Shrubs:- These shrubs are planted singly or in group in the beds on
the lawn to create a picturesque effect. These shrubs have elegant foliage and
produce beautiful flowers. e.g. Bougainvillea sp. Tall shrub all type colour of
flower, Hibiscus rosa sinensis – Tall shrub, red colour flower, Hamelia patens
– Tall shrub and red colour flower, Tecoma stans- yellow colour flower and
Thevetia peruviana – Tall shrub and yellow colour flower (Pili Kaner).
6. Scented flowers: Cestrum nocturnum, Gardenia jasminoides syn. G.
florida, Hamiltonia suaveolens, Jasminum sambac, Nyctanthes arbortristis,
Tabernaemontana divaricata syn. Ervatamia coronaria.
Some popular shrubs produce attractive different colour flower

White Yellow Red
Abelia grandiflora Allamanda cathartica Caesalpinia pulcherrima
Citrus aurantium Acasia farnesiana Cordyline terminali
Cestrum nocturnum Berberis vulgaris Hibiscus rosa sinensis
Erenthemum nervosum Cassia alata Hamalia patans
Gardenia resinifera Tecoma stans Lagerstroemia indica
Feijoa sellowiana Thevetia peruviana Malvaviscus arboreus
Hiptage benghalensis Punica granatum
(syn.H. madablota)
Ixora arborea(syn.i.parviflora)
Jasminum sambac
Ligstrum indicum
Murraya paniculata
Roupellia grata
Various Colour Pink Purple Crimson

Bougainvillea Buddleia lindleyana Beloperone chrysophloe Acalypha
spectabilis sanderiana
Camellia japonica Callistemon citrinus Malpighia glabra Ixora coccinea
(syn.C.lanceolatus)
Rhododendron indium Tamarix troupii Russelia juncea
(syn.azalea indica) (syn.t.galllica)
Hibiscus rosa- sinensis
Lantana camara
Salvia spledense
Shrubbery Border
The area of the garden devoted exclusively to shrubs is called as shrubbery border. In
the garden to secure privacy and provide partition, formal hedges are used. The labour
and cost of maintaining hedges is much more than keeping to well planned shrubbery.
Therefore, the shrubbery is preferred which also adds beauty to the garden. In planting
shrubbery, consideration of foliage and colour effect should be kept in mind before
planting. Prior to laying out shrubbery border, the following points should be kept in
mind.
• By keeping shrubs in front of the trees, a very pleasing effect will be obtained.
• Best results achieved by facing east or south.
• Allow greater width where greater height is desired.
• The shade of tree should be avoided as per as possible.
• Shrubbery is also used to limit the garden especially in case of large gardens
Generally border are planted by two methods:

Single face: In this type of border shrubs are planted in one side of a lawn. First tall
shrubs are planted then medium and dwarf shrubs are planted in descending order.
Double face border: Double face shrubbery border is preferred to get pleasing or
natural effect of the shrubbery border from both the sides. In this type, tall shrubs are
planted in the centre followed by medium and dwarf shrubs both the ways.
Planning of Shrubbery Border
Site selection is very important step to establish shrubbery. After deciding the site, first
of all a paper plan should be prepared which will help in final planting.
Colour Scheme for Shrubbery Border

The best colours to pacify are blue, purple and to a lesser degree, green and white,
can also be helpful. So for example, if you have a yellow shrub, in a border that is
predominantly pink if you add blue or purple foliage or flowering plants between the
yellow and the pink, it will help avoid the clash. Pacifying colours work because they
help blend strong colours. They are also colours that go with everything, so they are
the bridge between other strong colours.
Creating really good colour schemes is definitely an art. Choosing plants that have
great flower and foliage combinations can be tricky to achieve. Borrowing colour
schemes that talented colour experts like fashion designers and artists have already
come up with, is a great way to get colour combinations that work.
Growing of shrubs
Soil- Any garden soil is suitable for growing shrubs, if soil is bad, top layer up to 45
cm should be removed and refilled with good fertile and well drain soil. The shrubs
can be grown in varied pH of soil. If soil is highly alkaline or acidic in nature, it should
be reclaimed by using soil amendments. Salt tolerant shrubs are Thevetia peruviana,
Bougainvillea sp., Caesalpinia pulcherrima, Nerium indicum etc. Salt sensitive shrubs
are Buddleia asiatica, Lagerstroemia indica, Barleria cristata and Hamalia patens.
Propagation of Shrubs- The shrubs are propagated by seeds, cutting (Hardwood and
semi hardwood cutting) and air layering.
By Seeds
Seeds are collected when fruits are fully ripe. They are dried in the shade and store
in airtight bottles in dry places. In rainy season, nursery is prepared and seeds are
sown. Seedlings are transplanted in prepared ground. Following shrubs are mainly
planted by seed are Stenolobium stans, Thevetia peruviana, Caesalpinia pulcherrima,
calliandra sp. etc.
By Cutting
Most of shrubs are propagated by cuttings. February- March is the best season of
propagation by cutting. The size of cutting should be 15-20 cm long, which is planted in
pot or beds containing ample of sand. The plants raised from cutting should be planted
in next planting season. Shrubs are mainly planted by cuttings are Hibiscus rosa-
sinensis, Achania malvaviscus, Jasminum sambac, Hamelia patens, Bougainvillia,
Cestrum diurnum, Castrum nocturnum , Lawsonia alba etc.
By Layering
Some shrubs are propagated by air layering which are not easily propagated by seeds
or cutting. Layering is done in rainy season by removing the bark of 2.5 to 3.0 cm long
and wrapping by garden soil and sphagnum moss. The shrubs which are propagated
by layering are Bougainvillia, Ixora sp., Jasminum sambac, Jasminum multiflorum
(ground layering) ete.
Planting of Shrubs
The best season of planting of shrubs are rainy season. Planting can also be done in
the month of February-March depending upon irrigation facilities available during
summer. The shrubs should be planted according to height and spread. The distance
of planting of tall shrubs may be 150-180 cm. The medium shrubs should be planted
in one or more lines between tall and dwarf shrubs at the distance of 90-120 cm. The
dwarf shrubs in front line should be planted at least 30 cm away from the inner edge
at the distance of 45-90 cm in a group of 4-6 plants in the length of 3.0 to 4.5 meter.
Planting and Maintenance of Shrubs

The best time of panting of shrubs is during rainy season. When irrigation facility
is available. Planting can also be done during February-March. Digging a pit of 75
x 75 x 75 cm size for the larger shrubs and 45 x 45 x 45 cm size for dwarf shrubs is
sufficient. The digging of pit is done during summer and left exposed to sun for at least
15 days for sterilizes the soil and destroying of harmful micro-organisms of the soil.
The pits are filled by using 10 kg FYM, 10 kg soil and 10 g Endosulfan dust. The pits
are filled 5 cm above the ground so that it may settle down properly after application
of irrigation water. The shrubs are planted in the centre of the pit and it is watered.
The shrubs are planted at a distance of 1-3 metres depending upon nature of growth
of plants.
Regular watering is done to shrub plants during summer at five days interval and
during winter at 10-15 days intervals. Deficiency of irrigation water leads to wilting,
defoliation and ultimately dyeing of the plants. Time to time pruning is necessary to
maintain the shape of shrubs. Pruning is done after February – March when danger
of frost is over. Pruning of dormant shrubs is done during winter season. Best time of
pruning in tropical regions is before the rain and just after flowering is over. Training of
shrubs is done to removing of dead, damaged, disease infected, twiggy and overgrown
branches. Spraying of 0.02 per cent Malathion and 0.2 per cent Dithane M-45 is used to
control insect-pest and diseases of shrub plants. To control the termite, imidachlorepid
should applied with irrigation water.
Pruning of Shrubs
Pruning of shrubs is the necessary practice which creates a better look to the garden.
Winter flowering shrubs are pruned at the end of summer season whereas others are
pruned at the close of winter season. All the superfluous growth, old or week branches
are best cut at ground level or as low as possible without leaving the stub.
Important shrubs
S. No. Common name Botanical name Family Flower colour Remarks
(A) Tall shrubs (above
1.8 meter)
1. Malti (chandni) Ervatamia divericata Apocynaceae White Shrub only to look on a moon-
light.
2. Kamini Murraya peniculata Rutaceae White Scented flower
3. Harshringar (Night Nyctanthus arbotristis Oleaceae White, Orange Night flowering plants.
jasmine)
4. Shravani Lagestromia indica Lythraceae White, Red, Purple Medium flower and small leaves
5. Hamelia Hamelia patens Rubiaceae Red
6. Cup and saucer Holmskioldia sanguinea Verbanaceae Red
7. Abutilon Abutilon indicum Malvaceae Yellow
8. Pili kaner Thevetia peruviana Apocynaceae Yellow, white, orange Fruit is an odd-shaped berry.
“Thevetin,” a strong poison
obtained from bark.
9. Doembeya Doembeya spectabilis Sterculiaceae Pink
10. Lady of the night Brunsfelsia Americana Solanaceae Yellow
11. Gudhal (China rose) Hibiscus rosa sinensis Malvaceae Scarlet, pink, white and Heart-shaped leaves. Large ever-
blue green shrub. Single bell-shaped
flowers.
12. Dancing lady Fuchshia hyrida Onagraceae Red, purple
13. Gardenia (Cape Gardenia jasminoides Rubiaceae White Jasminoides means “resembling
jasmine, Gandharaj, Jasmine” and Radicans means
Gardenia) “resting”
14. Brilliant gardenia Gardenia lucida Syn. C. Rubiaceae White and fragrant Used in ulcers and sores,
resinifera
15. Tithonia Tithonia tagetiflora Astraceae Red-orange
82
16. Genista Spartium junceum Leguminoceae Yellow
17. Basant Rainwardtia indica Linaceae Yellow
18. Dalina Osyris arboria Santalaceae
19. Jacobinia Jacobinia carnia Acanthaceae Red, pink
20. Exocaria Exocaria bicolor Euphorbiacea Yellow, red Leaves are variegated
21. Buddlia Buddlia asiatica Loganiaceae White Large flowers
22. Ixora (Kangan) Ixora perviflora Rubiaceae White, pink orange Also known as Torch Tree.
I. rosea, I. chinensis,
I. fulgens, I. lutea, I.
coccinea
23. Poinsettia Euphorbia pulcherrima Euphorbiaceae White, red
Flower Production and Gardening
Syn. Poinsettia pulcher-

(Poinsettia, Flame ima
Leaf)
24. Lal kaner (Kaner, Nerium indicum Apocynaceae White, red, pink Flower throughout the year, but
Oleander) best during the rains.
25. Peacock flower (Dwarf Caesalpinia pulcherima Leguminoceae Red, yellow Ink is made from the charred
Poinciania) wood. Pulcherrima means “most
beautiful”.
26. Azalea Azalea spp. Ericaceae Yellow, pink, orange,
red and white
27. Jatropha Jatropha multifida Euphorbiaceae Red
28. Anar (ornamental Punica granatum Lythraceae Red Fruits are very nutricious
flower)
29. Tecoma Tecoma stans Bignoniaceae Yellow
30. Hemiltonia Hemiltonia suaveolens Rubiaceae Mauve
31. Ficus Ficus pandanus Moraceae Foliage
32. Snow bush Phyllanthus nervosus Euphorbiaceae Foliage
33 Duranta Duranta plumeri Verbanaceae Blue Flowering period-January-Feb-
ruary, Fruits appeared soon after
(Sky Flower, Pigeon flowering
Berry)
34. Lolypop plant Pachystachys sp. Acanthaceae Golden yellow

35. Weigela Weigela florida Caprifoliaceae Pink-red
36. Aralia Schefflera spp. Araliaceae
37. Moutan peony Paeonia suffruiticosa Rananculaceae
38. Privet Ligustrum ovalifolium Oleaceae
39. Gamelina Gamelina asiatica Verbanaceae Yellow
40. Cassia Cassia glauca Leguminoceae Yellow
41. Bougainvillea (Paper Bougainvillea sp. Nactaginaceae White, pink and all
Flower) colours
42. Candle bush Cassia alata Leguminosae Deep yellow, cone Craw-craw plant, acapulo, ring-
shaped worm bush, or ringworm plant.
43. Cassia Cassia auriculata Leguminosae Deep yellow
44. Raat ki rani/ night Cestrum nocturnum Solanaceae Small white and scented
jasmine
45. Euphorbia pulcherrima Euphorbiaceae Yellowish flower Use as a foliage flower
syn. Poinsettia pulcher-
rima
84
(B) Medium shrubs
(1.2 to 1.8meter)
1. Night queen (Rat ki Cestrum nocturnum Solanaceae Cremish white Fragrance during night
Rani)
2. Day king (Din ka Cestrum diurnum Solanaceae White Fragrance during day time
Raja)
3. Kund (bela) Jasminum multiflorum Oleaceae White
4. Tecoma Tecome capensis Bignoniaceae Red, yellow Tecoma is Mexican name and
stans means “erect”
5. Thunbergia Thunbergia eracta Acanthaceae Violet
6. Acalypha Acalypha spp. Euphorbiaceae Colorful foliage

7. Achania Achania malvaviscus Malvaceae Red
8. Ghanari Lantana camera Verbanaceae White, red, yellow Most troublesome weeds in India
9. Mussaenda Mussaenda luteola Rubiaceae Yellow , pink
10. Stachytarpetha Stachytarpetha indica Verbanaceae Violet
11. Croton Croton tiglium Euphorbiaceae Colourful foliage Oil is extracted from seeds.
12. Camellia Camellia japonica Ternstroemiaceae White, shade pink, red
or varigated
13. Blue Sage Eranthemum nervosum Acanthaceae Blue
14. Honeysuckele Lonicera japonica Caprifoliaceae White changing to Rambling shrub
yellow
15. Escobillo Malpighia glabra Malpighiaceae Pale purple
16. Chandani/ crape Tabernaemontana di- Apocynaceae Daxxling white
jasmine varicata syn. Ervatamia
coronaria
(C) Dwarf shrubs (0.6 to
1.2meter)
1. Mogra Jasminum sambac Oleaceae White Scented
2. Chitra Plumbago auriculata Plumbaginaceae Blue
3. Weeping merry Russelia juncea Scrophulariaceae Red
4. Barleria Barleria cristata Acanthaceae Violet-blue Funnel shaped flower, Flowering
season -November to January
5. Galphimia Galphimia gracillis Malphigiaceae Yellow
6. Brunsfelsia pauciflora Solanaceae Blue
7. Red bell bush (Dawa, Woodfordia fruticosa Lythraceae Spreading, leafy and deciduous
Santha) shrub. A red dye obtained from
flower (contain much tannin)
which is used to dye silks.
8. Allamanda (Golden Allamanda cathartica Apocynaceae Yellow It is a fairly large climber
Trumpet)
References
Arora, J.S. 2007. Introductory Omamental Horticulure (Fifth Edition) Kalyani Publishers,
Ludhiana.
Chadha, K.L. and Choudhary, B. 1986.Omamental Horticulture in India. ICAR, New Delhi.
Desh, Raj, 2004. Floriculture at Glance, Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana.
Pal, B. P. and Krishnamurthi, S. 1967. Flowering Shrubs. ICAR ,New Delhi.
Randhawa,G.S. and Mukhopadhyay, A. 1986.Floriculture In India ,Allied Publisher. New Delhi.
Swarup,V.1997. Garden Flowers. National Book Trust of India, New Delhi.
7
limbers
Madhu Bala
Climbers are the group of ornamental plants which possess weak stem and climb
up the support with the help of certain modified organs to reach the top and receive
sunlight and air. Climbers enhance the beauty of any garden provided they are selected
carefully depending upon the availability of space and the orientation of the building.
The growth habit, mass effect of foliage and diverse flower colour give charming
appearance to the climbers for their characteristics.
Ornamental climbers are commonly used to train on suitable supports such as arches,
pergola, trellis, along the walls and trees. These are most suited in congested regions
prone to scarcity of space especially in urban environment. In addition to adding beauty
to the surroundings, the climbers also provide or fulfill other need-based requirements
in landscaping such as:
• Beautify the indoors and outdoors
• Create mass effect and colour contrast in a garden
• Add greenery and mimic nature in miniature
• Screening of the undesirable premises or from the adjacent houses
• Maintaining privacy
• Break monotonous view in gardens
• Camouflaging the bare walls that otherwise look dull.
• Providing habitat for terrestrial creatures such as squirrels, ants and birds etc.
Nature has equipped these climbers with different modified organs like:
(i) Tendrils: Twisted thread like segments developed by the plant from leaf axils
or stems. These tendrils coil around the support, hold it tightly and the climbers
continuous to grow indeterminately.
E.g. Antigonon leptopus, Adenocalymma alliaceum, Bignonia gracilis, Clemetis
panniculata, Pyrostegia venusta etc.
(ii) Thorns: Certain climbers possess spine like structures called thorns that help
them against foraging by wild animals and lend support against walls, wire-
mesh or barbed wires. Such thorny climbers are best to use on exposed sites to
avoid tresspassing and invasion of wild animals.
E.g. Bougainvillea species, Climbing roses, Euphorbia milii, Persea equileata

etc.
(iii) Roots and rootlets: Some climbers possess root and rootlets that arise from
their nodes. These climbers release gum like exudates or sticky substances from
growing points that help them to anchor themselves especially on vertical bare
walls. Such climbers (or creepers) are most suitable for covering un-plastered
bare walls.
E.g. Campsis grandiflora, Ficus repens, Ficus pumila,Hedera helix, Hedera
nepalensis, Hoya carnosa etc.
(iv) Hooks: These are also modified organs resembling claw of a cat. These hooks
are present along the succulent stem at specific nodes. These hooks possess
sharp claws that anchor themselves in minute pores on the wall. eg. Bignonia
gracilis etc.
(v) Clingers: Passiflora caerulea, Passiflora quadrangularis, Hydrangea
petiolaris etc.
Fig. 1: Modified organs for climber to climb the support.

A. Root and rootlets; B. Hooks; C. Thorns; D. Tendrils
Twiners: These are also the group of climbing plants which do not have any modified
organs but climb over a support or a plant by twining themselves spirally around such
supports. After sufficient growth, these twiners look beautiful producing mass effect
of their delicate and colourful foliage. Depending upon the growth habit and kind
of support, these twiners also cover the ground with their partially hanging foliage.
Often a times, such plants require periodic pruning to check their growth and also for
rejuvenation.
E.g. Ipomoea purpurea , Lonicera japonica, Hiptage benghalensis, Clerodendrum
splendens etc.
Ramblers and stragglers: Plants which climb up a support by using modified organs
and produce large clusters of small flowers several time a year. These plants fail to
climb but manage to support themselves over the trunks, stems, or branches of other
plants by outgrowing and adding their additional weight over the support that come
along their way. e.g. Quisqualis indica
Climbers 89
Supporting Structures supports for Climbers

Climbers require a suitable support to climb over the top to gather sunlight and space.
These supports could be in the form of natural objects such as tree stumps, wooden
logs etc. often climbers in their natural habitat are seen climbing on walls, boulders
with irregular rough surfaces lending them a soft touch to otherwise harsh and hard
landscapes. Such scenic views are generally observed on hill stations where native
climbers grow indefinitely refreshing the surroundings with their elegant foliage and
cooling the ambience by regulating the micro-climate near their vicinity.
However, due to rapid urbanization and scarcity of space in urban environment, there
is need to lend a support to the climbers which are otherwise domesticated outside their
native range. Therefore, artificial supporting structures are provided varying in design,
size for the climbers to climb. In addition to lend a support, these supporting structures
also help in providing utility services such as shading a walkways, providing natural
enclosures, shading for vehicles etc. Depending upon the growth habit of climbers, the
supporting structures are classified as follows:
1. Arches: These are rectangular or semi- circular structure erected over gate at
the entrance or made as a highlighted feature in a garden. The climbers are
planted alongside the foundation of the arches and are tied with wires to help
them climb. These arches vary in sizes and design as shown in Fig 2.
Fig. 2: Diagrammatic sketch of arches for the climbers

2. Pergola (syn Arbour): Extension of an arch or a series of arches that are
joined together with a framework of wires over the top. The resultant structure
is strong and durable enough to bear the weight of the climbers. Such type of
structures add utility services such as shading walkways that provide a respite
from heat especially during the summers for the pedestrians. Pergolas also form
a sort of enclosures in a private home garden or may also be useful to park the
vehicles for providing shade and enclosures (Fig 3).
Fig. 3: Diagrammatic sketch of Pergola supported with pillars

3. Trellis: A framework of light wooden or metal bars usually made from an open
framework or lattice of interwoven or intersecting pieces of wood, bamboo or
metal that is normally made to support and display climbing plants. Trellises are
typically fastened against a wall or now a days custom made trellis are available
that can be anchored at a suitable place in a garden for dividing the garden into
two parts or may be use as an enclosure to screen out the other undesirable sites.
Selection of Climbers
Climbers can be selected and planted according to the orientation of building that
provide different exposures (like sunny, partial shade and shady areas) at a particular
place , nature of growth, leaf retention characteristics, colour of foliage and flowers,
individual’s choice and availability. The climbers suitable for different situations and
purposes are as follows:
I. Based on Exposure of Site to Sunlight
1. Sunny situation: Sites oriented towards South or West facing receive full sun.
Such sites may be provided shade by placing a suitable support depending
upon the growth habit a climber. Climbers such as Clerodendrum thomsoniae,
Bougainvillea spp, Campsis grandiflora, Quisqualis indica, Pyrostegia venusta,
Antigonon leptopus, Ipomoea indica, Adenocalymma alliaceum are considered
hardy and are most suitable for planting for the sites exposed to full sunshine.
etc.
2. Partial shade: Certain sites within the house premises may receive full sun
light for 3-6 hours daily and for the other period they may remain under shade.
For such conditions climbers such as, Trachelospermum jasminoides, Petrea
volubilis, Lonicera japonica, Clerodendrum splendens, Thunbergia grandiflora
etc.are suitable that may appear with more brighten foliage and flowers under
partial shady conditions.
Climbers 91
3. Shady areas: Sites facing North remain comparatively cooler and soils hold
moisture for longer duration. However, the intensity of sunlight received may
not be adequate for all climbers to sustain their growth. Therefore, under such
conditions, climbers such as Ipomeas , Trachelospermum jasminoides, Lonicera
japonica can be planted.
II. Based on Nature of Growth
Climbers are appreciated for their mass effect of foliage and beautiful flowers. These
form a dense network of intermingled branches that continue to grow inderminatly
adding more foliage. The selection of climbers based on their nature of growth should
be done according to available space, area of site to cover, whether the site is exposed
or under management etc. All these factors determine the selection of climbers that
may be classified as heavy or light climbers.
1. Heavy climbers: These climbers grow very vigorously and produce luxuriant
growth displaying mass effect of their profuse foliage and flowers. These
climbers are suitable to cover bigger areas and training along the fences to
screen the exposed sites or to avoid trespassing especially into the private
property. Once established, such climbers continue to grow and cover the
available space in a shorter period of time.
E.g. Pyrostegia venusta, Adenocallyma alliaceum, Clerodendrum splendens,
Antigonon leptopus, Bignonia magnifica, Bignonia gracilis, Wisteria sinensis,
Clerodendrum splendens, Campsis grandiflora, Beaumontia grandiflora,
Bougainvillea spp. Hiptage benghalensis, Quisqualis indica, Wisteria sinensis,
Petrea volubilis etc.
2. Light climbers: These climbers exhibit sparse foliage and are relatively less
dense than there lighter counterparts. These are most suitable for small areas or
those that have a limited volume of soil, such as pots. These climbers remain
light in growth and spread.
E.g. Allamanda cathartica, Lonicera japonica, Nastutium, Gloriosa superba,
Trachelospermum jasminoides, Clitoria ternatea etc.
III. Fragrant flowers: The flowers of certain climbers have very pleasant odour
that fill the ambience with their fragrant volatile compounds diffusing into
surrounding air. Such climbers are best suitable for panting in public parks
giving a mass effect. The fragrance of these flowers calms the mind and also
possesses potential therapeutic properties that may relieve stress and strain.
E.g. Jasminum grandiflorum, Jasminum humile, Lonicera japonica,
Trchelospermum jasminoides, Hiptage benghalensis, Clematis panniculata etc.
IV. Climbers for pots: These are best suited for small areas where there is no
provision to plant climbers on the ground. Under such conditions, earthen or
plastic pots of preferably 14-18 inch size are best for growing climbers. These
pots may be placed at a suitable location and once climbers began to grow, these
must be supported with wire and left undisturbed to let them create mass effect.
A climber such as Epipremnum aureum Syn. Scindapsus aureus is most suitable
for indoor rooms under bright indirect light and well ventilated conditions.
E.g. Bougainvillea spp. Philodendron spp. Tristellatia australis, Adenocalymma
allicea, Clitoria ternata, Bignonia purpurea, Clerodendrum thomsoniae etc.
V. Making hedge: Like shrubs, certain climbers also can be maintained as dense
hedge, once planted, they continue to grow indefinitely and may or may not
be pruned depending upon the site characteristics. In sites such as public park
or private garden, the climbers can be pruned as desired depending upon the
available space. In other exposed sites, these may be left un-pruned and allowed
to grow them profusely to cover maximum area to avoid trespassing or invasion
of wild animals.
Eg. Clerodendrum inermi and Bougainvillea spp. etc.
VI. Indoor decoration: Certain shade loving climbers can be planted in beautiful
planters and placed indoors in the rooms, corridors and office at suitable
locations. Care should be taken to ensure availability of bright indirect light and
area should be well ventilated to allow adequate gaseous exchange essential for
foliage quality and general vigour of climber.
Eg. Epipremnum aureum Syn. Scindapsus aureus, Monstera deliciosa,
Philodendron spp. Asparagus spp.
VII. Screening purpose: Climbers when planted at suitable locations and trained
as per the situation may present a picturesque effect. The passage, balcony or
multistorey building may be naturally beautified by planting climbers and train
them so as to create a screening or camoflauging effect.
Eg. Vernonia elegnaefolia, Pyrostegia venusta, Jacquemontia violaceae,
Passiflora edulis, Antigonon leptopus, , Clerodendrun splendens, Thunbergia etc.
VIII. Annual climbers: There are climbers, which are seasonal in nature and can be
grown annually from the seeds in pots, in hanging baskets or in low trellises. For
climbers to raise in pots, the pots may be custom-designed with the provision of
in-built trellis attached at the pot periphery. Care should be taken that such pots
should be durable and be able to bear the support of the trellis as well as the
climber. These pots must not be placed on windy sites that may cause toppling
resulting in breakage of pot and harming the aesthetics of climber.
E.g. Sweet pea, trailing nasturtium. Ipomea purpurea, Clitoria ternatea .
IX. Climbers for arches, bowers, trellis and pergolas: Supporting structures such
as arches, bowers, trellis and pergolas present a durable and robust platform for
the climbers to climb. These structures can be custom made with durable metal
iron rods. In addition to lending a support to the climbers, these also provide
utility services such as shady walkways or site enclosures in private garden. In a
typical rural setting, a well designed pergola may be a feasting room providing
shade and coolness for the cattle. The evaporation from the exposed leaf surface
creates a micro-climate cooling the surroundings.
Eg. Passiflora caerulea, Lonicera sempervirens, Allamanda cathartica,
Antigonon leptopus, Aristolochia elegans, Solanum seaforthianum etc.
Climbers 93
X. Climbers with attractive foliage: Certain climbers become a centre of

attraction in a garden landscape for their peculiar characteristics of leaves – for
their shape, colour, and arrangement. These also possess beautiful flowers but
may remain attractive even when not in flowering due to their peculiar foliage
features.
Eg. Asparagus spregeri, Ficus repens, Hedera helix, Epipremnum aureum Syn.
Scindapsus aureus, Passiflora racemosa Monstera deliciosa etc.
XI. Drought and salt tolerant climbers: Such climber are most suitable for panting
in drought prone and neglected sites. Certain hardy climbers are resistant to
varied edaphic factors and harsh conditions lacking management. The purpose
of planting may be to enclose a boundary or to avoid trespassing into private
property.
Eg. Bougainvillea spp.
Selection of Soil
The climbers can grow well in any soil provided it is rich in organic matter, fertile,
having good water holding capacity and proper water drainage. The soil should be
devoid of any hard pans and free from stones and pebbles at subsoil depth of about
3-4 ft. The soil preferably be under cultivable range with optimum pH (6.5-7.5) and
EC (<1dsm-1).
Planting of Climbers
The area should be prepared well ploughing 3-4 times and leave the soil exposed for
sterilization under hot sun rays. The pits of 30 cm x 30 cm x 30 cm should be prepared
well in advance (at least one month) prior to planting of climbers during the onset of
monsoons. The dug pits must be refilled with soil mixture comprising of 10-15 kg of
well rotten FYM. The pits should also be drenched with chloropyrephos @ 4-5 ml/l of
water to guard against termite attack. The pits should be watered and soil be allowed
to settle. The depression caused due to settling of soil must be filled with mixture of
Soil + FYM till ground level. This operation is necessary to avoid ponding of water
near the crown portion of the climber to avoid rotting.
Planting Time
The best planting time for evergreen climbers is July-August and February-March
(provided availability of water is there). The winter deciduous climbers are planted
during their dormant stage during Jan-Feb before spring flush. The climber should
be watered as per need and prevailing climatic conditions. Proper support should be
provided at the time of planting. Training is necessary in first year to make the climber
climb over the support and to have the desired effect and shape depending upon the
nature of support and growth characteristics of climbers.
Intercultural Operations
Although, the beauty of climbers is in their mass effect of foliage and flowers. The
more they grow profusely, the more they are of worth appreciation. However, like
other indoor ornamental plants, they also need adequate care and maintenance for
maintaining their vigour, flower quality and elegant display. The cultural operations
such as training and pruning must be done taking into consideration the nature of
growth and leaf retention characteristics of the climber.
1. Training: At the time of planting, the main branches of climbers must be trained
over the supporting structures. It is not advisable to use wire to train them that
may cause girdling over the branches that may interfere with the uptake of
water and nutrients. Therefore, always use thick plastic or nylon thread and
gently tie at strongest node. Care should be taken not to cause bruising to stem
or leaves of climbers while training.
2. Pruning: Climbers require corrective pruning to contain their growth within
the availability of space and nature of support provided. Light trimming
of climbers is done in the initial 1-3 years, however, the method of pruning
depends upon their form and age and growth habit. Climbers need pruning after
they are well established. Winter flowering climbers e.g. Pyrostegia venusta
and Clerodendrun splendens are pruned at the end of their flowering in summer
season, whereas, others are pruned in the end of winter season but before
emergence of spring flush.
The winter deciduous climbers are pruned in the second fortnight of January
before new sprouting of shoots in the spring season. The heading back of old
climbers helps in rejuvenation and improving the vigour and flowering. All the
superfluous growth, old or weak branches are best cut at ground level or as low
as possible without leaving the stub. Evergreen climbers are pruned only after
their flowering is over or prior to start of their active phase of growth.
3. General maintenance: After planting the climbers, regular watering for proper
establishment. Cultural operations such as weeding and hoeing should be done
to avoid competition from weeds for space and sunlight. Drastic pruning of
climbers is sometimes essential depending upon their growth to keep them in
a desired shape. General pruning consists of removal of dead wood, diseased
branches and excessive growth. Heavy climbers need drastic pruning, whereas,
light climbers require light pruning. Care should be taken to keep the climbers
healthy and free from insects, pests or diseases by periodically spraying the
recommended pesticides or fungicides as per the severity of pest or disease
infestation.
Table 1: Description of growth characteristics and landscape use of climbers
Sr. Botanical Name Common Family Origin Flowering Time And Method of Growth Characters and Its
No. name Colour Propagation Landscape Use
1. Adenocalymma Garlic Bignoniaceae Brazil Oct-Nov. Cuttings Hardy climber with shinning
alliaceum climber Purple, bell shaped leaves produce garlic like
smell on rubbing. Suitable
for pergolas, arches and
planting against walls.
2. Allamanda Golden Apocynaceae Tropical May-Sept. cuttings and Leaves are light green,
cathartica trumpet America Yellow, purple, peach layering narrow and pointed arranged
in whorl of four. It can be
planted as shrub or climber.
3. Antigonon Coral vine or Polygonaceae South August - Nov. Seeds and Fast growing and vigorous
leptopus Loves chain America Light pink cuttings creeper with weak branches.
Used to train along the
fences, arches and pergolas.
4. Aristolochia Duck climber Aristolochiaceae South Rainy season White Seeds Evergreen twiner with heart
elegans America with purple brown shaped pale green leaves
blotch giving poor smell, can be
trained on trellis, peculiar
duck shaped flowers.
5. Banisteria -- Malpighiaceae Tropical Winter months Yellow Cuttings and Generally uses to train on
laevifolia Syn. America layering pergolas and trellis.
Banisteriopsis
laevifolia
6. Beaumontia Nepal Apocynaceae Eastern India Feb-March white Seed, cutting Suitable for climbing on tall
grandiflora Trumpet and layering. trees and very heavy and
creeper vigorous growing creeper.
Climbers 95
96
7. Bignonia Glow vine Bignoniaceae Clumbia October- November, Cuttings and This climber is suitable for
magnifica and South Funnel shape, large layering planting against walls and
America purplish violet in arches.
colour
8. Bougainvillea Nyctaginaceae Brazil, Almost throughout the Hard wood Hardy creeper with multiple
spp. introducing year, various colours cuttings uses. Can be trained like
in 20th standard shrub, bush,
century in climbers, hedges, pot plant,
India bonsai and ground cover on
sloppy lands.
9. Buhinia vahlii Foot creeper Leguminosae Indian , April-May, Seeds It is fast growing climber
common Creamish white with luxuriant growth.
in Western Suitable for bigger areas,
Ghats parks and can be trained on
trees.
10. Campsis Trumpet Bignoniaceae China and May-October , Orange Cuttings Very hardy creeper, can
grandiflora climber Japan be trained on Arches and
pergola as it climb up
with the help of roots and
rootlets.
11. Clerodendrum Flaming Verbenaceae Tropical December- March, Root cuttings Suitable for shady and semi-
splendens glory bower Africa Scarlet deep red and suckers shady locations. Leaves are
flowers beautiful, round and dark
green in colour.
12. Clematis - Renunculaceae Himalayan July- August, Cuttings It is a medium to heavy
panniculata region Fragrant white flowers climber, can be grown on
trellis and as pot climber.
13 Clitoria tarnatea Butter fly pea Leguminosae India May-Sep Seeds It is one of the annual
creeper Bluish purple climbers, Slow growing, can
be grown as a pot climber.
14 Dolichandra Cat’s claw Bignoniaceae South March-April and July- Seeds and Evergreen, vigorous
unguis-cati Syn. trumpet America August, trumpet shape layering climber. Seed, germination
Bignonia gracilis yellow flowers rate is very high. Suitable to
train against high walls to
create impressive effect.
15 Ficus repens Indian Ivy, Moraceae India - Stem tip It climbs up with help of
Chipkni bel cuttings and rootlets and producing
root suckers sticky substances. It fixes
its roots in the cracks and
crevices of the walls. Best
for growing in shady and
semi-shady situations.
16 Gmelina hystrix Ghanti vel/ Verbenaceae - Year round Seeds and Hardy, evergreen rambler,
Parrot’s beak Yellow stem cuttings can be grown near the walls
as a protective climber and
as thorny shrub.
17 Hiptage Madhvilata Malpighiaceae India February- March, Seeds and Evergreen, heavy climber
Benghalensis Creamish white layering with shining leaves with
scented sweetly scented flowers.
18 Ipomea cairica Railway Convolvulaceae Tropics of Year round, purple Seeds Quick growing, evergreen
Syn. Ipomea creeper hemispheres flowers vigorous creeper, can be
palmata used as a ground cover to
cover large area and on
boundaries.
Climbers 97
98
19. Jacquemontia Jacquemontia Acanthaceae Tropical Aug-Sept Terminal Light climber, can be used
violacea America Bluish purple cuttings. for screening in sunny and
shady areas and as pot plant
also.
20. Jasminum humile Pili Chameli/ Oleaceae Afganistan, March Cutting/ Medium sized, bushy
Yellow Nepal, Yellow layering evergreen climber, can be
Jasmine/ Himalayas, grown on fences.
Italian jsmine Burma,
South west
china
21. Jasminum Spanish Oleaceae South Asia, Nov - May White Cutting/ Light Climber, flowers
grandiflorum Jasmine Arabian, layering are used for oil extraction,
Africa making veni, garland,
bracelet etc.
22. Lonicera Japanese Caprifoliaceae Japan and Winter Creamish Layering and Evergreen creeper, best for
japonica Honey suckle China white cuttings growing on trellis or on
small trees in semi sunny
situation.
23. Passiflora Wrist watch Passifloraceae South September Seeds and The flowers are very
laurifolia climber or America Purple layering interesting and look like
Phoolghari Rakhi, should be planted
near the entrance or from
where you can see the
flowers closely.
24. Petrea volubilis Purple Verbenaceae Tropical April-May, Purplish- Layering, Creeper with woody stem
Wreath America blue flower cuttings and and leaves with very
suckers rough surface. Suitable for
training against walls or for
shrubbery border.
25. Pyrostegia Golden Bignoniaceae Brazil February- March, Ground Most beautiful climber,
venusta shower Bright orange layering woody climber. Used to
adorn buildings, houses
and to train along the walls,
pergola, trellis, boundary
wall and screening to cover
large areas.
26. Quisqualis indica Jhoomeka bel Combretaceae Malaya Year round Cuttings and Moderately scented flowers,
Syn. Combretum or Rangoon pink and white root suckers planted on long pillars,
indicum creeper walls, pergola, trees and
trellis etc.
27. Rosa spp. - Rosaceae Northern Several flushes in a Budding, Rose creepers are mostly
Hemisphere year grafting, grown along the pillars,
White, pink, red etc. cuttings arches and trellis. Because
of their thorns these should
not be grown near the path.
28. Tarlmounia Cutain Compositae South -- Cuttings It is most suitable for
elliptica Syn. creeper, America creating weeping effect on
Vernonia Parda vel porch, balcony, boundary
elaegnifolia and against pillars, walls
and for scrrening purpose.
Climbers 99
100

29. Thunbergia Sky flower Acanthaceae Eastern India Feb-March, July- Seed, cutting Leaves are pointed at tip and
grandiflora September, Blue and layering broader at base, and easily
recognized as heart shaped.
It can cover walls, trellis,
pergola and trees etc.
30. Trachelospermum Star jasmine Apocynaceae China and May-June, White Semi Evergreen climber. It is
jasminoides Japan hardwood best for growing in shady
cuttings situation. Bears moderately
fragrant flowers.
31. Wisteria sinensis Grape flower Leguminoseae China and March, It is a winter deciduous
vine Japan White and Cuttings creeper. Can be planted

Purplish blue along the walls or on
pergolas, fences and trellis.
Climbers 101
References
Arora, J S. 2017 Introductory Ornamental Horticulture. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi
Bhattacharjee, S K. 2006 Landscape gardening. In Advances in Ornamental Horticulture. Vol
5 pp: 5-24.
Pal, B.P. 1972 Beautiful climbers of India. Indian Council of Agricultural research (ICAR), New
Delhi. PP: 1-105.
Randhawa, G.S. and Mukhopadhyay, A. 2004. Floriculture in India. Allied publishers Pvt Ltd.
Trivedi, P.P. 1996. Home gardening. Indian Council of Agricultural research (ICAR), New
Delhi. P: 129-146.
8
Trees
Simrat Singh
Trees are amazing nature’s creations that are not only important for mankind but also
sustain ecological balance in nature. They are the source of livelihood and provide
valuable raw material for manufacture of household utility products. They are important
from spiritual aspect and have been exhaustively described in ancient Indian texts with
their significant Ayurvedic and other potential health benefits. Botanically a “tree.” is
a large, long-lived (perennial) woody plant that attains a height of at least 6 m (20 ft)
at maturity. A tree possess certain characteristic features such as a trunk (single main
self-supporting stem) which gives off spreading branches, twigs and foliage to make a
crown. Since the diameter at breast height (dbh) of trees is determined internationally
at 1.35 m (4.5 ft) above the ground, a tree must be un-branched at least up to 1.5 m (5
ft) from the ground.
Importance of Trees
Trees are the important components of terrestrial ecosystem and are sacred precious
gifts of nature. The welfare of all living beings on earth is affected not only by density
and diversity of trees, but also by their direct and indirect ecological services that help
in maintaining the sate of equilibrium. The plural word “TREES” has been described
(Seth, 2002) with a logical meaning owing to their value and eco-system services they
provide as:
T Timber, the first and the foremost use of trees
R Restoration, reclamation and rejuvenation of denuded and disturbed soils
E Ecological, eco-developmental and environmental services
E Educational, art, culture and bio-aesthetic planning,
S Source of sustenance; i.e., food, fuel, fodder etc.
Festival of Trees
Indian people are well known for celebration of different occasions. Trees hold a
special relevance to Indian people. To bring awareness among the masses for planting
and caring trees, a week long festival called “Vanamahotsava”, literally translated as
great festival of forests is celebrated annually. It is celebrated during first week of July
annually with the onset of monsoons. The concept of Vanamahotsava was initiated
by (Late) Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi (then Union Minister for Food & Agriculture)
during 1950’s. He was a great politician and environmentalist and always encouraged
the people to plant and care trees to improve the depleting quality of environment and
make it congenial for the mankind and other living creatures.
Trees Indeginious to Indian Subcontinent
Indian subcontinent is one among the 17 mega –biodiverse countries in the world.
According to International Union for conservation of Nature (IUCN), India
accommodates 2.4% of earth’s surface area and accounts for 7-8% of the world’s bio-
diversity. There are estimated to be over 45,000 species of plants in India, and nearly
one-third are endemic. A wide variety of trees, plants and wildlife can thrive in India
due to the distinct climatic zones that exist in the country. Trees have always been
associated with wisdom and immorality in India. Hindu literature describes a celestial
tree as having its roots in the heaven and its branches in the underworld that unites
and connects beings of every kind. The majestic Banyan tree (Ficus bengalensis) is
regarded as the National Tree of India. The trees that are native to the Indian sub-
continent and are most commonly planted as an avenue or for their aesthetic and
functional utility in a landscape have been described in tabular form in Table 1.
Selection of Trees
To observe a tree requires a great skill especially when these are observed for their
beauty and other qualitative characteristics. Selection of trees for beautification of
a landscape is based on several factors including morphological growth features of
trees, site characteristics and climate of a region. A careful selection of tree species
suiting to edaphic and prevailing environmental conditions is of utmost importance.
Therefore, for beautification of a landscape after undergoing necessary site analysis
(beyond the scope of this chapter), a selection of trees is made depending upon their
classification discussed as follows
i. Based on Height
Knowing the average height of tree at maturity help us in selection of tree species
for planting at a particular site. The selected tree species should be ensured adequate
availability of above and below ground space so as to help them proliferate and flourish
for next 15-20 years. Presence of above ground electricity wires, below ground sever
pipes, adequate space for expansion should be determined that is also a part of site
analysis. However, the trees based on height can be classified into three major groups.
a Large trees: The trees that attain height more than 10 m (35 ft) at maturity
are classified as large trees. Such trees are most suitable for planting in larger
compounds or playgrounds where there is ample space for them to grow. Such
trees provide shade and shelter to birds, insects and other terrestrial vertebrates
and sometime also a source of food for them.
Eg. Ficus infectoria, F. retusa, Bombax malabaricum, Azadirachta indica,
Millingtonia hortensis, Peltophorum roxburghii, Cassia siamea, Cassia nodosa.
Trees 105
b. Medium trees: The trees with an average height ranging from 6-10 m
(20-35 ft) at maturity are classified as medium trees. Such trees can be planted
as avenue (discussed later in this chapter) or in public parks in groups for their
mass effect.
Eg. Cassia fistula, Lagerstromia thorelli, Melia azedarach, Plumeria spp.,
Saraca indica
c. Dwarf trees: The trees with an average height ranging from 3-5m (10-20 ft) at
maturity are classified as dwarf trees. Such trees are most suited for comparatively
smaller areas such as private home gardens, commercial establishments etc.
The advantage of their dwarf architecture help in accommodating these where
there is a scarcity of space.
Eg. Parkinsonia aculeate, Plumeria rubra, Bixa orellana, Brownea grandiceps,
Cordia sebestena, Erythrina blackei, Wrightia tomentosa.
ii. Based on Form of Canopy (Growth Habit)
The shape or the pattern of growth formed by a network of tree branches and leaves
is termed as canopy. Depending upon the growth habit, the tree can exhibit canopy of
varying shape and size that tend to increase with the age of the tree. The shape and
spread of tree canopy help us in determining the requirement (number) of trees to be
planted at a known dimensions of a site. Ideally, the distance between the same tree
species will be approximately twice the length of one-half uniform spread of canopy
on either side. This will ensure only required overlapping of canopies of two trees
planted adjacent to each other. Relatively closer planting may be done to form a dense
screen or as per the requirement depending upon the landscape. Based on form of tree
canopy, the trees can be classified as follows:
a) Weeping or drooping shape: The branches of such trees droop naturally and
appear to convey a gesture of welcome or regards. Such trees are planted at
the entrance of a house to greet the visitors that also get attracted provided the
selected tree species are in flowering.
Eg. Callistemon lanceolatus, Sallx babylonica, Salix alba, Putranjiva
roxburghii, Tecomella undulata
b) Round or umbrella shape: Such trees are planted where there is availability
of ample space without obstruction of overhead wires. Certain trees with well
defined round canopy (Mimusops elengi) are most suitable for planting at
parking sites. Trees with spreading umbrella shaped canopies such as Delonix
regia, , Chakrassia tabularis and Chorisia speciosa accommodate larger space
and the requirement of such trees is relatively less compared to trees that have
conical or pyramidal canopies.
c) Conical shape/ Pyramidal: Such trees usually have an upright growth habit
with less spread of primary and secondary branches. These trees form a dense
enclosure especially if planted at a closer distance at the outer boundary of a
garden or farmhouse.
Eg. Grevillea robusta, Araucaria cookie, Polyalthia longifolia, Sterculia
foetida, Pinus roxburghii.
d) Columnar shape: Such trees are valued for their peculiar columnar shape and
can be planted as a single specimen in a garden.
Eg. Polyalthia longifolia var pendula, Juniperus chinensis, Euclayptus robusta
e) Spreading: Trees with spreading canopies accommodate larger space for
providing shade.
Eg. Cassia siamea, Ficus lacor, Delonix regia, Thespesia populnea, Ficus
glomerata
iii. Based on Leaf Retention Characteristics
The classification of ornamental trees based on leaf retention period has been generally
limited to evergreen and deciduous species. A more comprehensive way of expressing
the leaf retention characteristics of trees has been proposed (Singh and Kushwaha,
2005) based on the intensity of leaf retention depending upon the changing seasons.
The functional traits (such as deciduousness/leaflessness and evergreen) of trees
observed during phenological studies have been viewed from the broader perspective
to precisely depict the extent and intensity of leafless and leaf-flush duration. Various
functional types have been described in the following table that will help in categorizing
ornamental trees observing their phenological stages with respect to changing climate.
Functional type Description
Evergreen Species which maintain high level of canopy (> 75%) throughout the
year
Semi-Evergreen Species with a short deciduous stage
Leaf-exchanging Young leaves emerge immediately after leaf shedding
Brevideciduous Species in which synchronous bud break of vegetative buds generally
occurs after mid-March and is preceded by a period of deciduousness
which varies from several weeks to a few days.
Deciduous Species in which leaves are shed early in the dry season followed by a
strong dehydration of stems
Fully Deciduous Species in which each individual loses its leaves for a period of at least
one month during dry season
Semideciduous Species maintain relatively low canopy (15–50%) throughout the year
Spring flushing Species showing synchronous bud break induced by increasing
photoperiod.
(Singh and Kushwaha, 2005)
iv. Based on Adaptability

Only few of the ornamental trees have been found indigenous to the Indian sub-
continent. Majority of the trees have been introduced from other countries (such as
Madagascar, South America, South Africa and East Asian countries) with varying
climatic conditions. These introductions are termed a exotics in India. Due to differences
in intensity, duration and seasonality of climate, these trees also exhibit varying response
outside their native habitat. These trees have undergone certain structural modifications
to sustain under hostile conditions comprising drought, salinity and heat. These trees
have adapted themselves with modifications such as deep root system, leaf shedding in
Trees 107
summers to conserve moisture and other xerophytic characteristics to help them sustain,
flower, develop fruits and seeds to perpetuate for generations. The trees that have been
native or introduced from other geographical areas and are survive under harsh climate
and varying soil conditions have been mentioned as follows:
1. Sandy soils (Light textured): Acacia tortilis, Prosopis cineraria, Albizia
lebbek, Azadirachta indica, Leucaena leucocephala, Grass species: cenchrus
ciliaris, Cenchrus setigerus, Acacia nilotica, Thespesia populnea
2. Clayey soils (Heavy textured): Lagerstromea flossreginae, Jacranda
mimosaefolia
3. Shallow soils: Acacia tortilis, Prosopis juliflora, Dichrostachys glomerata,
Ailathus excelsa, Zizyphus mauritiana, grass species: Cenchrus ciliaris,
Dichanthium annulatum, Panicum antidotale etc.
4. Drought prone sandstone rocky sites: Albizia lebbek, Boswellia serrata,
Cenchrus ciliaris and Cenchrus setigerus, Acacia senegal, Cassia auriculata,
Butea monosperma, Butea frondosa, Tecomella undulate, Casurina equisetifolia,
Cratavea religiosa, Morus indica, Melia adedarach
5. Saline areas: Acacia spp., Azadirachta indica, Tamarix auriculata, Prosopis
juliflora, Prosopis tamarugo, Salvadora oleoides, Chenopodium, Chorisia
species, Phoneix dactylifera, Butea frondosa, Phyllanthus emblica, Bassia
latifolia
6. Shifting sand-dunes: Prosopis juliflora, Prosopis cineraria, Acacia senegal,
Albizia lebbek, Tamarix articulata, Cenchrus ciliaris, Sacharum munja.
7. Edible trees for arid areas: Zizphus mauritiana, Psidium guajava, Phoenix
dactylifera, Aegle marmelos, Annona squamosa.
8. Trees for wetlands Swamps and marshes: Salix babylonica (water willow),
Alnus cremastogyne (long peduncled alder), Alnus trabeculosa (trobeculate
alder), Morus alba (mulberry), Taxpdoium distichum (swamp cypress),
Taxodium scandens (pond cypress), Musa paradisica (Plantain).
9. Trees for noise reduction: Juniperus chinensis, Madhuca indica, Alstonia
scholaris, Pterospermum acerifolium, Puttranjiva roxburghii.
10. Dusty and smoky sites: Alstonia scholaris, Ficus benjamina, Terminalia arjuna,
F. bengalensis, F. religiosa, Bombax ceiba, Pongamia pinnata, Madhuca indica
v. Air Pollution & Dust Tolerance
Trees also play a vital role in sequestering or adsorbing gaseous pollutants and VOC’s
from the air. Trees are often projected as “lungs” of an ecosystem because they absorb
carbon dioxide and give oxygen. Trees also act as an ecosystems “liver” too, filtering
atmospheric pollutants like SO2 and N2O through their leaves. Trees are particularly
effective in removing particulate matter (PM). Industries are the major source of
pollution and in such areas deciduous trees or trees having thick shining leaves will
be more successful e.g. Morus sp., Populus hybrida, Plumeria acutifolia, Alstonia
scholaris, Terminalia arjuna, Albizia lebbek, F. bengalensis, Butea monosperma, F.
benjamina, Acacia auriculiformis, Pongamia glabra, etc.
Characteristics for Air Pollution Tolerances

• Deciduous trees with compound leaves
• Bigger canopies can trap more particles than smaller ones
• larger leaves can trap more pollutants than small ones
• Trees with rough, rugged and hairy surfaces that act as the “best filters”
• Tree leaves with epicuticular waxes and leaf hairs (trichomes).
Classification Based on Landscape Use
1. Based on Beauty (Specimen): Such trees are planted singly for their attractive
shape, beautiful foliage or flowers or certain peculiar characters such as
drooping branches (indicating a gesture of humbleness). eg Araucaria cookii
Salix babylonica, Plumeria alba, Magnolia grandiflora etc.
2. Fragrant Flowers: These trees produce colorful flowers and are planted
for their beautiful fragrant flowers. eg Pterospermum acerifolium, Plumeria
alba,Citrus sp, Magnolia grandiflora, Citrus etc.
3. Foliage Beauty: These trees are valued for their peculiar leaf characteristics
such a leaf shape, leaf texture, leaf variegation. Such trees can be planted
singly as a specimen. Eg: Erythrina indica, Acacia auriculiformis, Thespesia
populnea, Ficus lyrata, Grevillea robusta.
4. Fruit & Berry Bearing: Some of the ornamental trees are values for bright
colour of their fruits and can also be planted as a specimen in garden. Eg: Citrus
spp., Courouptia guanensis, Kigellia pinnata, Dillenia indica.
Based on Purpose of Planting
I. Avenue Plantation
Selection of trees for roadside depends upon width of the road, vehicular traffic and
the available space alongside the roads for plantation. The trees alongside the road can
be planted in a single row or in 2-3 rows accommodating dwarf and medium sized
trees on the foreground of tall trees that act as a supporting background. There are four
planting schemes followed in avenue plantation depending upon the selection of trees
based on flowering colour, flowering time, canopy form and leaf retention habit. These
planting have been described as follows:
1. Shady tree spp. planting on both sides of road: Trees along side avenues or
roads are generally planted for shade or flowers. Commonly planted trees are
Cassia fistula, Grevillea robusta, Jacaranda acutifolia, Ficus infectoria etc.
2. Single tree spp. flowering on both sides of road: When an avenue of single
flowering tree spp. is planted on both the sides of the road, the road looks very
beautiful and elegant posing a welcoming gesture to the commuters. However,
rest of the period, the roadside view looks monotonous as the trees remain
devoid of flowers and may or may not remain in vegetative phase depending
upon their nature of growth.
Trees 109
a. Eg. Cassis fistula, Delonix regia, Lagerstromia speciosa, Cassia nodosa,

Cassia javanica etc.
3. Two tree species flowering same season both sides of road: In this scheme,
the trees are planted alternately on both the sides of the road. The overall effect
appears pleasing as there is variation oin the flower colour, shape and size of the
trees whch avoids monotonous effect.
a. Eg. Grevellia robusta [coppery yellow flowers in April-May]- Jacranda
acutifolia [blue flowers in April-May]- Grevellia robusta
4. Two tree species flowering in different season both sides of road: Following
this planting scheme, the roadside will look colourful for extended season. The
commuters can enjoy flowering and foliage beauty of either of the tree species
during different seasons of the year.
a. Scheme I. Bauhinia blakeana [rosy purple flowers in Jan-Feb] - Spathodia
companulata [red flowers in April-May]-Bahunnia blakeana
b. Scheme II. Delonix regia [Scarlet flowers in April-June]- Chorisia speciosa
[bright pink flowers in Oct-Nov]
Source: Ramesh Kumar, JS Arora and BM Bharadwaj
Fig. 1: Pictorial representation of different avenue planting schemes

A. One kind of flowering tree on both sides; B. Two kinds of flowering trees blooming
at one time on both sides; C. Two kinds of flowering trees blooming at different time
on both sides; D. Shady trees only on both sides
i. Specimen: Such trees are planted singly for their attractive shape, beautiful
foliage or flowers or drooping branches (sign of humbleness). eg Araucaria
cookii, Salix babylonica, Plumeria alba, Magnolia grandiflora etc.
ii. Shade: Shady trees are planted in chosen spots of large public garden which
provides place for picnic and relaxation. Such trees are also planted along the
borders of roads as avenue for giving shade. Such trees have round canopy
or umbrella like crown. Leaves are large and dense so that no or very little
sun is allowed underneath them. eg. Azadirachta indica, Alstonia scholaris,
Ficus religiosa F. intectoria, Mimusops elengi, Morus spp., Eugenia jambolina,
Pongamia pinnata, Chakrassia tabularis etc.
iii. Screening & Wind Break: Tall upright trees are planted very close to give
a look of a curtain or screen. Such trees are planted to hide ugly views or to
crate partition. eg. Grevillea robusta, Eucalyptus spp, Populus spp, Polyalthia
longifolia
iv. Home Gardens: Certain trees with confined canopy and dwarf stature can be
planted in limited spaces such as residential home garden. The selection of such
trees should be carefully done taking into consideration the available space,
allergic problem caused by pollen shedding, fragrant flowers and leaf retention
characteristics (evergreen or deciduous). Eg: Plumeria spp. (P. rubra with red
flowers and winter deciduous; P. alba with white flowers with evergreen growth
habit) can be planted as specimen in home gardens.
v. Bonsai: A bonsai is literally a “tree in a pot,” which further imitates nature in
miniature (the projection of an old tree in nature). Old specimen trees in nature,
unlike juvenile trees, have compact rounded tops, and horizontal or drooping
branches, which make them, appear aged and graceful. The methodology of
preparing Bonsai is beyond the scope of this chapter. However, trees such as
F. benjamina, F. religiosa, Cupressess semipervirens, F. deltoidia, Adansonia
digitata, Chorisia speciosa, M. azedarach, Juniperus chinensietc.are suitable
for making bonsai.
Scared Grove Plantation (Religious)
Indians have been worshipping trees since time immemorial to offer gratitude to God’s
creations as lot of tribals in India depend upon tree for survival. Trees are believed to
posses consciousness like humans and they can also feel pain as well as happiness like
us (Wohlleben, 2016). So trees and their products have become a part of our rituals
and ceremonies.
Sacred Groves are patches of forests usually devoted to local deities. These tree groves
are protected by tribal communities over generations because of their religious beliefs
and traditional rituals. Sacred Groves are (small or large) patches of vegetation of
various sizes and may consist of a multiple tree species depending on the history of
the vegetation and associated beliefs. With passage of time different trees like Neem
(Azadirachta indica), Banyan (Ficus bengalensis), Bel (Aegle marmelos) and many
more have been added to the religious sanctity. Even various Gods and Goddess have
been associated with different trees like Bel, Rudraksa seeds (Elaecarpus ganitrus) are
close to Lord Shiva, peepal (F. religiosa) to Lord Visnu, Mango (Mangifera indica) to
Lord Hanuman, Asoka (Saraca indica) to Kamadeva.
Trees 111
Topiary / Sculpturing
Topiary is art of training perennial plants by clipping the foliage and twigs into
characteristic geometric shapes. The plants used for making topiaries must be
evergreen, woody and have small leaves for producing dense foliage. The trees for
making topiary should respond to frequent clipping and must not shed leaves or
susceptible to foliage disease. Certain coniferous trees such as Cupressus semipervirens,
Juniperus chinensis, Puttranjiva roxburgii, Buxus sempervirens, Taxas baccata are
widely known for their beautiful shapes maintaine as topiaries. The hanging gardens
of Bombay (Kamla Nehru park) is famous for topiary work.
Source of Sustenance
Trees in addition to providing shade and other utility services also are excellent source
of food. Certain trees have edible leaves, edible flowers, and edible pods with nutritive
value. Eg. Asian Persimmon (Diospyros kaki), Jujube (Ziziphus jujube), Moringa
oleifera, Bahuinia variegata, Phoenix dactylifera etc. can be grown at home garden
for their aesthetic and nutritional value.
Importance of Trees in Bioaesthestic Planning
Professor Lancelot Hogben coined the term ‘Bio-aesthetic planning’ defined as
planning of flora and fauna with the object of beautifying the country. Bio-aesthetic
planning was thus recognised as the aesthetic branch of horticulture, which deals with
planting of ornamental plants to create a picturesque effect. Bio-aesthetic planning can
play important role in environmental amelioration of wastelands, urban and industrial
areas along with their beautification.
Dr. M. S. Randhawa was the flag bearer of Bio-aesthetic planning and strived hard for
the cause of environmental amelioration by planting of flowering trees. He promoted
the idea that rich colourfulness of nature in the form of ornamental trees should be
conspicuously noticeable in the form of avenues along streets and roads in towns and
even in home gardens. He advocated garden suburbs around commercial city centres
and created garden city of Chandigarh in collaboration with Le Corbusier of France,
which has greatly inspired future generations of town planners and architects.
Importance of trees in bio-aesthetic planning
• Reduction in the heat island effect
• Improvement in Air Quality Index (AQI)
• Noise abatement
• Carbon sequestration
• Reduce glare and reflection
• Deflection of strong wind currents
• Maintain evolutionary processes
• Support urban wild-life
• Provide congenial social environment for people
• Trees enhance life of public amenities

• Enhance the biodiversity and beautify the road landscape
Propagation of Trees
Sexual propagation (Seeds)

Trees saplings can either be bought from a reputed ornamental nursery or tree seeds
may be collected directly from ripen fruit pods. It is essential to remove that any fleshy
mesocarp / endocarp surrounding the seed before planting because this often slows
or prevents germination. It is essential to check the viability of the tree seeds prior to
sowing, especially if these are stored for longer periods.
The best time of sowing seeds is during the onset of monsoons (Mid July – August).
Under North Indian plains, the seeds can also be sown in Feb-March under assured
irrigation. Places with milder climate, the nursery sowing of seeds can be done round
the year except during hot and dry months of the year. Sometimes, the tree seeds may
need scarification (Cassia fistula, Delonix regia) or stratification (temperate stone fruit
trees) to break the dormancy. Pre-treatment of seeds with hard impermeable seed coat
should be done by soaking the seeds in conc. H2SO4 (30 min), hot water or cold tap
water to soften the hard seed coat and promote imbibition of water. Seeds of trees
such as Acacia auriculiformis, cassia nodosa, Peltophorom pterocarpum, Schleichera
oleosa, cassia nodosa etc are subjected to scarification prior to sowing.
The main factors controlling germination are temperature and moisture. For most of
the tree seeds to germinate, the acceptable temperature range is wide and only becomes
important if it is exceptionally cold or hot. There needs to be enough moisture for the
seed to absorb (imbibe) to hydrate the contents and burst the seed coat for emerging
out roots and shoots. Trees usually raised from seeds are Mimusops elengii, Jacaranda
acutifolia, Milletia ovalifolia, Pongamia pinnata, Polyalthia longifolia, Cassia fistula,
Delonix regia etc.
Asexual propagation (Vegetatively)
There are several ways of propagating the ornamental trees vegetatively. Trees can be
propagated through grafting, air-layering, hardwood cuttings or through tissue culture
for multiplication of rare and elite germplasm.
Cuttings: Propagation by cuttings is the most convenient and cheapest method and
usually preferred. For example: Erythrina indica, F. benjamina (var. nuda, starlight
and curly top), Bauhinia blakeana, Ficus bengalensis, Ficus retusa, Ficus elastica
are propagated through cuttings. Both terminal and stem cuttings can be utilized for
propagation. Cuttings of desirable size (4-6”) and thickness are taken from healthy
shoots during onset of monsoons, especially if the tree are evergreen. For deciduous
trees, the cuttings are made during dormant phase during January. The cuttings are
treated with IBA / seradex powder available for soft, semi-hard and hard to root
cuttings. The basal portion is dipped in rooting hormone and cutting are inserted into
sand beds taking care of their polarity. Sand beds are kept uniformly moist but not wet.
Trees 113
The cuttings are then transplanted in polybags of desirable sizes filled with garden
soil and FYM (2:1). The saplings should be monitored regularly for any insect or
disease infestation and suitable measures must be taken. The tree saplings must be
regularly inspected for their roots that may coil or penetrate deep into soil surface.
Periodic shifting of old stock plants must be done to avoid development of taproot and
encourage fibrous root system in perforated biodegradable fiber-based tree grow bags.
Air layering: Air-layering (marcottage) is a type of vegetative propagation whereby
the new saplings are made in-situ over the stock plants (or trees) by gently removing
a piece of bark (4-5 cm) from the pencil thickness healthy branch during active phase
of growth (July–August). The excised bark portion is covered with moist sphagnum
moss holding in a cellophane paper. The moss grass is tied securely with durable
thread from both the sides and is left undisturbed for formation of roots. The new
baby saplings are ready for transplanting in polybags within 45-60 days depending
upon the nutritional status and prevailing climatic conditions. Trees such as Ficus
elastic, Bauhinia blakeana, Citrus chinensis, Ficus krishnae, Magnolia grandiflora
and Terminalia metallis are propagated through air layering.
Table 1: Arboriculture practices for care & management of newly planted tree saplings.
Arboriculture practices Specification
Pit excavation Pit measuring 3x3x3 ft dia be excavated and subsoil be mixed with
well rotten FYM (2:1).
Soil treatment Drench chloropyriphos@4ml/litre water against termite infestation.
Planting & Staking Insert and tie stakes 6-12 inches apart from tree trunk, taking care
not to bruise or disturb the root system.
Fencing To protect young tree saplings from grazing by animals. To protect
from strong winds. Iron tree guards or thorny bushes/ bamboo
enclosures may be placed alongside to avoid physical injury to
newly planted saplings.
Irrigation Need-based watering is done for the first 3 years fro proper
establishment of tree saplings. Water should not touch the base of
the trunk that may cause collar rot or fungal infection. The water
should contain within the tree berm made alongside 3-4 ft periphery
alongside the tree trunk.
Gap filling Important in mass tree plantation campaigns. The dead, dried and
diseased trees should be removed and gap-filled with saplings
preferably of same age and size within 3-4 years of planting.
Training and pruning Done during initial stage of tree growth for proper framework of
scaffold branches. Undesirable branches should be removed making
a sharp cut and Blitox paste (mixed in linseed oil) must be applied at
cut ends to avoid fungal infection. Corrective pruning may be done
as required.
Weeding Periodic removal of weeds alongside the berms helps tree gather
required sunlight, space and soil nutrients for its proper growth &
development. Mulching the exposed surface alongside berms with
paddy straw helps regulate soil temperature, check weed growth and
reduce evaporation from the ground surface.
Protection from hot and Newly planted saplings can’t withstand hot winds during summers
cold climate and severe frost during winters. Adequate precautionary measures
may be taken erecting thatches over young saplings keeping SW
side open during winters and shading the saplings by sowing green
manure (Sesbania asculata) and tying few plants over top of the
saplings to protect from hot winds.
Table 2: Description of ornamental trees and their landscape use
S.No. Botanical Name/ Common or Family Origin Description / Landscape use
synonymous English Name
1. Acacia Australian wattle Fabaceae Arid region of An evergreen tree with pendulous branches and
auriculiformis (Mimosaceae) Australia phyllodes leaves. The tree is medium sized and bears
yellow flowers during Aug-Sept. A. cyanophylla
(Golden acacia) is a dwarf species having brittle
branches.
2. Alstonia scholaris Devil’s tree Apocynaceae Indo-Malaya It is tall, spreading and shady tree. Leaves are shiny and
dark green. The flowers are greenish yellow, small in
size appear in Oct-Dec.
4. Agathis robusta Queensland kauri Araucariaceae Australia. Tall upright coniferous tree, leaves with parallel
pine venation, planted as a specimen tree, can grow under
semi shade and prefer moist soils.
5. Araucaria cooki Monkey puzzle Coniferae South America Horizontal spreading branches with needle like leaves,
(Krishmish Tree) mostly dioecious, planted as specimen and as pot plant.
Tree began to decline later on.
6. Azadirachta indica Neem Meliaceae Indo-burma Tall tree with pinnate and serrated leaves. Flowers are
small white sweat scented, appear end of April to Mid
May. Planted as an avenue and for shade.
7. Bauhinia blakeana Kachnar Leguminosae India A small sized tree, bears rosy purple flowers during
Jan – Feb. propagated through air layering. Planted as
specimen and group planting.
8. Bauhinia variegate Kachnar Leguminosae India A medium to tall tree. Flowers are pink or rosy emerge
during mid March, when the tree is leafless. The
flowers are used for making curry. Planted as specimen
or in groups or as avenue tree alongside roads.
Trees 115
Contd.
116

9. Bombax ceiba Simbal, semal, red Bombaceae Temperate and A large deciduous tree, stem is straight and undivided,
cotton silk tropical Asia branches appear in whorls. The young stem is covered
with sharp prickles, bears large red/ orange flowers
during Jan –March when tree is leafless. Fallen flowers
cause nuisance on roads.
10. Butea monosperma Dhak or flame Leguminosae India A small deciduous tree having irregular branches. It
of forest bears bright orange red flowers from Feb - April when
the tree is leafless. It is drought resistant tree and can be
grown in alkaline soils
11. Cassia fistula Amaltas, golden Leguminosae India A medium sized tree bears pendulous racemes of
laburnum large bright yellow flowers in May-June, when tree is

leafless. It is drought-tolerant and can tolerate quite a
high salt concentration.
12. Cassia javanica Java ki rani, Java Leguminosae Java, Malasyia A medium sized tree with spreading crown. Bears
cassia clusters of pink flowers intermingled with the foliage in
May-June. Leaf tip is blunt unlike its pointed in Cassia
nodosa. Branches are brittle.
13. Cassia nodosa Pink mohar Leguminosae Indo-Malaya Tree larger than Cassia javanica. It bears flowers in
pink clusters giving appearance of bunches of roses on
long branches during May-June. Planted in parks and
as avenue.
14. Cassia siamea Kassod tree Leguminosae Indo-Malaya A medium sized shady tree. It is drought resistant and
can tolerate lot of dust. It is suitable for planting along
roadside and bears yellow flowers from Nov. to Feb.
15. Callistemon Bottle brush Myrtaceae Australia Tree with pendulous branches but leaves are golden-
lanceolatus greenish in colour. Scarlet flowers appear borne on
long spikes during March-April and Aug-Sept. Best
suited for planting alongside ponds or pools.
Contd.
16. Callistemon salignus White or willow Myrtaceae Australia Tree having very narrow leaves when crushed giving
smell like lemon, bear white flowers in April.
17. Cedrella tuna Tun, Toona Meliaceae Indo-Malaya, Large and quick growing tree having shinning foliage.
Australia It is easily propagated by seed. It is planted in gardens
and roadside for shade.
18. Chakrassia tabularis Bastard cedar, Meliaceae India and A tall growing, spreading tree with evergreen foliage.
White cedar Tropical SE Reddish brown foliage appears on the top of shoots.
Asia
19. Chorisia speciosa Mexican semal Malvaceae Mexico and It is beautiful tree with a bottle shaped green trunk
Brazil thorny. It bears bright pink flowers in Oct – Nov. when
there is no other tree in bloom.
20. Crataeva nurvala Barna, Varuna Capparaceae India, SE Asia A medium sized deciduous tree. It bears white or pale-
yellow flowers during April - May. It is hardy and
drought resistant also.
21. Cupressess Saru Coniferae West Asia , Leaves are dull green, tree erect, columnar growth.
semipervirens South Europe Planted as specimen and propagated through seeds.
22. Dilenia indica Elephant apple Dilleniaceae China / tropical Tree is evergreen small to medium-sized, growing to
Asia 15 m tall. flowers are large, 15–20 cm diameter. fruits
main source of food for elephants, monkeys and deer.
Seed dispersal through herbivorous animals. Planted in
groups or as specimen.
23. Delonix regia Gulmohar, Leguminosae Madagascar A large tree with umbrella like crown and feathery
leaves. It bears scarlet flowers during April to June.
24. Erythrina variegate Indian Coral tree Leguminosae India A quick growing tree. It bears scarlet flower during
March - April when the tree is leafless. The flowers
are shaped like the beak of a parrot, hence commonly
called tota tree.
Trees 117
Contd.
118

25. Eucalyptus spp. Safeda, Blue gum Myrtaceae Australia Eucalyptus is adapted to fire and tree stumps or seeds
tree re-sprout after fire. Fast growing and have timber
value. Provide nectar for honeybees, planted as avenue
tree alongside canal roads.
26. Eugenia jambolina Jamun , Malabar Myrtaceae India and SE Slow growing, dense foliage provides shade, wood is
plum, Java plum Asia water resistant, used to make railway sleepers, start
flowering from March to April. The flowers are fragrant
and small, about 5 mm in diameter. Planted as a shady
tree in fields.
27. Ficus benjamina Golden Fig Moraceae Indo-Malaya An evergreen quick growing large shady tree. Leaves
(var. nuda, starlight, are small, glossy and dark blackish green, curly and
curlytop) shiny in var. curly top, or variegated (var. starlight).
Elegant crown giving drooping look, bark is grey in
color and smooth, suitable for planting as avenue or
even as a specimen tree in big park.
28. Ficus benghalensis Bohar or Banyan Moraceae India Tall and shady tree. It provides shelter and food for
tree birds.
29. Ficus religiosa Pipal Moraceae India Tall, evergreen, shady tree. It is considered as sacred
tree also.
30. Ficus glomerata Gulhar Moraceae India, Australia, Tall and shady tree. It bears fruiting bodies, which
SE Asia, attract birds. Suitable for planting in large compounds
Malasyia for shade.
31. Ficus benghalensis Makhan katora, Moraceae India Leaves are folded and appear like folded cup.
var. krishnae Krishna butter cup Associated with lord Krishna. Natural mutant of F.
benghalensis. Medium evergreen tree and planted as a
specimen or in groups.
Contd.
32. Ficus retusa Chilkan Moraceae Indo-Malaya Evergreen shady tree, medium size, leaves are shining
and China green. Good for growing in parks and along roads.
33. Ficus elastic Rubber tree Moraceae Indo-Malaya Evergreen tree with shining bright blackish green
leaves. Good for shade and can also be used as a pot
plant for ornamental purpose.
34. Ficus panda Ficus panda Moraceae Asia Small tree with new leaves of lemon yellow color. It
can be used for hedge or bonsai making.
35. Ficus lyrata Bingo / Fiddle Moraceae Western and Slow growing tree with curved large dark green leaves
leaf fig central Africa
36. Ficus lacor Pilkhan Moraceae Indo-burma A large deciduous, low crowned thick shady tree, 35-40
ft. high with greenish-grey smooth bark, bending down
aerial roots. In April, it is covered with delicately tinted
copper colored foliage, which look very attractive. It is
suitable where shade is required.
37. Grevillea robusta Silver oak Proteaceae Australia An evergreen tree with a conical crown. The leaves
are fern like and silvery from the lower side. It bears
coppery yellow flowers in April.
38. Heterophragma Maror phalli, Bignoniaceae Indo-Malaya A large upright growing tree with medium spreading,
Adenophyllum Monkey tail large sized leaves, for landscaping.
39. Inga dulcis Jungle jalebi Leguminosae India Tall spreading thorny, suitable protected area, hedge
40. Jacaranda acutifolia Neeli Gulmohar Bignoniaceae Brazil Medium-sized tree, with feathery bipinnate leaves,
bears mauve flowers in March-April, quick growing.
41. Juniperus chinensis Chinese juniper, Cupressaceae China, Taiwan, Leaves are green and needle like, adapted to coastal
Myanmar climate planted as specimen or in groups over mounds,
require regular trimming to keep in shape
Trees 119
Contd.
120

42. Kigelia pinnata Jhar fanoos/ Bignoniaceae Africa A large tree with good spreading crown. Flowers are
Sausage tree, cup shaped deep maroon and are borne at the end of
Balam Khira long pendulous stalks in April-May, which develop in
to sausage like fruits.
43. Lagerstroemia spp. Jarul, Pride of Inda Lythraceae India and SE Medium size tree, winter deciduous, bears white (spp.
Asia parviflora), pink (spp. floribunda) and purple (Spp.
speciosa) flowers. Flowers in mid April till August.
Planted as a specimen or in groups. Lagerstroemia
thorelii is a dwarf tree with pink or mauve flowers from
July to September.
44. Madhuca indica Mahua Sapotaceae India A large deciduous tree. It bears cream colored flowers
in Feb to April when the tree is leafless. The leaves are
borne in clusters near the end of the branches and are
coppery colored when young. The flowers are used for
making vegetables and wine.
45. Melia azedirach Persian lilac, Meliaceae Persia Fast growing, winter deciduous, compound leaves,
Dharek flowers first forth-night of April. Planted for shade or
at the periphery of the property
46. Mimusops elengi Molsari Spotaceae Indo-Malaya Slow growing tree with round canopy and dark green
and Sri Lanka foliage.
47. Michella champaca Son Champa or Magnoliaceae A medium sized evergreen free. Bears fragrant flowers
sone champa of light yellow colour in mid May
48. Magnolia grandilora Bara champa Magnoliaceae USA A medium sized, evergreen tree with beautiful foliage,
large scented white flowers appear in April-May.
49. Millingtonia Akash neem, cork Bignoniaceae Burma-Malaya A tall evergreen tree which bears sweet scented white
hortensis tree, tree jasmine flowers in April-June and November-December. The
tree is quick growing and the wood is very brittle.
Contd.
50. Milletia ovalifolia Molumein Leguminosae Burma A medium sized tree. Bears profuse mauve color, small
rosewood flowers in March when the tree is leafless
51. Moringa oleifera Soanjana, ‎Moringaceae India Round canopy, bright green foliage, creamish white
Drumstick flower, pods are used for pickle making, leaves sticks
are used in curry making. Branches brittle. planted in
home gardens for its pods and leaves to make nutritious
vegetables.
52. Neonauclea Kadam Rubiaceae Indo-china and The tree is beautiful and columnar. It is growing and
purpurea Sri Lanka bears golden ball like flowers during June and August-
September
53. Phyllanthus emblica Amla Phyllanthaceae India Tree is small to medium in size, dried and fresh fruits
of the plant are used in ayurved, tolerant to saline soils
54. Pinus roxburghii Chir/pine Pinaceae Across Evergreen tree. Tree height varies from 30-50 m. Tree
Himalayas grown in hills. It can be grown as specimen tree. Leaves
are fine needle shaped.
55. Plumeria spp. Pegoda/ Gulachin Apocynaceae Mexico and Dwarf trees with large dark green leaves with acute
Gautemala apex (spp. acutifolia/rubra), or leaves with obtuse
apex (spp. obtuse), bear white (spp. alba), red (spp.
rubra) fragrant flowers from May –Sept. planted as a
specimen or avenue for street roads.
56. Pterospermum Kanak Champa Sterculiaceae Bengal, Assam Medium sized evergreen tree with beautiful foliage and
acerifolium and Burma creamish yellow scented flower which appears from
April to June.
57. Putranjiva Jiva-pota Euphorbiaceae Indo-Burma An evergreen, slow growing shady tree. Branches are
roxburghii and Sri Lanka drooping which give beautiful effect, very good for
planting in gardens and along the roads, can be used as
tall hedge when closely planted.
Trees 121
Contd.
122

58. Polyalthia longifolia Ashoka Anonaceae Sri Lanka Tall evergreen tree with straight stem and slender
branches which are at right angles to the main stem
which form a symmetrical pyramidal crown, suitable
for group and avenue plantation.
59. Sapium sebiferum Makhan tree Euphorbiaceae Eastern China Medium size, fast growing, and a good shade tree tree
and Taiwan with round and shiny leaves. Prized for its abundant
and spectacular autumn foliage. Tree grow well in
urban areas.
60. Sapindus mukorossi Ritha, soapberry Sapindaceae Coastal India Deciduous tree. Flowering in summer. tolerant to
reasonably poor soil
61. Saraca indica Sita Ashoka Leguminoceae Sri Lanka Dwarf tree with drooping branches, bear scarlet red
flowers in April – May
62. Schleichera oleosa Kusum tree Sapindaceae Indo-Burma Medium sized evergreen tree with beautiful foliage. It
and Sri Lanka is ideally suited as specimen or shade or as avenue tree.
63. Spathodea Fountain tree Bignoniaceae Africa A medium sized tree, bears red colored flower in April-
Companulata May. Flower on pressing gives out water like a fountain.
64. Sterculia alata/ Buddha’s coconut Malvaceae India Habitat mostly in Moist and deciduous forest, leaves
Pterygota alata are big and tree has upright growth and suitable for
planting as avenue for narrow width roads
65. Sweetinia Mahagony Mahagony Meliaceae Tropical Tall and evergreen, spreading crown, suitable as a shady
America tree in park or alongside roads, shed leaves during frost
66. Tabebuia rosea Mauve Tabebuia Bignoniaceae Mexico Large tree which bear pinkish flowers in March
67. Thespesia populnea Tulip tree Malvaceae Pahari Pipal A medium sized evergreen tree. It bears yellow flowers
which turn red.
68. Terminallia arjuna Arjun tree Combretaceae India and Sri Large evergreen shady tree. Flowers are not showy.
Lanka Suitable for planting along roads and in groups for
shade.
Contd.
69. Terminalia balerica Bahera Combretaceae India and Sri Medium size tree with medicinal properties
Lanka
70. Terminalia chebula Harar Combretaceae South Asia Medium size spreading evergreen tree, medicinal
including India properties
71. Tecoma argentea Golden Bell, Bignoniaceae South America Yellow flowers appear in dense clusters that are funnel
Silver Trumpet in shape appear in April, winter deciduous, specimen
Tree. and also planted as avenue, in parks and home gardens.
72. Tecomella undulate Rugtora Bignoniaceae India It is dwarf tree, yellow orange colour flowers appear in
April – Aug.
Trees 123
References
Arora J S. 2017. Introductory Ornamental Horticulture. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi
Bhattacharjee S K. 2006. Advances in ornamental Horticulture. Vol 5 (Amenity Horticulture,
Biotechnology and postharvest technology). Chap. Landscape gardening. P: 5-24.
Harris R W., Clark JR and Matheny N P. 2003. Arboriculture: Integrated management of
landscape trees, shrubs and vines. 4th Edition. Prentics Hall.
Hirons, A D., Thomas, P A. 2018. Applied tree biology. Publishers- John Wiley & Sons Ltd, UK.
Randhawa, G S and Mukhopadhyay A. 2004. Floriculture in India. Allied publishers Pvt Ltd.
Randhawa, M S. 1996. Flowering trees. National Book trust, New Delhi. Series-India: The land
and the people.
Santapau, H. 1966. Common trees. National Book trust, New Delhi. Series-India: The land and
the people.
Seth, M K. 2004. Trees and Their Economic Importance. The Botanical Review 69(4): 321-376.
Singh, K. P. and C. P. Kushwaha. 2005. Emerging paradigms of tree phenology in dry tropics.
Current Science, 89(6): 964-975.
Wohlleben, P. 2016. The hidden life of trees. Penguin random house India Pvt. Ltd. Pp: 320.
9
Indoor Plants
R.K. Dubey and Simrat Singh
Growing foliage and flowering potted plants in the home is a great way to develop an
intimacy with the nature. Caring and attending the plants gives us immense pleasure
and satisfaction, especially retiring after day long working schedule. Now a days,
wide variety of houseplants are available that can accommodate almost any indoor
location in terms of available space, light and management factors. Research carried
at National Aeronautical Space Agency (NASA) has shown that having plants in the
home or office, especially in a closed air-conditioned environment, can be good for
your health and well-being.
Our indoor environment
It is surprising to know that our comfort zone environment may have 2-5 times
the pollution levels than outside air. Although, the magnitude may vary and could
potentially reach 100 times depending upon the size of building, occupants, provision
of ventilation, volatile organic compounds (VOC’s) emitted from upholstery and
paints. The quality of outside air also determine the indoor air quality that may get
mixed-up resulting in elevating the levels of carbon-dioxide (CO2) and other harmful
gases beyond the permissible limit. It has been revealed that the indoor CO2 levels are
substantially higher (3-5 times) than those recorded outdoor. The CO2 being a narcotic
cause drowsiness and loss of concentration leading to decline in performance and
productivity of employed staff. This sudden upsurge in CO2 and other toxic gases
evolved from the volatile compounds from paints likely raise the Air Quality Index
(AQI) that affects the health and working efficiency of building occupants.
It has been scientifically proved that the equipments installed for ventilating closed
environment of residential or commercial buildings are not efficient in removing
gases and thereby, to some extent filter only the particulate matter (PM). As per the
prescribed standards of World Health Organization (WHO) and American society
of heating, refrigeration and air conditioning engineers, the maximum permissible
limit for indoor CO2 is 1000 ppm. The term “Sick Building Syndrome” (SBS) is
a very common disorder associated now a dayswith the people working in closed
environments, especially that lack ventilation.When the CO2 levels reach 1500 ppm,
symptoms such as sore throat, nasal flow and cough are quite commonly observed
among the people, thus affecting their general health and well being. Poor indoor air
quality has been a major factor linked to SBS, reducing productivity of employees and
also cause impaired learning in children in schools.
Plants as potential carbon sinks
It has been well scientifically proved that indoor foliage plants are potential sinks of
carbon and substantially reduce CO2 from the indoor environment, besides assimilating
harmful VOCs affecting the general health and well being of occupants. The regulation
of gaseous exchange and increase in ambient air humidity through transpiration from
leaf surface significantly affect the indoor environment and provide required comfort
for an ideal living. The research undertaken by NASA claim that photosynthetic parts
of plant and their associated microorganisms had potential to neutralize harmful gases,
bacteria, viruses and organic chemicals that are assimilated for forming new tissues
during plant growth and development. For past five decades, the selection of plants,
their associated physiological processes and underlying mechanisms to remediate
indoor air pollutants has been progressed from conventional approaches to state
of the art analysis in testing the photosynthetic efficacy of plants inside fully
environment regulated closed chambers.
Indoor plants: Origin and History
Indoor plants, suitable be called as ‘foliage plants’ due to significant worth of trade
associated with around 500 species of foliage plants, with different colours, textures
and forms available and traded worldwide. These foliage plants are grown in containers
under shade, and are used primarily as living specimens for interior decoration or
interior-scaping (Chen et al. 2002). Majority of the indoor plants or more precisely
‘Foliage plants’ have been a native of tropical and subtropical countries.
Many foliage plants are adapted to climate within these regions, mainly characterized
by temperature range of 12-38oC due to variation in elevation, varying intensity of
light and uniform distribution of rainfall.The foliage plants that are native to tropics
have characteristic adaptations for their tolerance of low light, sensitivity to below
zero temperatures, photoperiod insensitivity and lack of dormancy.
Foliage plants originating from subtropics are more adaptable to heat, drought, and
chilling temperatures and may also exhibit dormancy during winters. Plants adapted
to xerophytic environment, such as succulents and cacti have unique adaptive features
such as thick succulent foliage capable of storing large amount of water, varied shapes
to escape heat and drought stresses (Arora, 2017). Few of the foliage plants are native
to the cold temperate regions such as English ivy (Hedera helix) is probably the most
notable foliage plant of temperate region widely used as either potted or hanging-
basket foliage plants.
The use of plants for keeping indoors began 3,500 years ago during rein of Sumerians
and ancient Egyptians (Randhawa and Mukhopadhyay, 2004). The ancient Chinese
people were also very fond of exotic plants for decorating their interiors. Europeans
also imported plants from Asia and the East Indies during Crusades. The aristocratic
families of France and England during sixteenth century also had developed a desire
for exotic plants. It is estimated that nearly 5,000 species of exotic foliage plants had
Indoor Plants 127
been brought into Europe. Foliage plants gained popularity in the second half of 19th
century in (Europe Pal, 2006). The grand palaces and guest rooms of Victorian houses
had exotic collections of foliage plants, especially palms and ferns. Apopka,a place in
Florida is known as the foliage capital of the world, with the production and trading of
exotic and indigenous foliage plants since 1960s.
Temperature
Temperature is important factor that can affect the growth and development of
potted indoor plants, especially those that are of tropical origin that cannot tolerate
freezing temperatures. The ideal temperature range for most indoor plants is a daytime
temperature of 18ºC to 24ºC and a nighttime temperature about 10 degrees cooler than
the day. Cooler nights are important because it enables plants to recover from daylong
stress and build new tissues. Generally, plants are grow in very well areas having
temperature 15-30 ºC. Plants that are grown under consistently high temperatures
suffer from leaf scorching subjected to photo-oxidation of pigments thereby fail to
photosynthesize and decline. Soil temperature should 18-210C soil.
Propagation of Indoor Plants
Propagation is the practice of reproducing or multiplying the plants either through
seeds or vegetative plant parts or through a more specialized method of biotechnology
involving culturing of explants through tissue culture (David et al., 2012). Most of the
indoor plants can be easily propagated and the methods involved are easily accessible
to nurseryman or amateurs. Most of the indoor pot plants are propagated vegetatively
that include all asexual means such as cuttings, layering, division, air layering, offsets
etc. the methods for propagating different indoor plants have been summarized in
tabulated form (Table 1).
There are different vegetative methods of propagation are broadly classified as follows:
Seeds: Propagating indoor plants through sexual means (seeds) is done to evolve
variation for novel colour, either in flower or foliage. The indoor plants such as
cactus and African violets can be raised from seed. However, the plants grown from
seeds have long juvenility and may take longer time to reach maturity. The seeds
should be collected from mature and ripened pods. The factors that determine the
germination of seeds are age of seed that in turn affects its viability, seed germination
media, moisture, temperature and oxygen. Seeds should be provided with the proper
moisture and temperature conditions for germination. Germinating media useful for
seeds include sand, sphagnum moss, peat moss, vermiculite, perlite, and a mixture
of these media. The easiest method is to purchase commercial soil mixtures that are
specifically for germinating seed. The foliage plants that are raised through seeds are
Araucaria, Podocarpus, palms, Brassaia and Coffea.
Cuttings: Cuttings are severed parts of a mother or parent plant that produce roots and/
or shoots when these are placed in a suitable rooting media to form a baby or a new
and independent daughter plant. Vegetative plant parts such as stems (apical or middle
portion), leaves, leaf-buds, or roots may be used. Certain consideration should be
kept in mind while taking cuttings from the stock plants. The mother plants should be
healthy free from disease and pests and be at their active stage of growth except when
these have shed leaves and the plant is dormant. The basal cut should given round with
a sharp knife. The basal portion is given a dip treatment with arooting hormone for
encouraging rooting on difficult-to-root cuttings. It is advisable to keep some leaves
over the cuttings for better translocation of rooting hormones, carbohydrates for better
development of callus and for initiation of roots.
Care of Cuttings: As cuttings method of propagation is most commonly followed. Care
should be taken to never allow the cuttings to dry during the rooting, or establishment
phase. Although, majority of succulents and cacti have stored large amounts of water
within their fleshy tissues, these should be kept relatively dry compared to cuttings
from other foliage plant species. There should be adequate humidity in and around the
container, holding the cuttings that may help reduce the risk of drying out.
Several methods of propagating foliage plants by cuttings, cuttings can be rooted in
water, sand, perlite, or vermiculite. Some plants are easy to root in water (Drascaena,
Scindapsusaureus, Hedera helix, Tradescantia), but perlite or vermiculite can also
be used as an amendment mix for providing aeration to the developing cuttings. The
basal portion of cuttings should be pushed about 1 inch deep in the medium that is
kept moist but not soggy. The propagation though cuttings preferably be done with
the onset of monsoons when the summer heat temperature drops with rise in humidity.
Types of Cuttings
1. Tip and Stem Cuttings: Tip cuttings (taken from the tip or actively growing
regions of plants) are used to propagate common house plants such as the Velvet
plant, Aglaonema, Diffenbachia and jade plant. Tip cuttings generally are 3 to
5 inches long and are removed from the parent plant at a point just below a
leaf bud. Swedish ivy, pilea, and fittonia can be propagated by stem cuttings
(cuttings made from sections of stems with leaves attached). The cuttings
should have three or four leaves for best rooting.
2. Cane Cuttings: Cane cuttings are used for propagating dumbcane, Chinese
evergreen, and similar plants that produce cane-like or leafless stems. The canes
are generally short stems containing buds are cut into small pieces 2 to 3 inches
long and placed horizontally, slightly below the surface of the rooting medium.
A bud will sprout and form a new stem.
3. Whole Leaf Cuttings: This method is used for mass propagation of foliage
plants such as Begonia rex, Peperomia, Sansevieria, African violets and
Bryophyllum with limited availability of stock plants. Whole leaf cuttings are
prepared from leaves with or without their petioles. Sometimes, the leaves are
cut into pieces and basal excised portions are inserted in rooting media. Roots
and leaves eventually will form at the crease of the leaf.
4. Leaf Bud Cuttings: Foliage plants with vine-like growth habit are mass
propagated through this method. Leaf bud cuttings consist of removing a
single leaf attached to a piece of stem (1- to 1½-inch). The shoot and branches
eventually arise with the sprouting of dormant buds, located near the leaf
petiole. The leaf bud cutting should be inserted in the rooting medium with the
Indoor Plants 129
excised portion containing bud below (about one-half inch) the surface. English
ivy, succulents or cactus are generally propagated by this method. The rooting
media should be allowed to dry between subsequent watering depending on
species and size of leaf buds. The dryperiod will aid in formation of callus at
cut edges,thatwill prevent excessive wetting of cut portion.
Division: Division of foliage plants from their crown portion containing roots,is the
quickest way to multiply plants. A major advantage of division is the appreciable size
of daughter plants. Plants can be divided at any time, however, it is generally advisable
to divide mature stock plants during monsoons or at dormant period, before spring
flush. Foliage plants such as Sansevieria, Calathea, chlorophytum, Spathyllium are
multiplies through division
Runners: Certain foliage plants grow with prostrate creeping shoots such as found on
strawberry geraniums, can be multiplied by excising the leafy clusters. The cut ends are
placed in rooting media for growth of small rootlets that are already present. Foliage
plants such as Chlorophytum, Saxifraga can be multiplied through this method.
Air Layering: Multiplying plants by air layering is useful in ‘pruning’ or containing
the growth of certain plants which become “leggy,” due to maturity or over-growth
such as Ficus elastica (the rubber plant). Although this method is highly laborious
the advantage of getting adequate plant size with developed root system makes
this method a popular among nurserymen. Other foliage plants such as Dracaena
Monstera, F. benjamina, crotons etc. can be propagated through air layering. Care
should be taken to wrap up the excised portion of stem properly ensuring packing with
moist sphagnum moss. This is practiced during rainy season and the roots generally
appear pink taking almost 3 months to transplanting after cutting from mother plant.
Micro-propagation: This is method is increasingly becoming popular to mass
multiply exotic foliage plants that otherwise fail to survive into new environment or
multiply through conventional ways. Explants comprising meristems, shoot tips, leaf
tips, small root segments, excised embryo are taken from healthy disease free stock
plants and are cultured under aseptic conditions in petri-plates containing MS media.
Foliage plants such as exotic varieties of syngonium, philodendron, spathiphyllum
fittonia, peperomia etc have been mass multiplied through tissue culture and traded
worldwide.
Acclimatization
Acclimatization is defined as a process of making the plant adaptable to its new
environment. It is essential to increase the chances of survival of plants that have
been introduced into the new environment. Usually, it’s not uncommon to see a plant
declining after it has been moved indoors from the garden center. This generally happen
as a natural response of plant for adjusting in new environment. The drastic change
in environment factors such as light intensity, humidity, and other factors usually
result in decline of plant with typical symptoms of yellowing of foliage followed by
shedding and drop from the plant. Most of the plants need time and will gradually
adapt to the new environment. Therefore, to reduce the shock of entering into different
environment, care should be taken to furnish the ideal growing conditions that are
conducive for the plants to sustain themselves.
However, some ornamental nursery retailers and growers acclimatize their plants before
they are brought to the display or sales area. It would be favourable if nurserymen had
such provision for acclimatization. It is a wise step to ask for the plants that have been
acclimatized to ensure their chances of survival in indoor environments. Plants that
have already been acclimated to typical interior conditions usually do perform and
grow better when these are placed in home or at office.
Rule of thumb is never to place the indoor plants suddenly outdoors that may cause
leaf scorching due to excessive light intensities. Always ensure the gradual exposure
of plants to outside environment. Indoor foliage plants must be placed outside for a
few hours each day for several weeks preferably in the morning sunlight. Again the
exposure of plant can vary depending upon their sensitivity.
Selection of containers
The container selection is an important decision on the part of customer taking into
consideration the placement of container i.e. site (outdoor/indoors), container material,
size (volume) and cost. Now a days, wide variety of containers are available in market
with different colours and sizes (3” to 36”), shapes (round to squarish), material (clay,
plastic, ceramic, fiber) and cost (Rs. 10-2500 per piece) depending upon the material
and the size.
The container must fits for the size of the plant that should be consistent with the
container circumference and height. The container should have optimum volume that
can hold required quantity of potting mix to anchor the plant firmly besides providing
and holding required moisture and nutrients for plant growth. A general rule for
choosing a proper container is that the diameter of the container should be about one-
third the height of the plant (at maturity) from the top of the foliage.
The most widely used indoor plant containers are made of clay and plastic. Clay pots
are porous and allow moisture to evaporate through the sides of the container. This
causes the soil to dry out faster, so more frequent watering is required. However,
homeowners overwatering plants raised in clay pots will likely escape rotting due to
adequate gaseous exchange through the small micro-pores and drainage hole. Whereas
pots made from plastic, glass, metal, wood, or ceramic retain their moisture longer
than clay pots that may likely cause rotting of plants if overwatered. Although, pots
apart from clay look clean, fancy and more decorative but it is important to ensure
good drainage and avoid overwatering in such pots.
Generally, the container adds to the aesthetic display of foliage plant, but the
management practices, essentially watering (over or under watering) is most potential
cause of decline of foliage plants within the limited pot volume of containers. The
containers must possess drainage holes at the bottom for drainage of excess water,
provided the potting media possess requisite pore space to facilitate downward
movement of excess water. Clay pots (terracotta pots) are porous and require more
water than nonporous glazed or plastic pots. The size of the container can be selected
depending upon the type of plant to be grown. Plants in large containers (more volume)
would generally require less frequent watering than smaller pots (less volume) made
of similar material that would require more frequent watering.
Indoor Plants 131
Growing media: Selection of a good potting mix is a critical factor for successful
growth and development of foliage plants. The foremostability of growing media
to anchor a plant will determine the aesthetic display of plant as a specimen. Other
factors such as providing the plants with essential nutrients, moisture, and gaseous
exchange are also essential that in turn depends upon the ingredients of making a
potting mix. The individual physical and chemical properties of respective growing
media likely influence the resultant property of media mixture. Therefore, the
selection of ingredients for formulating a potting mix is also important cultural
practice to safeguard the rhizosphere environment against moisture stress besides
other considerations discussed above. The media which contain 2 part garden soil:
1part sand: 2 part leafmould :1 part farmyard manure is very useful for pots. There are
many different agri-wastes (composted FYM, sugarcane bagasse ash, rice husk – burnt
and un-burnt, paddy straw compost, composted green waste, spent compost, biochar,
biogass slurry, press mud etc.) that can potentially be utilized as a potting media
after though processing of these media amendments (for uniformity and stability)
before utilizing as an ingredients for formulating a potting mix (Bhattacharjee, 2006).
However, an ideal potting mix should possess following characteristics:
• Locally available growing media components
• Fertile containing most of the macro and micro-nutrients
• Well drained and light in weight (Bulk density below 0.75 g cm-3)
• Adequate water-holding capacity (20-60% by volume)
• Adequate porosity (5-30% after effective drainage)
• Adequate C:N ratio (<20:1)
• Good Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) 2-5 meq/100g
• Desirable pH (5.5-6.5)
Foliage plants and growing environment
Growing indoor plants in pots and suitable planters is not difficult if they are raised in
proper well drained organic matter-based growing medium with adequate aeration and
water holding capacity. Besides, other environmental factors such as light, temperature,
general care and managementrespective of each plant are met. The most important
factors affecting the growth and development of potted plant are light, temperature,
water, humidity, soil, fertilization and other need-based cultural practices that have
been discussed below:
Light: Light is regarded as the single most important factor in successful indoor
gardening. Plants use light as energy to synthesize their food that is translocated
to different parts. The green pigment’chlorophyll’ in plant leaves utilized light to
combine carbon dioxide, water, and nutrients to make food for growth through the
process called photosynthesis.
Even though all indoor plants require adequate amount of light, but the intensity of
light (Fig 1) varies with the plant species and its nature of origin, whether temperate,
sub-tropical or tropical climatic conditions.
The amount of light a plant receives is called light intensity. The light intensities of
indoor areas are generally described as being high, medium, or low and so the plants
are classified (Table 1).The light intensity is measured in foot-candles. High light
intensity represents those areas receiving 1,000 or more foot-candles of light; medium
represents 500 to 1,000 foot-candles; and low represents 50 to 500 foot-candles.
Usually, if a particular spot within a house is receiving less than 50 foot-candles, it
will not sustain plant life for very long. Plants are unable to utilize low light intensities
to carry out photosynthesis and manufacture their food.
The suitable locations within the house can well be identified for placing the indoor
plants without measuring the intensity of light. The following guidelines can help
determine the light level of various areas and provide guidance for placement of
indoor plants:
• Areas nearest windows and glass doors generally offer the best light for plant growth.
The size of the windows, transparency, and intensity of tinting also affect the amount of
available light. Obviously, more clear and larger the glass pane, more will be available
light.
• Orientation (north, south, east, or west) of a window sill or balcony also affects available
light. South,east and west facing sites offer bright light and full sun for several hours
each day round the year. In general, the south direction of a building offers bright light,
while the north facing windows offer low light.
Supplemental lighting
Roof overhangs, porches, drapes, sheers, and blinds also drastically reduce the amount
of light available to plants. Artificial light can be used to supplement or replace natural
light. Cool-white fluorescent lights alone provide effective supplemental lighting.
LED grow lights are color-optimized for plant growth. They have low heat output and
a very long lifespan. Plants grown under supplemental lighting need about 12 to 14
hours of this light per day for good growth. A timer will ensure that the lights turn on
and off at the proper time each day. It is also important that plants must be kept within
1 to 3 feet from the artificial light source to avoid leaf scorching due to heat.
Water
It has often been observed that irrigating number of different plant species at home
is often found confusing. It is well supported fact that every physiological process of
plant growth requires water that accounts for 80 to 90 percent of plant biomass. It is
not the under-watering but over watering that is often stated to be the main cause of
decline in indoor pot plants.
Factors determining water requirement
Some plants require more water than others because of their origin from different
climate. Certain modifications in their tissues and growth habits also determine the
water requirement. For example, cacti require much less water than ferns. Usually,
the brighter the light and warmer the temperature, the more water a plant will need. A
plant placed in well lighted place with adequate temperature will require more water
than the same plant placed in lower light and comparatively cooler environment.
Indoor Plants 133
The presence of moisture in the air also affect a plant’s requirement for water. The
plants release water into the atmosphere through a process called transpiration
through tiny openings (stomata) on the leaves. High humidityslow water loss through
transpiration. A relatively low humidity cause more waterloss through transpiration.
The centrally air conditioned buildings have typically 10 to 30 percent humidity that
may not be sufficient for growth and development of indoor plants especially native
to tropical origin.
Ways to raise the humidity
Under such conditions, the humidity can be raised by placing plants on a shallow tray
filled with water and pebbles. The pots placed on pebbles avoid complete submergence
and help regulate air-water balance at the base of pot. Excess water that drains out
of the container and gets collected in drainage tray. This water evaporated gradually
and help provide continuous humidity. Homes are often around 20% to 60% relative
humidity. Such a range is acceptable, although most species thrive near 80% relative
humidity.
Another very effective way to maintain a micro-climate is grouping several plants
together. This will help in increasing humidity in addition will create a picturesque
display through mass effect of these plants, especially relevant for single species.
Occasional misting the plant foliage with water can also be done to maintain a constant
moisture over the exposed leaf surface. However, misting should be done taking into
consideration the susceptibility of plants to certain foliar diseases due to presence of
high moisture.
Scheduling irrigation for potted plants
Watering, especially to potted plants is an art and science. Any rigid watering schedule
usually will not meet the requirement of plants that are grown in a limited pot volume
and being under the influence under varied environmental factors. Following a rigid
schedule will cause some plants to be overwatered while others may be left dry. It is
always advisable to water plants on an individual basis depending upon their species,
nature of growth and origin.
The time to irrigate a plant can be determined in several ways. Although there is no
foolproof method, but certain thumb rules may give an idea to water plants as follows:
• Inspect the individual plant’s foliage for signs of wilting
• Feel the soil for moisture
• Judge color: Dry soils are lighter than moist soil mixtures.
• Decide as per the prevailing climate
• Stage of growth
• Soil moisture indicator
• Drying soil will shrink away from the sides of the container
It is advisable to let the soil within a pot dry out between each successive watering.
This is essential to ensure adequate air-water balance desirable for health of the root
system and thus the growth of whole plant. It is also important to take care that the
soil might be adequately moist near the middle or lower root zone, even if the soil near
the top is dry. Certain other pants require more even presence of moisture and will not
tolerate drying. Such plants should be watered frequently and lightly to maintain the
moisture in the root zone.
Watering the plants – Art and Science
Watering potted plants is a skill that may take a test of your sense to determine the
time, frequency, amount and method to irrigate the potted plants. The most convenient
and efficient method of watering is to pour water on the soil surface and allow water
to move evenly through the limited volume of pot. Usually this method is better than
sub-irrigation, a process of watering plants by placing the pot in a shallow amount of
water in a tray and allowing the water to rise through the rooting media by capillarity.
It is always advisable to use water for irrigating indoor plants at room temperature.
Drinking tap water is usually suitable for houseplants. However, cold water should
never be used as it may cause a sudden and extreme fluctuation in soil temperature,
which may cause root injuries. Watering should be done gently taking care not to
splash the potting soil on the leaves or out of the pot. At each watering, make sure to
wet the entire depth of soil thoroughly. Excess water will drain out of the container
through the drain opening, which should always be provided of reasonable size and be
covered with suitable concave shaped crock to enable excess water to drain.
Sometimes, a growing media in a soil dries too much and will shrink away from the
sides of the container. As a result, the water applied may quickly run through the
cracks and out of the container and the volume of the pot media may never get wet.
The easiest way to wet the soil under such conditions is to submerge the container in
water. As per conveyance, submerging potted plant containers in the sink or bathtub
may also help to gradually soak the water and wet the whole medium.
Nutrition of foliage plants
It is well documented that plants need 16 essential elements to make their food for
growth. The most important elements are nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium
(K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sulfur (S), and iron (Fe). The minor elements
are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, manganese, copper, boron, zinc, molybdenum, and
chlorine.Some of these elements are required in large quantities, while others are
needed in small amounts. The amounts needed depend primarily on the plant’s growth
rate. Indoor houseplant that flower should be fertilized with fertilizers, slightly higher
in amount of P (1-3-1, for example). Those plants that are valued for their foliage
should be fertilized with fertilizers with slightly higher proportion of N (5-3-3). The
fertilizer ratio may also be balanced in proportion of nutrients (such as 19:19:19). Plants
that grow rapidly demand more nutrients than plants that grow slowly. Remember
that most indoor areas do not provide the ideal growing conditions for plant growth.
Therefore it is necessary to fertilize such plants with balanced dose of nutrients to
ensure optimum growth at all stages.
Indoor Plants 135
Growing mixtures often lack major nutrients, so these indoor plants will not grow well
unless you fertilize them. Keep in mind that it is not always necessary to continually
fertilize indoor plants. Fertilizer encourages leaves, stems, and roots to grow if all
conditions are ideal, but having a larger, lush plant is not always desirable. The fertilizer
nutrition to indoor potted plants depend upon several factors including type of plant
(foliage or flowering), climatic conditions, stage of growth etc. There are many forms
and strengths of fertilizer materials at garden centers. Some are liquids, while others
are granules or powders. All forms are suitable if used properly and need-based.
Slow-Release Fertilizers
Some manufacturers offer specially prepared fertilizer materials that are called “slow-
release formulas.” Most are granules that are designed to release nutrients gradually
and evenly over a long time depending upon the indoor temperature, and watering
practices. They offer a consistent and uniform availability of nutrients to the plant.
Fewer applications are needed with slow-release fertilizers, but these may not able to
deliver the nutrients when the plant needs them.
Fast-Release Fertilizers
Fast-release fertilizers are useful because their nutrients are immediately available to
plants and create an immediate response. Fast-release fertilizers are typically available
as liquid, soluble crystals, or granular fertilizers. These materials disperse all of their
nutrients at once. Fast-release fertilizers, however, are subject to rapid depletion from
the soil because of leaching. If fast-release fertilizers are applied too heavily, the plant
can be damaged, usually by burning.
Applying Fertilizers
A plant that is growing rapidly needs nutrients more often than a plant that is growing
slowly or resting. For plants in an active growing condition, apply a balanced dose
of fertilizers once every 2 or 3 months. During the winter months or under other
conditions of low light, less frequent applications are needed. If you move indoor
plants to the porch, patio, or balcony during the summer, these plants will begin to
grow rapidly. Under these conditions, the plants may need fertilizers once every 2 to 3
weeks. Care should be taken that before fertilizing the potted plants, the soil should be
moist to avoid burning of plant root due to evolution of heat from the applied fertilizer.
Over-fertilizationis very dangerous because the excess salts can damage plant roots.
The plants will suffer because a damaged root system is not healthy and efficient. The
typical signs of over-fertilization and excess salts are:
• Appearance of a white or yellowish, crusty spots of salt on the surface of growing media
• Roots began to rot and give offensive smell
• Yellowing foliage that soon drops off the plant
With the appearance of above symptoms, applications of fertilizer should be reduced and excess
salt build-up must be washed by thoroughly watering the plant and excess water should be
drained out below the bottom of pot.
Repotting
With the passage of time during a life cycle of a pot plant, the root system will fill all
the available soil and space in the container and become root- or pot-bound. When this
happens, the plant’s growth will be restricted unless you provide more space for root
growth by repotting the plant into a larger container. A simple examination of the root
system is the best way to determine whether or not your plant is root-bound and ready
for repotting. When under all favourable conditions the potted plants seems show
decline in vigour, irrigate the plant as usual and wait for the potting medium to reach
at field capacity. Gently hold the pot upside down and remove the earth ball by tapping
the rim of the inverted pot against the hard surface. A typical symptoms of root coiling
around the root ball indicates that the plant has become pot bound and need re-potting.
Method of Repotting
Repotting preferable be done during periods of high humidity during monsoons to
lessen the chances of transplanting shock. Select a container slightly larger than the
existing container. The new container should generally be only 1 or 2 inches larger
in top diameter of pervious container. Add a layer of soil mix and firm it with your
fingers. This layer of soil should be enough to bring the top of the root mass to within
1 inch of the container top. By allowing this 1-inch buffer near the top, you can water
the plant more easily. Gently place the plant with root-ball intact and fill around the
space between root ball and pot periphery with soil mix, and firm it with your thumbs
packing all loose soil devoid of any pore space. Then water thoroughly and allow the
potting soil to drain well.
Place the newly potted plant in indirect light until it recovers from the shock of
repotting, usually about 7 to 10 days. This shock is caused by a disrupted root system,
which affects a plant’s ability to absorb water. Be very careful not to overwater newly
repotted plants. Also, don’t fertilize the newly repotted plant until the root system has
become successfully reestablished. This usually takes about 2 to 4 weeks; after this
time, you can resume regular fertilizer practices.
Grooming
As we are domesticating the plants outside their natural environment that may likely
invite undesirable and unusual problems that can affect the optimum growth and
development of plants. The most common of the problem is dust accumulation on
their leaves. A layer of dust on a plant’s foliage can interfere with the plant’s ability to
photosynthesize and function properly; dust also makes plants unattractive.
It is best to clean plants every 2 to 3 months with a soft cloth moistened with warm
water. Be sure to wipe clean both the top and bottom surfaces of the leaves. Another
way to clean plants is to place them in the shower, sink, or outdoors and wash them
gently with fine spay of water.
Turning plants to expose all sides to available light is also important. Turning the plant
promotes the development of a uniform shape. Periodically remove the dead, diseased,
or discolored foliage. Use scissors to trim dried brown leaf tips and margins. For best
results, follow the shape of the leaf when trimming to maintain a natural appearance.
Indoor Plants 137
Diseases
Diseases of houseplants are relatively rare. Many problems attributed to diseases are
actually caused by unfavorable growing conditions, mostly resulted from overwatering.
Prevention is the best way to control indoor plant diseases. Inspect the plant carefully
before these are brought from garden centre and also periodic inspection should be
carried at home for an indication of diseases, wilting, or leaf spots or algal growth as
mentioned in Table 2.
Fungi and bacteria cause most houseplant diseases. Bacteria usually produce angular
lesions frequently surrounded by yellow halos or water-soaked areas. Fungi produce
a wide variety of symptoms including root rots, stem lesions, leaf spots, mildews, and
rusts.
Table 2: Diagnostic symptoms of common indoor plant problems
138
Possible causes / Foliage Growth Symptoms associated with foliage

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 – Brownish tips or margins
Excess light X x x 2 – curling or drooping
3 – yellowish green
Insufficient light X x x x
4 – old leaves drop
Day length x x x 5 – all leaves drop
High temperature X x x x x 6 –spots on leaves
Low temperature x x x x 7 –wilting
Lack of water x x X x x x x x
Poor drainage / oer watering x X x X x x x x x Symptoms associated with growth
Excess fertilizer x X x X x x x x
8 –Weak thin & soft
Insufficient fertilizer x X x x x
9 –new leaves small

Compact soil X x x x x 10 –none leaf develop
Container defect x x x x 11 –plant died
Low humidity x x X x X x x x
Low Light intensity plants
Scientific name Related species Common name Family origin Propagation Distinguished features
Aglaonema spp. A. commutatum, Silver Evergreen, Araceae Tropical Division of basal Leaves green to greenish grey,
A. costatum, Chinese regions shoots, terminal leathery, ovate to spear shaped
A. modestum Evergreen stem cuttings
A. roebelenii
Aspidistra elatior A. lurida, A. punctata Cast-Iron Plant Liliaceae China Division Leaves arise from the base,
oblong to lanceolate , broad and
leathery
Chamaedorea Chamaedorea seifrizii, Parlor Palm Palmae Mexico and seeds Slow growing, feather shaped
elegans C.erumpens Gautemala leaves suited for pot culture
Scindapsus S. pictus, Marble Queen Araceae Solomon Stem cuttings, Suitable for hanging baskets,
aureus S. aureus var. tricolor, Pothos Islands leaf bud cuttings totem pole planters, grows well
S. aureus var. Marble in water, require bright indirect
queen light for bright foliage
Sansevieria Sansevieria cylindrica, Snake Plant Liliaceae South Division of Succulent, erect stiff sword like
trifasciata S. stuckyi, Africa suckers and leaf leaves, variegated, do not need
S. ehrenbergii cuttings frequent watering
Raphis excelsa R. humilis, Lady palm Palmae China and suckers Susceptible to leaf scorching,
R. flabelliformis Japan good for pots and shade gardens
Indoor Plants 139
Medium Light (75 to 150 foot-candles)
140
Asparagus Asparagus Foxtail Fern Liliaceae South Africa Division of Dense needle like foliage soft to
densiflorus setaceus tuberous roots touch. Used as cut greens, possess
‘Myers’ tuberous roots
Calathea C. zebrine Peacock Plant Marantaceae Tropical Division Small plants prized for their
makoyana C. mangifica America attractive foliage
Caryota mitis C. furfuraceae Burmese Fishtail Palmae Burma , Division of Produce suckers freely, suitable as
Palm Malaya suckers and pot specimen. Greenish to purple
seed flowers develop that drop down the
plant axis resulting in plant death.
Chlorophytum C. picturatum, Spider Plant Liliaceae South Africa Division Production of flowers or plantlets
comosum C. comosum Spider Ivy of crown stimulated by short days, tolerant

‘Variegatum’ vittatum or plantlets to low temperature, sensitive to
borne on fluoride and low humidity resulting
cascading in browning of the leaf tip.
branches
Dieffenbachia D. bowmannii, D. Giant Dumbcane Araceae Tropical Stem cuttings, Suitable for warm and dry places,
amoena bausei, D. picta America air layering sensitive to cold. Water little during
and suckers inactive growth. Chewing leaves
may cause temporary speechless.
Dracaena D. fragrans Corn plant Agavaceae Guinea Cuttings/air Prefer warm and moist medium, can
deremensis lindenii, layering be grown in water. Keeping under
‘Warneckii’ D. godseffiana, low light will cause loss in yellowish
D. goldieana variegation and broadness of leaf.
D. snaderiana
Ficus Ficus benjamina Weeping Fig Moraceae India , SE Stem cuttings Shed leaves when placed in shade.
benjamina var. starlight, Asia and air Grow profusely in warm and bright
curlytop, nuda layering indirect light
Contd.
Ficus elastica Ficus elastic var. India Rubber Moraceae India , SE Air layering, Plant enjoys full sun and tolerant to
‘Decora’ Doescheri, Rubra Plant Asia leaf bud low light levels as well
cuttings
Gynura G. sarmentosa Velvet Plant / compositae Java Stem cuttings Flowers smell offensive and
aurantiaca G. bicolour purple passion removed at bud stage. Frequent
vine pinching is done to induce business.
Foliage gets subdued under poor
light
Hedera helix Hedera helix var. English Ivy Araliaceae Europe, Stem cuttings Can be grown in plain water.
Baltica, Scutifolia West Asis Pinching is done to induce
bushiness. Good for AC rooms
Howea H. belmoreana Kentia Palm Palmae Australia seed Slow growing, best for cooler and
forsteriana darker environment, too dry or wet
conditions cause leaf tip browning.
Kalanchoe K. Kalanchoe Crassulaceae Madagascar Leaves or Fleshy leaves need plenty of bright
blossfeldiana daigremintiana, stem cuttings light, porous soil and air.
K. eriophylla
Livistona L. Australia, Chinese Fan Palm Palmae East Asia Seeds, Hardy species, prefer partial shade,
chinensis L. humilis, (Taiwan, suckers moderately drought tolerant, can be
L. rotundifolia Ryukyu planted as buffer strips in parking
Islands, SE lots
China)
Indoor Plants 141
Contd.
142
Monstera M. acuminate, Cut-Leaf Araceae Mexico, Leaf bud Leaves develop perforated foliage
deliciosa M. Philodendron Central cuttings, tip with deep sinuses at maturity. Need
friedrichsthalli, America cuttings, stem hard pruning for rejuvenation when
M. leichtlinii cuttings, air lower leaves drop.
M. oblique, layering
M. pertusa
Nephrolepis N. acuminata Boston Fern polypodiaceae Tropical Division of Prefer constant moist conditions,
exatata N. cordata regions crown portion leaves are called fronds, pinnately
‘Bostoniensis’ N. davallioides compound forming an arc, green in
N. tuberose colour, forming pendulous character
with age.
Pandanus P. baptistii Screw Pine Pandanaceae Polynesia Offsets / seeds Leaves are leathery and recurving
tectorius P. nelsonii with white stripes near the margins.

P. sanderi
Peperomia P. argyreia Baby rubber plant piperaceae Tropical Stem and leaf Have distinct leaf shape and
caperata P. brevicepes America / cuttings marking. The media should be moist
P. clusiifolia Southern and not wet, leggy growth occur
P. elongate Florida during poor light
Philodendron P. andreanum Tree Philodendron Araceae Eastern Stem cuttings, Ephytic plant, exhibit excellent
bipinnatifidum P. elegans Heart leaf Mexico air layering, display under poor light, self heading
P. dubium leaf bud climber, pot plant
P. gloriosum cuttings
Pilea cadierei P. microphylla Aluminum Plant Utricaceae Vietnam Stem ot tip Shrubbery and trailing growth
P. muscusa cuttings / habit, sensitive to fluctuations in
P. macrophyll division temperature , over vigorous stems
should be pinched off.
Spathiphyllum x -- Cleveland Peace Araceae Tropical Division of Prefer warm temperature, withstand
clevelandii Lily / white America clumps and air conditioning well, can also
anthurium Tissue culture tolerate very low light levels
Syngonium S. wendlandii Syngonium, Araceae Mexico to Stem cuttings Requires periodic pinching if vine
podophyllum Nephthytis, arrow Panama with roots, growth is not desired. Aerial roots
head vine leaf bud formed at the joints.
cuttings
Tradescantia T. aibiflora Inch Plant Commelinaceae South Cuttings, Need to groom periodically as lower
fluminensis/ T. blossfeldiana America root easily in leaves fall on maturity causing
Zebrina spp. T. fuscata water straggly appearance, excellent
T. purpurea hanging basket specimen
High Light (150 to 1,000 foot-candles)

Scientific name Related species Common Family origin Propagation Distinguished features
name
Aloe barbadensis A. aculeate Aloe Vera Liliaceae Mediterranean Offsets, seeds, Sensitive to water stagnation,
A. aristata suckers bear attractive tubular flowers
A. brevifolia on long stalks
A. excels
Alternanthera A. amoena Joseph’s Coat Amranthaceae Brazil Cuttings Low growing and withstand
ficoidea A. bettzickiana trimming very well, used as
A. amabilis herbaceous plant for edging
Aphelandra A. aurantiaca Zebra Plant / Acanthaceae Brazil Stem cuttings / Maintain adequate humidity,
squarrosa A. cristata saffron spike air layering keep plants pot bound to initiate
A. roezlii flowering, showy bracts lasts
A. tetragona about six weeks
Araucaria A. bidwillii Norfolk Araucaraceae Norflok island/ Seeds, cuttings of Require repotting every 3-5
columnaris A. cookie Island Pine South Pacific upright shoot tips years to maintain good shape.
A. cunninghamii Plant tend to decline with time.
Indoor Plants 143
Contd.
144
name
Beaucarnea B. tuberculata Ponytail Palm Agavaceae Mexico seeds Requires repotting to
recurvata / elephant foot accommodate the size of
tree developing ball, suitable for
small planters and develop into
large specimen over years
Begonia rex B. bicolour Elephant Bignoneaceae Tropical and Tubers and seeds Surface rooted, flowering
B. glabra years, Beef- subtropical during Aug-Oct. tubers are
B. nitida steak areas lifted soon after the leaves dry.
B. metallica
Chrysalidocarpus C. - Palmae Bourbon Suckers or seeds Planted as a pot specimen or
lutescens medagascariensis shade garden
Hyophorbe indica
Codiaeum Var. Pokhran, Croton Euphorbiaceae Souh India, Stem cuttings , Require bright light warmth and
variegatum SB lal, Sonar Ceylon, Malaya air layering humidity for good colouration
Bangala, Mohan and bushiness, fast growing.
Kumarmangalam
Cordyline C. australia Hawaiian Ti Agavaceae India, Malaysia Cane and tip Prefer high humidity and
fruticosa C. banksii Plant, good cuttings Air moisture during active growth,
C. termanilis luck plant layering also grows in water.
C. rubra
Crassula ovata C. argentea Jade Plant Crassulaceae South Africa Stem cuttings Being succulent, watering is
C. orbiculata lead bud cuttings critical. Pants should be allowed
C.secunda to dry between subsequent
C. elegans watering in winters
Contd.
name
Euphorbia E. abyssinica Milk cactus Euphorbiaceae Tropical Africa Cuttings (dried Can be planted as protective
tirucalli E. bojeri for couple of medium sized dense hedge on
E. carinata days for stopping the outer boundary, also as a pot
E. globosa milky latex) specimen
Iresine lindenii I. acuminate Blood Leaf, Amaranthaceae South America Stem or tip Foliage colour brightens during
I. herbstii var. beef leaf, cuttings full sun. reduce watering in
brilliantissima chicken winters to avoid rotting. Used
gizzard as borders and edging
Monstera M. acuminate Split-Leaf Araceae Mexico, central Leaf bud Heavy rooted climber with large
deliciosa M. friedrichsthalii Philodendron America cuttings, air leathery leaves, perforated with
M. oblique , Swiss cheese layering, tip oblong hole at margins. Very
plant cuttings effective to cover naked stems
of large trees
Phoenix robelenii P. rupicola Miniature Palmae Canary Islands Seeds Pot specimen, valued for their
P. spinosa date palm to southern pinnate arching leaves.
P. sylvestris China and
Malaysia
Podocarpus P. longofolia Weeping Podocarpaceae china Seeds / stem Dense coniferous tree with
macrophylla P. macrophyllus Podocarpus, cuttings needle like leaves, tough plant,
P. taxifolia Japanese yew endures cold, can be maintained
in same pot over the years
Saintpaulia - African Violet Gesneriaceae Tanzania Leaf petiole Flowers are violet to blue,
ionantha cuttings/ division leaves radiate from central
of crowns crown, cold water damage leaf
surface, use bush to remove
dust over fuzzy leaves.
Indoor Plants 145
146
name
Schlumberger - Thanksgiving Cactaceae Brazil Cuttings Epiphytic cactus, stem
truncate Cactus / branches, bear no leaves, bright
Christmas flowers arise at the end of
cactus stems during Christmas. Flower
development influenced by
temp and day length
Sedum S. acre Burro’s Tail, Crassulaceae Mexico Leaves / stem Require good drainage, reduce
morganianum S. bellum Donkey tai, cuttings (require watering during resting periods,
S. adolphii Lamb tail removal of place pots where there is no
S. craigii numerous leaves) disturbance. Flowers rose pink
S. rupestre on terminal clusters.
Tradescantia T. pexata Moses-in- Commelinaceae South America Stem cuttings Allow to dry between
spathacea the-Cradle, watering to prevent rotting,
T. purpurea wandering pinch frequently for dense
T. navicularis jew, Inch bushier growth, suitable as pot
T. fuscata plant specimen and hanging baskets
Table: Commonly used palms for Landscaping and pot culture
Scientific name Related species Common name origin Propagation Distinguished features
Areaca Catechu Areca palm Seed / Very suitable plants for and hotels room
suckers
Livistona chinensis L. Australia Chinese fan SE Asia seeds Fan leaved palm, commonly grown in pots.
L. humilis palm including Slow growing. Trunk is ringed and covered with
L. rotundifolia Malaysia remains of dead leaf sheaths.
Contd.
Scientific name Related species Common name origin Propagation Distinguished features
Dypsis lutescens D. Areca palm , Madagascar The plam has a feathered leaf, forms a clump
(Chrysalidocarpus madagascariensis Golden cane of slender trunks at the base. The leaf tips are
lutescens) palm drooping.
Caryota urens C. mtis Fish tail palm India & Seeds Quick growing, feathered leaf resembling fins of
Malaysia fish. Yields sap on maturity for making toddy
Chamaedorea elegans Chamaedorea Parlor Palm Mexico and Seeds Feathered shaped leaves, slow growing, grown as
seifrizii, Gautemala a pot specimen
C.erumpens
Rhapis excelsa R. flabelliformis Ground rttan China & Japan suckers Stem remain covered with fibrous base of leaves,
R. kwaniwortsik palm good for raising in pots under partial shade
Washingtonia filifera W. robusta California palm/ southwestern Seeds Sturdy, columnar trunk and waxy, fan-shaped
desert fan palm United States (palmate) leaves. Leaves called fronds have long,
thread-like, white fibers
Phoenix roebelenii, P. sylvistris Pygmy date Southeastern Suckers Small to medium-sized, slow-growing slender
P. rupicola palm Asia trunk, leaves light feathery and arching. Suitable
P. dactylifera as pot specimen in early years
Roystonea regia R. oleracea Cuban royal Mexico, Seeds Possess barrel shaped swollen stem having ring
palm or the Central marks of old fallen leaves. Leaves are large,
Florida royal America and pinnate with long leaf sheath stalks. Suitable as a
palm, the Caribbean, specimen in garden and alongside driveway.
Chamaerops humilis C. excels European fan continental Seeds very drought-tolerant, prefer hot summers. slow-
palm Europe growing plant
Bismarckia nobilis - Bismarckia palm Madagascar Seeds tolerates fairly dry and hot climates
Butia capitata - Jelly palm Brazil Seeds Cold hardy, slow growing, leaves arch downward
towards stem, bst grown as a specimen. Tolerate
harsh environmental conditions
Wodyetia bifurcata - The foxtail palm Queensland, Seeds Beautiful long pinnate leaves like a tail of fox.
Australia. Suitable as a specimen in pots or as group
planting and patio decoration. Hardy and can
Indoor Plants 147
grow in full sun and partial shade.

Schefflera arboricola
Representation of range of light intensities in

an indoor environment
Ficus elastica Rubber plant
Monestra oblique Codiaum variegatum

(Croton)
Dieffenbachia snowtropic
Areca catechu
Indoor Plants 149
Ficus benjamina Philodendron sp
Aglaonema crispum Silvar bay

Cycas revolute
Suggested Readings
Arora, J. S. 2017. Introductory Ornamental Horticulture. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi
Bhattacharjee SK. 2006. Advances in ornamental Horticulture.Vol 5 (Amenity Horticulture,
Biotechnology and postharvest technology). Chap. Landscape gardening. P: 5-24.
Chen J, HennyR.J. and McConnellD.B. 2002. Development of New Foliage Plant Cultivars. In:
Trends in new crops and new uses. J. Janick and A. Whipkey (eds.)
David E. Lott, Extension Educator; and Dale T. Lindgren 2012. Professor Emeritus Propagating
House Plants. Division of the Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources at the
University of Nebraska–Lincolncooperating with the Counties and the United States
Department of Agriculture.
Pal A.K.. 2006. Ornamental plants with attractive foliages. In: Advances in ornamental
horticulture. Ed. Bhatiacharjee S. K. Vinayananda S and De L. C .Vol (2) p:273-343.
Randhawa GS. and Mukhopadhyay A. 2004. Floriculture in India.Allied publishers Pvt Ltd.
10
Cacti and Succulents
Sapna Panwar, Namita and Neelam Thakur
Cactaceae family comprises of perennial shrubs or trees characterized with the presence
of spines which arise from specialized axillary meristems (areoles), which in some taxa
may also bear fine barbed hairs called glochids. A large family consisting of about 124
genera and 1,427 species. It is native to North and South America and widely distributed
from Canada to Chile. Nowadays they are found growing in many countries like
Australia, South Africa, and Mediterranean countries. They are highly adaptable to drier
regions because of their characteristic leaflessness nature. Since cacti are succulent in
nature that’s the reason that all cacti are succulents but all succulents are not cacti. Cacti
conserve water by two means, first presence of cuticle which prevents water loss and
second it is CAM (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism) plant where stomata opens at night
and close during day time therefore prevents water loss.
Uses
Cacti found its main use for food, fodder and medicinal purposes. Nowadays, it is
also being used as an ornamental plant for landscaping purposes. Moreover, it forms
an important basis for landscaping of arid areas i.e. xeriscaping because of its drought
tolerant properties. Some of the species are also housed as popular indoor plants. Due
to spiny nature of cacti, it also serves as an excellent protective hedge plants.
Essential Features of Cacti
1. Presence of areoles i.e. specialized organs which correspond to nodes on other
plants. Mostly round in shape and consist of two buds, size varies from small to
large and usually provided with spines or glochids.
2. Perennial nature.
3. Dicotyledonous in nature.
4. Fruit is one celled berry.
5. Inferior ovary.
Morphology
Most of the cacti are terrestrial in nature, but some species like Epiphyllum, Rhipsalis
Schlumbergera are epiphytic in nature. All cacti except genus Pereskia are almost
leafless wherein the leaves are either absent or greatly reduced or modified to spines.
Cacti possess thick fleshy stems which performs photosynthesis due of the presence of
chlorophyll. Roots are generally thin, fibrous, and shallow in nature. Cacti varied widely
in size i.e. from small size (Lophophora, Echinocereus) to the big size (Carnegiea
gigantea). Cacti mostly bear large bisexual flowers. Inflorescence is axillary solitary
or rarely terminal cymes. Flowering time also varies like in some genera flowers open
during day time and close by evening e.g. Echinopsis, Astrophytum, Chamaecereus
Lobivia etc. while this is just opposite in Selenicereus where the flowers open after
evening and close by morning. There also exists wide diversity for flower colour
which range from white to pink, purple, yellow, crimson, dark crimson red, violet, and
combinations with spots and streaks. The fruit is a berry which comprise of numerous
seeds. Pollination is done by wind, birds, insects, or bats.
Classification
Britton and Rose divided the Cactus family into three tribes.
Tribe I. Pereskieae: It consists of only one genus Pereskia and assumed to be the
most primitive members of cacti. They give the appearance like that of any other trees,
shrubs, and vines but they are true cacti since they posses areoles. It bears large leaves
all the year round except is some cases the leaves drop down during resting season.
Flowers are stalked and mostly grow in clusters.
Tribe II. Opuntieae: The most characteristic feature of the tribe is the presence of
glochids. It bears small leaves which fall very shortly. Some genera of this tribe are:
Pereskiopsis, Pterocactus, Nopalea, Opuntia and Grusonia.
Tribe III. Cereceae: It is the largest tribe comprised of 8 subtribes. It is most
complex in nature with plant ranging from the small to tall ones. It is characterised
by the features like absence of glochids, leaves (except in the cotyledonary stage) and
sheathed or barbed spines. It comprises of more than 100 genera and possibly over
1000 species. It produces beautiful and attractive flowers which in some genera last
for only few days, some for only one night, and a few for an hour or two. Members of
the tribe can be easily distinguished by the presence of prominent ribs which is absent
in other two tribes.
Subtribe I Subtribe II Subtribe III Subtribe IV Subtribe V Subtribe VI Subtribe VII Subtribe VIII
Cereanae Hylocereanae Echinocereanae Echinocactaneae Cactanae Coryphanthanae Epiphyllanae Rhipsalidanae
Examples: Examples: Examples: Examples: Examples: Examples: Examples: Examples:
Cereus, Aporocactus, Chamaecereus, Ariocarpus, Melocactus Coryphantha, Epiphyllanthus, Erythrorhipsalis,
Cephalocereus, Hylocereus and Echinocereus, Astrophytum, and Mammillaria Epiphyllum and Pseudorhipsalis,
Cleistocactus, Selenicereus Echinopsis, Echinocactus, Discocactus and Thelocactus Zygocactus Rhipsalidopsis and
Espostoa, Lobivia and Ferocactus, Rhipsalis.
Haageocereus Rebutia Gymnocalycium,
Trichocereus, Hamatocactus,
Myrtillocactus, Lophophora,
Oreocereus, Notocactus,
Pachycereus, Parodia
Pseudoespostoa
Cacti and Succulents 153
Climate
Cacti are highly adaptable to arid regions but they can also be grown under diverse agro
climatic conditions. Extremes of high and low temperature may affect its growth and
development. High temperature produces yellowing and scorching symptoms while at
low temperature cacti exhibit chilling injuries. Mostly cacti require ample amount of
sunlight but prefers morning sun for its overall best performance. In shady conditions,
cacti exhibit lanky growth and may results in sparse flowering or no flowering. Hardy
species of cacti can be easily grown under open conditions but mostly cacti grows well
under glass or polyhouse or indoors. Good air circulation is required for obtaining
good results in terms of both vegetative and reproductive growth.
Soils
Drainage is one of the important properties of the growing medium which helps in
deciding the composition of potting mixture. Cacti grow well in potting mixture
consisting of 2 parts sandy loam soils: 1 part sharp sand: 1 well rotten farm yard
manure: 1 part leaf mould. Addition of small quantity of bonemeal is also beneficial.
Cacti also grow well in soil mix which consist of 2 parts sand and 1 part soil.
Propagation
Cacti can be propagated through sexual and asexual methods.
Seed Propagation: Cacti can be propagated from seeds but it is time consuming
method which may sometimes take more time for plant establishment for some cacti
due to their slow growth rates. Cacti propagated through seeds are Mammillaria
bombycina, Parodia leninhaussi , Ferocactus latispinus, Myrthilocactus geometrizans
and Hylocereus undatus.
Cacti seeds are very small with size ranges from 0.5 - 5 mm. Cacti exhibit enormous
diversity with respect to amount of seeds produced per fruit e.g. Ferocactus wislizenii
(1600 seeds), Gymnocalycium mihanovichii (2040 seeds) and Mammillaria spp. (300
seeds). The most important factor for seed germination is temperature and humidity.
Seeds require little water and temperature of 18-30°C for germination. Seeds can be
raised in seeds pans throughout year under greenhouse conditions. Germination rates
also vary for e.g. some cacti seeds germinate within a week or a fortnight, whereas in
some it may take several months. Some cacti seeds also exhibit dormancy which can
be easily breakdown by following physical and chemical methods. Bottom watering is
preferable for the young tender plants as they cannot withstand the overhead spraying.
Avoid early transplanting of small seedlings and allow them to grow for several weeks
in the seed pans. Care to be taken to avoid injury of roots. Watering should be done
after two days of seedling transplant.
Vegetative Propagation
Offsets: The most common method for propagation of cacti is by division. Certain
cacti species produce offsets like Echinopsis, Lobivia, Mammillaria and Rebutia. The
rooted offsets are separated from mother plant and new planting is done.
Stem cuttings: This method is suitable for those cacti species which possesses
elongated actively growing stems. Cuttings should be taken just above a node with
a sharp, clean knife and allow the cut surface to be air dried for period of several
days and then planted in pots with sand as rooting medium. Avoid deep planting of
cuttings. some researchers also suggested mixture of 50% peatmoss and 50% sand
planted at temperature approximately 22°C for induction of rooting. Rooting in cacti
will normally take more than two weeks. Examples of cacti propagated through stem
cuttings are Opuntia, Cereus, Trichocereus, Myrtillocactus, Hylocereus, Lophocereus,
Echinopsis, Mammillaria. etc.
Grafting: It is also one of important method for propagating cacti and is done for the
following cases
1. To grow those cacti which are difficult to grow well on its root system.
2. To grow those cacti which shows abnormal growth or some chlorophyll free
forms which cannot grow independently.
3. To fasten the growth in slow growing species of cacti
4. To save damaged cacti suffering from disease like root rot.
5. To raise a rare or specimen cacti in very short period.
In grafting the compatibility between scion and rootstocks is important which determine
the success of grafting. Most common rootstocks in cacti are Cereus, Trichocereus,
Harrisia, Opuntia, Cleitocactus. Mostly splice and cleft grafting is done.
Rootstock Scion
Cleistocactus baumannii Aporocactus flagelliformis, Chamaecereus silvestrii,
Mammillaria elongata, M. gracilis
Cephalocereus spp. Cleistocactus strausii, Haageocereus bicolor
Opuntia tomentosa Opuntia microdasys
Hylocereus trigonus Gymnocalycium mihanovichii, G. denudatum, Chamaecereus
silvestrii, Cereus cristata, Notocactus scopa, Mammillaria
theresae, Sulcorebutia rauschii, Eriocactus leninghausii.
Cereus peruvianus Melanocactus spp., Gymnocalycium mihanovichii cv.
‘Hibotan’, Rebutia muscula
Trichocereus spachianus Cereus spp., Lobivia spp., Espostoa spp., Melanocactus spp.
Echinocactus spp.
Planting
Cacti are planted directly either in the ground or pots. Earthen pots are more suitable
for its growth. Planting can be done throughout year by following the necessary
precautions. However, planting can be preferably done in March or April.
Watering
Avoid excess watering in cacti as they are highly sensitive to excess water. Excess
watering leads to root rotting. Winter season is slow growth period for cacti so avoid
frequent watering. However, during summers, watering should be done at regular
intervals. There is one thumb rule of watering cacti i.e. allow the soil to go nearly dry
conditions between watering.
Nutrition
Cacti are not heavy feeder of nutrients and respond well at low doses of fertilizers.
They should be fertilized during the active growth phase i.e. March to October.
Application of high doses of fertilizers results in lush green plants which make them
more susceptible to rotting. However, no fertilization is required during winters as
cacti undergo resting phase and there is occurrence of very little growth during winter
season. Application of balanced liquid fertilizer with dilution at once or twice a year
is highly recommended.
Description of Important Cacti
All cacti belong to family cactaceae. There are numerous cacti all over the world;
however, few important cacti are described hereunder.
Beavertail Cactus (Optunia basilaris): This is known as prickly pear cactus having
blue-green pads. It grows up to 50 cm height and 180 cm width. Flowers are dark
cherry pink in colour that glows and smells like watermelon. It is suitable plant for
desert areas or gardens. It blooms in late winter to early summer.
Blue Flame Cactus (Myrtillocactus geometrizans): Blue flame cactus is commonly
known as bilberry cactus, garambullo, or whortle berry. It grows up to 13 feet height
and 8 to 12 feet wide. Crested species are usually smaller. It forms thick forests and
reaches up to a height of 30 feet in its natural growing conditions. It is most valued for
its blue-green color, upright candelabra shape, and purple fruit.
Candelabra Cactus (Myrtillocactus cochal): Candelabra cacti grow about 10 feet
tall and broad. Flowers are cup shaped which open in the day time and close in the
evening. Fruits are acidic and edible. Planting of candelabra cacti on slopes offers a
natural landscape. It is widely used in xeriscaping and rock gardens along with other
succulents. It can grow under drought stress conditions.
Claret Cup Cactus (Echinocereus triglochidiatus): This is commonly known as
hedgehog, Mojave mound cactus and kingcup cactus. It grows to 3 feet high and up to
6 feet wide. Juicy fruits taste like strawberries and upon ripening turns bright orange.
Planting claret cup cactus with sage, poppies, yucca, penstemon, and native grasses
in landscaping design will have a pleasing effect. Claret cup cactus prefers a soil that
contains more gravel than traditional cactus/succulent mixes.
Golden Ball Cactus (Parodia leninghausii or Notocactus leninghausii): Golden ball
cactus is also known as lemon ball cactus or yellow tower. It grows up to 3 feet tall.
Golden ball cactus appears in bunches and is suitable for fire resistant landscaping.
Specimen planting of this cactus in containers provides pleasing effect to the viewers.
It is an excellent choice for beginning cactus gardens.
Golden Barrel Cactus (Echinocactus grusonii): It is the most popular type of cactus
grown in drought prone areas. Golden barrel cactus is easily recognizable and grows
up to 4 feet tall. Planting of several cacti in a grid provides striking landscape design
in a front or back yard. Younger plants prefer light shade for growth but once mature,
golden barrel cactus thrives well in shade areas.
Strawberry Hedgehog Cactus (Echinocereus engelmanii): This cactus is also

recognized as strawberry cactus, purple torch cactus, and saint’s cactus. It produces
free branching clusters or bundles of erect stems. It grows up to 70 cm tall. The
characteristic feature of Echinocereus is pointed ornamental spines which compactly
cover the plants. It can grow in rock and drought tolerant gardens along with other
succulents and wild flowers. It can tolerate light shade in outdoors, while in indoors, it
finds best sunniest spot.
Mexican Fence Post Cactus (Pachycereus marginatus): This cactus can grow up
to 16 feet high and has stems of 7 to 20 cm in diameter. It blooms during mid-to-
late spring. Mexican fence post cactus reacts well to frequent watering in hot climate.
During frost, the plant can be protected by keeping styro foam cups or burlap over
growing tips. This cactus is having columnar shape and upright growth due to which it
is used as a living fence. Planting of this cactus near a bright colour wall or in containers
with native flowers provides the dramatic effect.
Mammillaria polyedra: Most of the species of this cactus are native to Mexico.
Mammillaria polyedra grows up to 30 cm tall and 12 cm wide with 2.5 cm blooms.
Growth of Mammillaria polyedra starts as an individual plant and then ultimately
forms intense clusters. Unlike most cacti, mammillaria doesn’t like more than about
4 hours of direct sun each day. Bright and indirect light is best suited for its growth.
Old Man Cactus (Cephalocereus senilis): Old man cactus is also called the old man
of Mexico. It has tall, columnar or branching growth, often covered with long woolly
hairs which are the characteristic feature of old man cactus. This can be propagated
easily by seed or cuttings. It produces blooms at night in mid spring after attaining a
height of 9 feet. Old man cactus can reach up to 49 feet height. It is highly suitable for
drought tolerant gardens.
Orchid Cactus (Epiphyllum hybrids or Phyllocactus): In their native habitats, orchid
cacti grow up to the height of 225 feet. The flowers of this cactus are admired for their
stunning 10 cm blooms and are primarily grown in hanging baskets.
Peanut Cactus (Chamaecereus silvestrii): Peanut cactus is cylindrical, low-growing
cactus that grows up to 1 foot in height. It bears vase-shaped flowers and blooms in
spring. Peanut cactus prefers shallow containers and grows in xeriscapes and rock
gardens. Peanut cactus is propagated by using offsets.
Prickly Pear Cactus (Optunia indica): Prickly pear cactus is commonly known as
mission cactus, barbary fig, or tuna cactus. It has 10 cm size flowers and red or yellow
coloured decorative fruits commonly known as tunas. It can grow to 15 feet height and
6 feet wide. It is used in drought tolerant gardens along with turfgrasses
Rat Tail Cactus (Aporocactus flagelliformis): Rat tail cactus produces beautiful
tubular flowers in the spring. It can grow up to 3 to 5 feet tall. It grows as a hanging
plant and require afternoon shade. It is quite easy to keep rat tail cactus as a potted plant
in colder climates, moving it indoors for the colder months.
Silver Torch Cactus (Cleistocactus strausii): Silver torch cactus grows to be slender
columns up to 8 feet tall with 7.5 cm long, tubular blooms which protrude from columns
horizontally. Plant likes full sun and well-draining soil. Mixing of silver torch cacti
with succulents provides an attractive display.
Star Cactus (Astrophytum ornatum): Star cactus is also known as monk’s

hood. They grow up to 30-100 cm tall and 15-30 cm wide. It is the tallest member in
the genus Astrophytum. It is identifiable by its five to eight ribs which certainly twist
into spirals. Yellow brown spines and yellow flowers forms at the centre are the main
features of star cactus. Its fruits form a star pattern.
Turk’s Cap Cactus (Melocactus matanzanus): This grows up to 9 cm tall and 9 cm
in diameter. This cactus requires high maintenance and should not allow drying out. It
grows well in rockery and xeriscapes with native shrubs, perennials, and wild flowers.
Succulents
Succulent refers to those plants which possess very thick fleshy foliage or stem or
both meant for storage of water. Succulents differ from the cacti mainly for two main
features first succulents possess leaves while cacti are leafless except genus Pereskia
and second succulents do not have areoles which are present in cacti.
Uses
They can be used as pot plants in indoors for decorating rooms, balconies and verandas.
Many succulents are highly suitable for window-box gardening, bowl gardening,
trough gardening, handing baskets, rockery etc. They can be also be used as specimen
plants in gardens for e.g. Agave, Furcraea etc. Succulents like Agave and Yucca can be
used for hedge purposes while Echeveria spp. is excellent for edging purposes.
Climate
Succulents perform well under mild climate conditions and a relatively dry
atmosphere. Most succulents prefer morning sunlight. High light intensity produces
scorching symptoms in succulents and there are many species that are tolerant to shady
conditions. Most of the succulents need protection from extreme low temperatures, but
there are many frost tolerant succulents like yuccas, sempervivums, sedums, agaves.
Proper air circulation is required for its optimum growth.
Soils
Succulents require soils with good drainage. It grows very well in mixture containing
garden loam, leaf mould and sand (1 part each). Other mixture which is found suitable
for most of succulents comprises of 1 part leaf mould, 2 parts coarse sand, 1/3 part
well rotten FYM, 1/3 part garden loam, 1/3 part crushed brick and charcoal on volume
basis.
Propagation
Seeds: Seed propagation is possible for succulents but not common method of
propagation. The optimum temperature for seed germination varies from 30-35°C
with relative humidity of 90%. It is followed in kaloanchoe family. Sedums like S.
acrem, S. album, S. kamtschatticum and S. reflexum can be propagated through seeds.
Leaf Cuttings: Most succulents are usually propagated by leaf cuttings for e.g.
Kalanchoe, Sedum, Echeveria, Cotyledon etc.
Bulbils and Plantlets: Succulent propagated through bulbils and plantlets are Agave
murpheyi, Agave vilmoriniana, Agave fourcryodes, Kalanchoe spp., Aloe spp.
Offsets: Succulent propagated through offsets are Agave spp., Aloe spp., Haworthia
spp., Kalanchoe spp. Sedum spp., Graptopetalum spp. etc.
Watering: During summers, it should be sufficiently watered at frequent intervals but
during winters the succulents need less watering and should be limited to as and when
required. Similarly as for cacti same thumb rule of watering is followed i.e. allow the
soil to go nearly dry conditions between waterings.
Nutrition: Like cacti, succulents also not requires high dose of fertilizers. Fertilization
is done mainly in summers just like other houseplants and done once in a month with
a quarter-strength of water-soluble fertilizers. There is no need to fertilize during the
winter.
Description of a Few Important Succulents
Agave: Agave is commonly known as ‘Century Plant’and belongs to family
Amaryllidaceae. Leaves are thick, fleshy, sword shaped mostly with toothed margins
and appear in rosettes. It bears small flowers on a long flowering stalk which appear
after a long time gap. Propagation is done through seeds, bulbils and offsets. It is used
as specimen plant in gardens. It also forms an important component for rockeries and
fencing.
Some important species are A. americana., A. angustifolia var. woodrowii, A. filifera,
A. stricta, A. parviflora, A. sisalana, A. verschaffeltii, A. victoriae-reginae.
Aloe: It belongs to Liliaceae and it is perennial succulent flowering plants mostly
stemless in nature or sometimes have short stems. It produces the soft, thick and fleshy
leaves with their margins either entire or toothed appear in rosettes. In some species
leaves are banded or streaked with different colours. Inflorescence arises from leaf
axils which produces flowers mainly of orange, red or yellow colour. It is propagated
through seeds or suckers. Aloe variegata is widely cultivated species and are suited
for pot culture.
Bryophyllum: It belongs to family Crassulaceae. The genus appears as close
resemblance to Kalanchoe. They produce thick fleshy simple leaves on upright stems
and bear pendulous flowers of yellow, orange, red, pink or purple. It is easily propagated
by leaves or leaf cuttings. Important species are B. crenatum and B. tubiflorum.
Crassula: It comprises mostly perennial, evergreen succulent shrubs and herbs
belonging to family crassulaceae. It bears very attractive, fleshy, thick leaves with
wide variations in their texture, size and shape. It is highly valued for their graceful
foliage. It also bears tubular, star or funnel-shaped flowers in white, red or pink colours.
Propagation is done from cuttings and seeds. C. ovata is commonly known as jade
plant is most common indoor plant. Some of important species are C. arborescens,
C. argentea var. variegata, C. columnaris, C. cornuta, C. falcata, C. pyramidalis etc.
Echevaria: It is a rosette succulent which produces very fleshy leaves arranged in
spiral arrangement and belongs to family Crassulaceae. It offers wide diversity in
shape and size of ornamental leaves. In many of the species, the rosettes of leaves are
very ornamental and appear as rose bloom. Propagation is through cuttings. Echeverias
are also grown under indoors. Some species are also found suitable for carpet bedding.
Some of the important species are E. agavoides, E. crenulata, E. elegans, E.glauca,
E. pallida, E. peacockii, E. secunda etc.
Euphorbia : It belongs to family Euphorbiaceae. Euphorbia is characterized by two
features i.e. cyathia and production of milky latex exudates when injured. Most of
the species are thorny in nature and produces very small leaves which soon drop off.
Propagated is done by cuttings. Two species, E. splendens and E. bojeri produces
attractive flowers. Some of the other species are E. antiquorum, E. canariensis,
E. tirucalli, E inermis etc.
Furcraea : These are ornamental succulent plants belongs to family Amaryllidaceae
and have very close resemblance with Agave. They produce bulbils which are used
for propagation. The variegated form of the genus is more ornamental and is used as
specimen in lawns, also in rockery. The ornamental species are F. gigantea, F. selloa
etc.
Gasteria: These belong to family Lilacecae are characterized with the presence of
fleshy, thick, tongue shaped leaves spotted with white or purple colour and show some
resemblance to Aloes. It is propagated through offsets and leaf cuttings. Important species are
G. croucheri, G. trigona, G. verrucosa etc.
Haworthia: These are very attractive succulent plants with short or no stem belonging
to family lilacecae. It produces fleshy leaves in rosettes and tubercles are mostly
present on the leaf surfaces. Propagation is through offshoots, and leaf cuttings. They
are available in diverse forms ranging from dwarf to elongated forms which are as
follows.
Dwarf rosettes - H. arachnoidea, H. cuspidata, H. fasciata with H. retusa , H. turgida,
H. browniana, etc.
Columnar habits: H. coarctata, H.glauca, H. reinwardtii,H. viscosa, etc.
Kalanchoe: Kalanchoe belongs to family crassulaceae and resembles with genus
Bryophyllum. They produce thick fleshy leaves which may be either smooth or felted
and often spotted. They are easily propagated from cuttings and seeds. Some important
species are K. daigremontiana, K. tomentosa, K.eriophylla, K. marmorata etc.
Lithops: These are small and nearly stemless succulents which resemble like that of
pebbles or stones hence they are called as flowering stones this belongs to family
Liliaceae. They are available in wide diversity of colours i.e. gray, brown, rust, green
and pink and are marked with different patterns of dots, lines or patches which aids
them to mimic to their surroundings. Some of the important species are L. dorotheae,
L. aucampiae, L. optica, L. verruculosa, L. karasmontana, L. otzeniana, L. fulviceps,
etc.
Sansevieria: These are hardy plants which produce thick, stiff, leaves that arise out
from the base this belongs to family Liliacecea. Propagation is through division and
leaf cuttings. Important species are S. cylindrica, S. trifasciata, etc.
Sedum (family Crassulaceae): Mostly perennial herbaceous plants with distinctive
fleshy foliage. Leaves vary widely in their form and their arrangement on plants. It
produces star shaped flowers in clusters or sprays of varied colours viz. white, yellow,
rose. Propagation is done through cuttings and division. Some of the important species.
S. spectabile, S. hintonii, S. morganianum, S. pachyphyllum, S. stahlii etc.
Senecio (family Compositae): It is valued for its ornamental foliage available in
beautiful shapes like that of pearls (S. rowleyanus to even bananas (S. radicans).
These plants belong to family Compositae. The form varies from low growing ground
covers, loose rosettes to trailing cascade plants. It produces flowers with colour range
from off-white, orange, red, to purple. Propagated form cutting, seeds, division.
Important species are S. crassissimus, S. haworthii, S. pendulus, etc.
Common Insect Pests of Cacti and Succulents
These are relatively free from pests; however they may be attacked by insects like
mealy bugs, scales, white flies, mites, etc. and diseases such as soft or dry rot, cactus
anthracnose, charcoal rot, etc.
Insects
Mealy bugs: Mealy bugs are one of the most common insects for succulents. They
have a waxy, white and cottony appearance on the body. They move slowly in clusters
along leaf veins or spines, on the underside of leaves, and in hidden areas at joints.
Main symptom is stickiness or black mold on or near the plant. These damage plants
by sucking plant juices resulting in weak plants having wrinkled and shriveled leaves.
In case of severe infestation, mealy bugs spread and affect many parts of the plant
causing withering and ultimately die. These make the plant highly susceptible to rot
from bacteria and fungus.
Scale: These insects resemble small cottony or dome-shaped shells which are attached
to stems and leaves but can be scraped off. Like mealy bugs, scales also suck plant
juices resulting in weak plants having wrinkled and shriveled leaves.
Spider mites : Mites also damage cacti and succulents by sucking the plant juices.
These insects made webs and small brown dots, especially on younger growth by
damaging plant’s epidermis. Spider mites are very small and look like dust when the
affected area is tapped over a piece of paper.
Aphids: Aphids are species of green fly and black fly that reproduce quickly and
commonly seen on garden plants. They feed on the plant sap and produce sweet
honeydew which encourages black mould. Aphids are often found on the flowers,
flower buds, and tender new growth of succulents and cacti.
Integrated Pest Management
• Follow the good cultural practices such as proper sunlight, water and drainage for
growing cacti and succulents. Keep the pots free of dead leaves and spent flowers.
• Wash mealy bugs and spider mites off the plant with a strong stream of water.
• Remove mealy bugs and scale using cotton swabs dipped in alcohol. Or spraying
the plant with a dilute alcohol solution (1:3) may also help in controlling pests
that are not easily visible; however, it may damage the epidermis of sensitive
cacti and succulents.
• Use insecticides such as Neem or pyrethrins or imidacloprid or acephate to

control pests.
• Watering and spraying succulents will reduce mite attack
Diseases
Cactus Anthracnose (Causal organism: Colletotrichum (Gleosporium) spp.): It affects
many cacti such as Cereus, Echinocactus, Mammillaria, and particularly Opuntia.
Symptoms include spots which are small at initial stages but become enlarge in later
stages covered by the small spore producing light pink coloured pustules. Remove
and destroy diseased cladodes as soon as noticed. Copper fungicide spray may help in
controlling the disease in order to control the disease.
Charcoal Spot (Causal organism: Stevensea (Diplotheca) wrightii): It is a common
disease of opuntia. Initial symptoms include small spots on the plants. The spots are
surrounded by a circle of small raised fruiting structures. In later stages, spots become
large, but remain separated. To control the disease, remove and demolish diseased
plants.
Dry Rot (Causal organism: Phyllosticta concava and Mycosphaerella spp.): Firstly
small black circular spots will develop and thereafter, size will reach up to a diameter
of 2.5-5.0 cm. Remove and destroy diseased plants in order to control the disease.
Soft Rot (Causal organism: Erwinia carotovora): The bacterium enters tissue through
natural gaps and injuries. These bacteria reproduce very fast, spread to other healthy
parts of the plant under high humidity conditions. Diseased portion of the plant is soft,
black and deteriorate fast. Avoid wounding in plants, treat broken surfaces with copper
fungicide and do not keep plants in highly humid places.
Stem and Root Rot (Causal organism: Aspergillus alliaceus): Fungal attack or cold
or damp conditions due to over watering may lead to rotting of roots and stems. The
rotten tissues tend to turn red, brown, or black. The parts that have gone rotten are
usually soggy, slimy, and emit a bad odour. Rotting generally starts from the root
towards upper portion. It can control by cut off all the rotten parts if rotting has just
started in a small specific region. Cut the stem well above the rotten part and propagate
it to grow into a new healthy plant. Improve ventilation, do not overwater and do not
keep succulents and cacti in a cold damp condition
Physiological Disorders
Scab: It is very common on opuntia cactus. Corky areas of rust coloured appear on the
stems. Overwatering and poor ventilation cause the scab in plants. Increasing light and
decreasing humidity may control this disorder.
Etiolation: Its symptoms include pale, sickly, excessive growth due to insufficient
light, incorrect feeding, or overcrowding. Plants can be prevented by growing them in
sunlight for at least half a day.
Sunburn: It happens in cacti when plants are suddenly exposed to strong light.
Generally it occurs when plants are kept outdoors in spring after being in the house
in low light all the winter. Plants can be protected from sunburn by introducing them
gradually to higher light levels.
Overwatering Damage: This is the main cause of death for any cacti. Irrigating cacti
plants with too much water makes them weakened and susceptible to fungus attack,
collapse and turn into a watery mess. Irrigating cacti with more water after a long dry
period cause splitting of the skin. It can be reduced by allowing cacti to dry thoroughly
between two watering intervals. After a period of rest, enhance watering amount and
frequency gradually.
Bud Drop: It occurs mostly in the epiphytic cacti due to lack of water, dry air or too
high feeding of nitrogen. It may be caused by spraying very cold water which causes
cold shock. After moving from one place to other place, well formed buds should
face the sun in same position as in their previous position. Otherwise, buds twist
themselves off and try to follow the light. Buds on desert cacti such as Echinopsis,
Rebutia, Lobivia, Opuntia, etc. drops if watered too much in early spring. To prevent
bud drop, water regularly and avoid moving plants during flowering period.
Cold Damage: During frost, cacti and succulents first appear glazed or semi-
translucent, then afterwards collapse into a mush. Epiphytic cacti develop orange
spots. Tender succulents such as Sansevieria like high temperature i.e. above 7 °C.
Cacti such as Echinopsis, Rebutia, Lobivia, Trichocereus, Opuntia, few Echinocereus
grow well below freezing if kept dry. Cutting back the damaged tissue of cacti can
prevent from this damage.
11
Bonsai
Reeta Bhatia, Saurabh Singh and Shyam Sundar Dey
Bonsai is an astonishing art-form, combining horticultural approaches and Asian

aesthetics in a distinct way, which reflects the nature’s beauty (Pietraszko and Sobota
2008). The art of bonsai is considered to be originated in Chinese empire (Doyle et
al., 2019) and was later adapted by the Japanese, where it has become the integral
part of their culture (Ching 1990, Roth 2014). The word ‘Bonsai’ is derived from two
Japanese words ‘Bon’ (Shallow pan) and ‘Sai’(plant) which literally means “planted in
a container”. The Chinese started creating miniature landscapes in the form of Bonsai
during Han Dynasty over 2000 years ago. During the Kamakura period (700 years
ago) the Japanese adopted the bonsai art-form and subsequently a different Japanese
style form came into existence. This art of bonsai was further redeveloped under the
influence of Japanese Zen Buddhism (Doyle et al. 2019).
A bonsai is a nature’s replication of plant in its miniature form, without depicting
the human interference too clearly. Thus, they are normal trees and shrubs which are
dwarfed by a specific system of pruning-training-wiring. Techniques such as pinching
buds, pruning and wiring branches, and carefully restricting but not abandoning
fertilizers are used to limit and redirect healthy growth in bonsai. They are different
from the pot plants which are mainly grown for either their foliage or floral beauty, but
in case of bonsai the whole artistic look of the plant in its miniature form is maintained
for years. Bonsai can be grown both outdoors and indoors, especially they are ideal
for display in living rooms, verandas, terraces and window-sills etc. The good bonsai
specimens are usually hardy species that can be kept outdoors the year round wherever
winters are mild. They can be brought into the house occasionally for appreciation and
enjoyment. In Japan, they are customarily displayed in a recess area or on small tables
in a living room and later returned to their outdoor bonsai stands.
The bonsai has become tremendously popular among the common people and the
demand for naturally-dwarfed wild trees is increasing. The modern day bonsai reflects
changing tastes and the diversity of culture from different countries. While Japanese
bonsai artists still prefer to use traditional native species such pines, azaleas, and maples,
bonsai growers in other countries are more open to innovation and novelty. The oldest
known collection of living bonsai trees can be found in Happo-en in Tokyo, Japan,
where about 40-800 years old Bonsai are maintained. The important characteristics of
Japanese bonsai are: miniaturization (keeping the tree small enough to be container
grown), gravitas (sense of physical weight), leaf reduction (varies across the life cycle
of a bonsai), lignification (Woodiness of a bonsai trunk), nebari (visible spread of roots

above the growing medium), ramification (splitting of branches and twigs into smaller
ones), deadwood and curvature (curvature of the trunk that occurs between the roots
and the lowest branch is known as tachiagari.) (New World Encyclopedia).
Classification of Bonsai
The basic principle of the art of bonsai is to imitating nature by shaping the plants
grown in trays to give the impression of those found in the countryside or forest. There
are different approaches to classify bonsai like its size, style, displaying area and can
be more. When shaping a bonsai tree, the first step is to decide which style is best
suited to the tree’s natural design. While there are complex arrays of shapes and styles
in which bonsai can be trained (Koreshoff 1984; New World Encyclopedia; Pietraszko
and Sobota 2008).
Formal Upright (Chokkan)
This style of bonsai has a straight and upright trunk from base to apex. The trunk is
is generally thick at base and thinner at the ends. The tapering of the upright-growing
trunk must be clearly visible and hence the branching is allowed to begin at about
1/4 of the total length of the trunk. The chokkan style is frequently found in nature
especially when the tree is exposed to ample of light and does not face any competition
from adjacent growing trees. The formal upright style is best suited to the conifers and
look great in oval or rectangular containers. Fruiting or naturally informal trees are not
suitable for this style. Larches, Junipers (Juniperus chinensis), Pines (P. sylvestris, P.
excelsa) and Spruces can be easily trained in this style.
Informal Upright (Moyogi)
The tree trained in this style has a curved trunk representing‘S’ shape of the English
letter. The tree trunk is thicker at base and tapering at end and at every turn branching
occurs. The informal upright style looks best in an oval or rectangular container.
Around 70 percent of the bonsai are trained in this style. The Japanese Maple (Acer
palmatum), Trident Maple (Acer buergerianum), Beech, conifers and other ornamental
trees such as the Crab Apple, Cotoneaster and Pomegranate are trained in this style.
Formal upright (Chokkan) Informal upright ( Moyogi)

Source: https://botakbonsai.com/bonsai-tree-styles/
Bonsai 167
Slanting (Shakan)
In this style, the plants grow upright but allowed to bend in one direction. This style
signifies the nature where the tree will lean in one particular direction due to the
blowing of the wind in one prominent direction or when a tree grows in the shadow. In
this style, the plant is allowed to grow at an angle of about 60 - 80 degrees relative to the
ground. The roots are well developed on one side to keep the tree standing. Generally,
on the side toward which the tree is leaning, the roots are not well developed. The
branches are uniformly arranged, and are positioned on opposite sides of the trunk.
The first branch grows opposite the direction of the tree, in order to create a sense of
visual balance. This style looks best when planted in the center of a round or square
container. The trunk can be slightly bent or completely straight, but still be thicker at
the bottom than at the top.
Cascade (Kengai)
This style has a trunk which bends down and tip of cascade branch usually grows
below the feet of the container. The trunk grows straight for a while and then bends
below till the feet of container. The crown of the tree usually grows above the rim of
pot and the subsequent branches grow alternatively to maintain the balance. This style
is the representation of the trees growing on a steep cliff that has bend downward as a
result of snow or falling rocks. For cascade style tall and deep pots are used. Juniper
and Cotoneaster because of their natural tendencies to grow close to the ground are
best suited for this style. Besides, Japanese Black and White Pines, Mountain Pine,
Scotch Pine and Ficus species can also be trained as cascades.
Slanting – Shakan Cascade–Kengai

Source: https://botakbonsai.com/bonsai-tree-styles/ Source: https://bonsaiempire.tumblr.com
Semi–Cascade (Han-kengai)
The semi-cascade bonsai are easily distinguishable from cascade style as the tree does
not extend below the base of the pot. Unlike cascade style, the crown of the tree
is usually above the rim of pot and they never grow below the bottom of pot and.
The trunk grows upright for a small distance and then bends downwards/sideward. In
nature, the semi-cascade style is frequently seen on cliffs and on the banks of rivers
and lakes. Most semi-cascade pots are slightly deeper than their length and width.
The best shapes are round, square and hexagonal. Plants that are well adapted to the
cascade and semi-cascade styles are prostrate Junipers, and few flowering plants such
as Wisteria, Willows, and Star Jasmine. Japanese White Pine, Cotoneaster, Japanese
Zelkova, Black Pine, Ponderosa Pine, Crab Apple, Spruce, Beech and Ficus can also
be trained in semi cascade style.
Broom Style (Hokidachi)
They have straight and upright trunk which is not allowed to continue its growth till
the top. It branches out at about 1/3rd of the height in all directions. In this style, the
trunk is usually kept short and branches are trained in such a fashion that it will look
like an upside-down broom. All the branches are trained diagonally in a fan-shape
manner with no horizontal or criss crossing branches. The branches and leaves form a
ball-shaped crown which gives it striking look even during winter months. This style
is best suited for deciduous trees with extensive, fine branching. The Brush Cherry,
Siberian Elm, Chinese Elm, Beech, Olive, Pomegranate and Crab Apple are trained
in this style.
Broom – Hokidachi Semi-Cascade – Han-Kengai

Source: https://botakbonsai.com/bonsai-tree-styles/
Windswept Style (Fukinagashi)

As the name suggests, this style represents the trees growing in nature that are affected
by the constant blowing of wind in one particular direction. Unlike slanting style,
its trunk along with the branches bent to one side. In this style, the branches grow
out on all sides of the trunk but eventually bent to one side. While selecting trees for
windswept style, care must be taken to select the evergreen trees. Trees like Chinese
Juniper, Japanese White Pine, Mountain Pine, Scotch Pine, Red Pine and Japanese
Plum are suitable for this style.
Bonsai 169
Double Trunk Style (Sokan)

This style has two trunks growing out of one root system. The trunks may split
immediately above the roots, or may rise as one from the soil and then split after
a few inches. In this style, one trunk is generally taller and thicker than the other,
however both the trunks contribute to the artistic look of the tree. The two trunks
vary in their thickness and length, the thicker and more developed trunk grows nearly
upright, while the smaller trunk will grow out a bit slanted. Both trunks contribute to
form a single crown of leaves/canopy. Though the double trunk style is quite common
in nature, but is not actually that common in the art of bonsai. The Japanese Maples,
Japanese White Pine, Pomegranate, Crab Apple, Juniper, Black Pine, Beech, Spruce
and Olive are ideal for this style of bonsai.
Windswept style (Fukinagashi) Double trunk style (Sokan)

Source : https://www.homestratosphere.com/pictures-bonsai-trees/
Multi Trunk Style (Kabudachi)

A multi-trunk or clump-form bonsai is same as double trunk style but has three or
more odd-numbered trunks. All the trunks form one crown and are supported by a
single root system. Out of all the trunks, the thickest and tallest trunk form the top,
the others should be lower and thinner which give triangular or dome shape to the
bonsai. Evergreen plants like Cedrus atlantica (Acer cedar), Beech, Japanese White
Pine, Juniper, Black Pine and Ficus species are ideal for this style.
Forest Style (Yose-ue)
It is one of the most popular styles of bonsai.The forest style looks similar to multi
trunk style but the only difference is that it is comprised of several trees rather than
one tree with multiple trunks. While developing the forest style, the most developed
trees are planted in the center and the smaller ones are planted on the sides. Large and
shallow pots are used in this style. In order to provide the realistic forest appearance,
planting is done in staggered pattern rather than following the straight line planting.
Most of the deciduous and temperate climate plants like Acer buergerianum (Trident
maple), Acer palmatum and Japanese Beech are suitable for the forest style.
Multi-Trunk – Kabudachi Forest Style (Yose-ue)

Source: https://www.bonsaitreegardener.net/bonsai-trees/styles
Growing on a Rock Style (Seki-joju)

Developing a root-over-rock bonsai is a simple but time consuming technique.
This style replicates the trees growing on the rocky terrain. The roots of these trees
often penetrate in to cracks and holes for search of the nutrients. Such roots remain
unprotected and are exposed to sun till they reach the ground, hence a special bark
grows around them. In this style the root of Bonsai grows over rock and survives with
the help of soil kept below the rock. The roots of these bonsai must be grown in such
a way that they grip the rock or stone securely for both the stability of the tree and the
integrity of the piece. The tip of the roots penetrates in the rock and the rest part form
a cage like structure around rock. Juniper, Buxifolium, Azalea and Ficus are trained
in this style.
Growing in a Rock Style (Ishisuki)
In this style, the roots of the tree grow in the cracks and holes of the rock. Hence, there
is limited space for the roots to develop and absorb nutrients. Such trees will never
look healthy and appear as if they have struggled to survive. For developing this style
of bonsai, the rocks are often placed in a shallow pot, which is sometimes filled with
water or fine gravel. The plants trained in this style require frequent fertilization and
watering.
Bonsai 171
Growing in a rock style (Ishisuki) Growing on a Rock Style (Seki-joju)

https://www.homestratosphere.com/pictures-bonsai-trees/
Raft Style (Ikadabuki)

In the raft style, the trunk grows straight along the ground and represent a tree in nature
that has been blown over by the wind. In this style, the main trunk falls and is survived
by the branches. Sometimes when the main trunk dies, the old root system provides the
branches with nutrients to survive. Eventually, new roots develop from the fallen trunk
and the branches begin to grow vertically. The old branches subsequently develop
as main trunks. These newly developed trunks contribute to one single canopy. The
Japanese White Pine is trained in this style.
Shari Style ( Sharimiki)
In some tree, with maturity and due to harsh weather conditions the trunk develop
bald or bark less areas. These bald area usually begins at the place where the roots
emerge from the ground, and grows increasingly thinner as it progress upwards on the
trunk. The intense sunlight bleach these parts and imparts a characteristic feature to
the tree. In bonsai, the trunks are shaved with knife and the bald area is bleached with
calcium sulfate to speed up the bleaching process. The California Juniper (Juniperus
californica) can be trained in this style.
Raft – Ikadabuki Mame style

Source: https://www.bonsaiempire.com
Mame Style
These are very small Bonsai of less than 6 or 7 inches height but with complete
character of a grown up tree. The main advantage of this style is that they are often
ready for display in a shorter time than the larger forms. For developing mame bonsai,
simpler styles are preferred, as due to their small size it is not possible to train them
into the more complicated shapes such as Winding or Clasped to the stone. The
Upright, Oblique and Cascading styles all make attractive mame bonsai, and a group
planting can be most effective. Juniper, Acer, Pinus and Picea species, Cryptomeria
japonica, Chaenomeles speciosa. Pyracantha angustifolia and Prunus incisa are
frequently trained as mame bonsai.
Selection of Plants Species for Bonsai
Selecting a right plant species for bonsai making and giving them constant care is
critical factor for any style of bonsai cultivation. A vast knowledge and experience
is must for choosing right species for right style. Commonly the plants having small
size leaves, flowers and fruits in which the foliage is reduced to 1/4th automatically
are preferred. Plant species having vigorous growth habit and bearing flowers on
leafless branches are suitable for bonsai making. The hardy plant species capable to
rigorous growth even in a shallow container are ideal. The species which are able to
withstand the training, pruning, wiring operations and reflect live replica of normal
plants are good for bonsai art. All the target species should have a prominent natural
trunk and exhibiting seasonal variations in terms of growth pattern and flowering habit
are preferred. Plants must be able to grow under stress conditions and must have the
ability to flower and fruit in small size containers.
Some of the examples of trees or shrubs ideal for bonsai art are as Junipers (Juniperus
chinensis, J. prostrate), pines (P. sylvestris, Pinus excelsa.), Japanese maple (Acer
palmate), Ficus religiosa (Peepal Tree), Ficus retusa, Ficus benjamina, Ficus benghalensis,
Boxwood (Buxus sempervirens), Ulmus parvifolia, (The Chinese elm), Common beech
(Fagus sylvatica), Casurina equisetifolia, Jade plant (Crassula), Bougainvillea, Adenium
obesum, Azaleas, Cotoneaster horizantalis, Schefflera arboricola (Dwarf schefflera),
Fortunellla japonica, Jatropha podarica, Murraya exotica.
Propagation
Different methods are followed for propagation of bonsai like through seeds, cuttings,
layering, grafting, and buying from nursery and collection from forest, wild or fields.
The natural collection of a bonsai in desirable shape is difficult to get as compared
to establishing a bonsai from seeds, cuttings, layering. For collecting the plants from
wild, high altitude areas are preferred where poor light or poor soil renders stunted
plant growth. While, lifting from wild the care should be given not to damage the
roots or rootlets. For the seed propagation high quality viable seeds are desirable for
growing a good bonsai. The seeds can be collected from wild, but they are having high
risk of infection. Hence it is desirable to buy the seed material from a commercial
store. The hard shelled seeds need scarification and stratification for softening the
seeds to enhance their germination. Since the plants raised from seeds will take more
Bonsai 173
time to be trained as bonsai. Hence, vegetative propagation through cutting, layering

and grafting are preferred for starting a new Bonsai.
Selection of Containers for Bonsai
The selection of the right pot for bonsai is very crucial. Generally shallow containers
made up of ceramic or clay are preferred for planting of bonsai. Now a day’s cement,
plastic and wood containers are also gaining popularity. The bonsai pot must be large
enough to stretch the roots of bonsai a little. The glazed pot of soft shades like light
blue, cream, or green are preferred for the deciduous or flowering bonsai. Whereas,
for conifer and evergreen bonsai, unglazed pots of an austere color, such as brown,
gray or reddish clay, are chosen as they reflects the environment of their natural
habitat. Selections of pots depend upon the style of the bonsai, sizes of plants, colour
of fruits, colour of leaves etc. Usually the length of pot is chosen based on the overall
height of the bonsai. A tall bonsai, in general, requires a long pot. The depth of the
pot depends upon the thickness of trunk of the bonsai. Deeper pots are preferred for
thick trunk bonsai. Ideally, two thirds of the plant height is considered as suitable
length of the bonsai pots. For example if the plant height is 18” then one should select
12” length of the pot. The depth of the pot can be as per the thickness of trunk of a
plant. Hence, deeper pots are preferred for the thick trunk Bonsai. For 1” thick plant
trunk, 2” height/depth of pot is considered ideal. The bonsai pot should have at least
3/4 hole in its bottom portion. So that excess water can drain out. The style of the
bonsai is also considered as a crucial parameter in determining the size and shape of
the containers. The shape of the containers chosen for bonsai can be round, oval or
rectangle. Generally, oval or round containers are preferred for single upright stem.
Pots with lip are chosen for wide spreading trees. The tall slender trees look best in
a simple round pot. For cascade style tall and deep pots are used. The pot should be
slightly narrower than the tree spread. The colour of the container should be as natural
as possible.
Growing Media
For the successful cultivation of any plants, the key component is the growing media.
The well drained, coarse medium meeting basic needs of water, nutrition and oxygen
is ideal for bonsai cultivation. The soil should be porous enough so as to hold the
air for roots. It should also have good nutrient holding capacity. The growing media
consisting of well-rottened humus/leaf mold, sand and soil in equal proportion (1:1:1)
is ideal for bonsai growing. In the growing media, the sufficient quantity of humus in
the top most layers is desirable. The conifer plants mostly prefer dry soil while, for the
soil enriched with humus is desirable for fruit trees.
Potting
The ideal time to plant Bonsai is February-March and July-August. To prevent soil
from draining out of the pot, plastic or steel wire mesh are laid over the drainage
hole of the pot. Place a layer of brick pieces/pebbles at the bottom of the pot which
will serve as drainage layer. Then layer of sand or small brick piecesis spread over it
to cover the gaps. Finally, the well prepared soil mixtureis filled in to the pots. For
planting, carefully uproot the plant from nursery container and remove 2/3rd portion
of soil from the plant. Choose front position of the plant i.e. the side of the plant which
looks most beautiful and people will see the plant from that side. Cut any tap thick or
encircling roots before planting the plant into the pot. The position of the plant in a
pot is determined by the shape of the pots and the style of bonsai. In a round or square
shaped pots, planting is done in center. However, in rectangular or oval shaped pots,
place the plant off the center towards the rear on any side, left or right. A straight
bonsai is planted in center of the pot, whereas a cascade type should be planted on
one side –the side over which it cascades/hangs. After planting, fill the container by
the prepared soil. Keep the plant under shade for few days. If the plant requires some
support, tie a wire from outside the pot anchoring the trunk of the plant.
Fertilization
Bonsai grows in small and shallow container where only small amount of nutrients
are available for its growth. Hence, regular application of fertilizers is necessary for
growth and survival of the bonsai. Organic fertilizers are considered good for bonsai as
they slowly release the nutrients to the soil and support the growth of the plant. Sludge
or well rotten cow dung slurry is ideal for basic nutrition. To improve the growth of
leaves and stems Nitrogenous fertilizers are required. Phosphorus encourages healthy
root growth and helps in the growth of fruits and flowers, while it is also protecting
against disease and unfavourable winter conditions. Phosphorus encourage the growth
of and roots.While, Potassium promotes the overall health of the plant. Different ratios
of NPK can be used for different trees at different times of the year. Application of
some of the micronutrients like Iron, Manganese, Boron, Molybdenum, Zinc and
Copper also have beneficial effect on health of the bonsai. Excessive application of
fertilizers should be avoided as they can prove detrimental to bonsai.
Most commercial fertilizers contain all three main nutrients plus some trace elements.
By regular application of fertilizers plants get good quantity of nitrogen, phosphorous,
potassium and other micro nutrients helping their growth. Flower and fruit bearing
Bonsai requires more phosphorous fertilizers than others. Inorganic fertilizer-mixture
can also be prepared at home by mixing Ammonium Sulphate, Potash and Super
Phosphate in equal proportion by weight. This should be used after diluting in water.
In 5 liter water two tea-spoonful of the above mixture is sufficient to give good result.
It should be used once in every week period. Any newly potted plant should not be
fertilized for at least one month.
Watering
Appropriate quantity of water and nutrients is essential for bonsai to exhibit their
maximum beauty of flowers and foliage. As they are grown in small containers, these
miniatures are totally dependent upon their attendant for meeting their requirement of
water and nutrients. The most appropriate time for watering is morning or evening.
Avoid the excessive watering to prevent the waterlogging.
Bonsai 175
Training of Bonsai
The training of bonsai is very crucial as it determines the overall look or shape of
the miniature tree. The bonsai is generally trained based on its style. Most of the
bonsai are trained in such a way that they have a single apex. In order to maintain the
visual balance, most bonsai are trained to a triangular shape. While training bonsai,
no branching should be allowed at the bottom 1/3rd part of plant. The middle 1/3rd part
should bear bigger branches and top 1/3rd part of plant should have smaller branches.
This will give a triangular shape to the plant and allows uniform distribution of sunlight
to every part of the bonsai. The lowest branches of a bonsai must be the heaviest. While
training, care must be taken to allow the branches to grow only in horizontal direction
and branches crossing each other should be trimmed off. No branching should be
allowed to grow directly towards the front. Bonsai are trained in such a manner that
each one of them bonsai must have a front and a back. Front of Bonsai is the side from
which the plant looks most beautiful. Back branches are required for depth of a bonsai.
For the compact plant growth always cut growing branches leaving two sets of leaves
and plant roots should be exposed on the soil surface in radial direction.
Wiring
Wiring is a relatively modern approach to train and style a bonsai. By wrapping wire
around the branches one can reshape, curve and bend them. A wired branch or trunk
will take the desired shape just by bending in any direction. While wiring branches, the
thumb rule is to keep the wire at 45° angle to branch. It is very important to select right
kind of material for wiring. Two types of wires i.e. anodized aluminum and annealed
copper are commonly used for the training of bonsai. The aluminum wires are used
for deciduous species, while the harder copper wire is used for training the conifers
and pines. While wiring a bonsai, the utmost care should be taken to not to hurt the
plant. After few months, when the wires starts penetrating into the bark, they must be
removed.
Timing of Wiring
Bonsai wiring is temporal and can be done round the year for most of the species. The
deciduous plants are wired in early summer after their leaves have matured and the
wires are removed in autumn to avoid any damage to bark. The coniferous plants are
wired during winter months because they need longer time period to become fixed in
position.
How to Wire
The wires are generally wrapped around the branches in the direction in which the
branch is desired to be bent. While wiring, initially wrap the wire around the trunk
and then proceed with the first branch. Start wiring from the base of the branch to
the tip before and then wire the other branch. The wire should be wrapped around
the branches at an angle of 45 degrees. It will enable the tree to grow thicker while
remaining its new shape. When wiring an entire tree, first wire the trunk and then start
wiring the primary branches followed by the wiring of the secondary branches. Two
branches of similar thickness located near each other can be wired using a single wire
(double-wiring) and the remaining branches can be wired separately (single-wiring).
The thickness of the wire depends on the thickness of branch or trunk desired to be
shaped. Generally, the thickness of the wire should be about 1/3 of the thickness of
the branch. The wire should be thick enough to hold the branch in its new shape. The
branch should be then bent once into its final position without causing any harm to the
cambium layer under the bark.
The following points should beconsidered during the wiring process:
• To give a specific shape to the bonsai, the wire has to be kept in place for several
years. Hence, the rewiring has to be done at every 6-12 months interval to avoid
any damage to the bark. A gap of few months should be allowed between two
wirings.
• Copper wires are preferred over the aluminum wires for wiring as they remain
soft even after a long use. The copper wire that has first been annealed at a low-
temperature must be heated to make them pliable.
• While wiring the branches with tender bark, before wiring a cotton tape is
wrapped around the branch to avoid any damage to bark.
• The wire should be wrapped rigid, but not too tight. Due care must be given to
maintain the wiring tension as high tension leads to break the branch and low
tension causes slip of wire.
• In case of partial damage garden tape can be used to seal the branch to avoid it
from dying.
• To separate the two parallel branches or trunk a small triangular wooden piece
is used as wedge and is removed after 4 months. While to bring close the two
parallel branches snugging is practiced with the use of a belt or soft chord.
• The conifer species take long time of up to 12-18 months for final shaping.
Wiring should not be left for very long period as they can leave scars on the
bark of the branches. The wires should be removed after 6-12 months before
they start penetrating into the bark .
• While removing the wires from the bonsai, always use a wire cutter to snip the
wire at each turn. Never unwind the wire or use pliers to cut the wire, since this
will damage the branches
• After wiring, bending and repositioning of the branches is done. Proper
precautions must be taken to avoid any damage to the branches during the
process of bending. The straight sections of the branches should be bent slightly
so that they look more natural.
Repotting
The shifting of plants to new pots with trimming off of the excess of roots (not > 20%)
to promote new root growth is known as repotting. Repotting is done to prevent the
tree from becoming pot-bound and ultimately starving to death. Repotting will also
supply the tree with new nutrients that it needs to grow and flourish. For an old Bonsai
Bonsai 177
is should be done in every 2/3 year and in every year of new Bonsai. While repotting,
only bonsai soil should be used. Bonsai should not be kept in direct sunlight after
repotting and proper watering should be done from time to time. It is preferably done
during rainy season. It should be done when Bonsai leaves start turning yellow in spite
of regular care and watering.
Care and maintenance of a Bonsai
• Proper soil disinfection is must to avoid any microbial activity which is harmful
for the plants.
• Plants should be protected from strong sunlight during summers and heavy
winds.
• Keep the bonsai in neat and clean place and any leaf debris should be removed
to avoid the growth of any fungal or microbial load.
• Repotting should be done in every year for new bonsai and in 2-3 year for old
bonsai.
• Proper sunlight should be there for a Bonsai plant and it should not be kept
inside for long time.
• During winters watering is done only when needed while in summer it should
be done frequently.
• Regularly pinch or prune the new leaf buds of Bonsai to maintain overall shape
and maintain the vigour or the plan.
Insect-pest and Diseases
Insects
Ants: A number of insects pests like ants, aphids, spider mites, vine weevil, caterpillars
and scales are often found to attack the bonsai. Ants themselves are not harmful but
they are the vector of aphid eggs or fungus like sooty mold. These insects can be easily
controlled by the spray of any commercially available insecticides. The insecticides
such as Thimet and 10G Furadon can be used to control the insects present in the soil.
Diseases
Like other plants, the bonsai are also infected by various types of fungal, bacterial or
viral diseases infect the Bonsai as described in table 1.
Table 1: The list of the important diseases of bonsai

S.No. Name of the disease Causal Symptoms
organism
1. Powdery mildew Fungal White floury layer appears
2. Black spot Fungal Leaves are covered with black patches
3. Mildew Fungal Greyish mould on underside of leaves.
4. Rust Fungal Orange- brown patches are formed.
Blisters spread underside of leaves.
5. Root rot Fungal Caused due to contamination from poorly
decomposed organic fertilizers used straight on
roots.
6. Canker Bacterial Swelling of the bark and callosities.
7. Mosaic Viral Mottling-alternate green and yellow stripes or
other shaped areas- on the leaves
Spraying of Bavistin or Blitox at monthly interval is recommended for the control of
various fungal diseases of bonsai.
References
Ching YC. 1990. Japanese spatial conception. The Japan Architect. ‘The general Notion of
Beauty’ 8404: 66-68
Doyle JF, Tisdell EJ, Palmer C. 2019. Bonsai as mediation for adult learning. In : New Directions
For Adult And Continuing Education, no. 161, Spring 2019 © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
DOI: 10.1002/ace.20315
Koreshoff, Deborah R. 1984. Bonsai: Its Art, Science, History and Philosophy. Timber Press,
Inc.
Pietraszko K, Sobota J. 2008. Bonsai as reflection of nature’s beauty: styles and aesthetic value.
WSEAS Trans Environ Dev 4: 588-604.
Roth K. 2014. Bonsai: The haiku of the tree world. Peninsula Clarion, Retrieved from http://
peninsulaclarion.com/arts-entertainment/2014-04-02/bonsai-the-haiku-of-thetree-world
The Bonsai Site, A Detailed History of Bonsai. Retrieved June 12, 2008.
The New World Encyclopedia of Bonsai, https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Bonsai
Thomas Pakenham, Remarkable Trees of the World (New York: Norton, ISBN 9780393049114).
Yuji Yoshimura and Barbara M. Halford. 1957. The Art of Bonsai: Creation, Care and Enjoyment.
Tuttle Publishing, North Clarendon VT USA. ISBN 0-8048-2091-0.
12
Rose
S.S. Sindhu and Namita
Rose (Rosa × hybrida L.) is the most beautiful creations of nature and is commonly
known as queen of flowers. It occupies first position in the international trade. Rose
is known for its beauty and is used in worship, bouquets, cut and loose flowers,
preserves, garlands, decorations, landscaping, etc. It has gained wide acceptability
due to varied growth habits, beautiful shape, dissimilarity in size and form, attractive
colour, pleasant fragrance and abundant varieties. These can fulfill the requirement
of climbers, trees, hedges shrubs, and edges in the landscape gardening. Commercial
products of rose such as rose water, rose attar, gulroghan, gulkand, rose dry petals,
rose oil, etc play a vital role in international and national market. Rose hips are one
of the imperative sources of Vitamin C and are used for preparation of rose tea. With
the ever-increasing demand of novel varieties in the world trade, a large number of
varieties are being bred every year with many novel traits. Its share is around 51 per
cent of the whole of European markets. In India, 29.41 thousand ha area, producing
301.95 thousand MT is under rose cultivation in the states of West Bengal, Karnataka,
Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra (NHB database, 2017). Cultivation of rose such as
Rosa damascena, R. bourboniana, R. centifolia is also done for essential oil extraction
from rose petals.
Origin and Taxonomy
Rose belongs to the family Rosaceae. The genus is divided into four sub genera
of which sub genus Rosa includes nearly all the species (Gudin, 2000). The sub
genus Rosa is further divided into different sections of which the actual number is
arguable. There are about 100 to 300 species in rose based on various reports. The rose
genome is complex consisting of five haploid chromosome sets each made of seven
chromosomes. (Nybom et al., 2005). The chromosome number of wild species varies
from 2n = 2x=14 to 2n= 8x=56, with most of the species being diploid or tetraploid
(Nybom et al., 2005). Rosa × hybrida L. is not a species in botanical terms, however,
is a highly complex artificial species (Gudin, 2003) that may be used to describe the
modern rose cultivars.
Classification, Species and Varieties of Roses

The genus Rosa is endemic to temperate areas of the Northern hemisphere including
North America, Europe, Asia, the Middle East, etc. with the large diversity of species
in Western China. Various species of rose are also distributed in the warmer areas such
as Bengal, Iraq, Ethiopia, New Mexico, and Southern China (Nybom et al., 2005). No
endemic species are found in Southern hemisphere.
The genus Rosa contains about 150 species (Quest Ritson, 2003), although the number
varies according to authority. However, various studies on taxonomy and cytology
of roses have concluded that only eleven species namely Rosa canina L., R. rugosa
Thunb., R. chinensis, R. wichwaiana Crép., R. foetida Herm., R. gigantea Colett ex
Crép., R. moschata Herm., R. multiflora Thunb. Ex Murr., R. Phoenicea Boiss., R.
gallica L., and R. rubra Blackw were involved in the development of modern roses
(Hurst, 1941 ; Wylie, 1954 ; Maia and Vénard, 1976). About sixteen species and
four hybrid species of rose were found growing wild in various phyto-geographical
zones of India (Rathore and Srivastava, 1992). The species endemic to Himalayas
are R. brunonii, R. gigantean, R. involucrata, R. longicuspis, R. leschenaultiana, R.
macrocarpa, R. macrophylla, R. moschata, R. sericea, and R. webbiana whereas the
species growing wild are Rosa ecae Aitch, R. banksiae, R. beggeriana, R. foetida, R. ×
bourboniana, R. × centifolia, R. × alba, R. × damascena, R. × bracteata, R. laevigata,
R. multiflora, R. indica, R. chinensis and R. gallica. R. bracteata and R. laevigata
which perform well under sub temperate climate and possess excellent vegetative
and floral characters justifying their use as donor parents (Viraraghavan, 1991). Wild
species of rose such as R. × bourboniana (Gulkand preparation) and Kakinada rose
(loose flowers) are probable species for Geographical Indicators. Development of
ecotypes viz., Desi, Cheenia, Kaithali and Meeruti are the result of R.×bourboniana
cultivation in India (Shrivastava and Chandra, 1985).
ARS Classification Scheme 2000 is broadly used to classify roses (Cairns, 2003). The
ARS has defined old garden roses as those rose types cultivated prior to 1867 and are
further divided into 21 types. The most popular classes described by American rose
society are: (www.rose.org)
Alba: These are known as white roses. Alba roses have upright growth, climbing
habit, dense and shinny foliage. They are resistant to diseases.
Ayrshire: Plants of this group have climbing and sprawling habit and originated in
Scotland. They bloom once in a season.
Bourbon: These roses were developed from the Hybrid China roses. They have
repeat-flowering habits. Their name was derived from the location of the first members
of the class, the Ile de Bourbon in the Indian Ocean.
Boursault: These are thornless, rambling and once blooming type roses.
Centifolia: Since flowers mostly contain more than 100 petals, hence these were
named as Centifolias. These roses are once blooming, winter hardy and 4 to 8 feet
plant height. These are also known as cabbage roses and are marked in Dutch flower
paintings during 17th century.
Rose 181
China roses: Plants of this group are repeat blooming, winter tender and have few
thorns. Flowers borne in small clusters. China roses are the historical group of rose
and originated in Southeast Asia.
Damask: These roses are famous for their strong fragrance. Some varieties belonging
to this group are repeat blooming.
Hybrid China roses: Plants of this group are generally small and have repeated
blooming habit. Stems are very weak and can’t able to support the clusters of blooms.
Flowers have spicy fragrance. Plants are sensitive to winter and need protection in low
temperature.
Hybrid Gallica: These plants are small and winter hardy. Flowers have fragrance and
are in brilliant colours. Flowers of this group have once blooming habit.
Hybrid Perpetual: Roses are described by repeat blooming habit, six feet plant
height, fragrance and colour range mostly red and pink.
Moss: These plants are named after the mossy thorn growth on the peduncle just below
the flower bud and sepals. These roses release a pine scented oleoresin when moss is
rubbed between the fingers. Plants are winter hardy and few varieties are repeat blooming.
Noisette: This group was developed in the United States by Philippe Noisette of
Charleston. Thereafter, he introduced these roses in France during 1817. Plants are
large and rambling type. Fragrant flowers are produced in clusters.
Portland: These roses were derived from crosses involving damask, hybrid gallica,
hybrid china and centifolia. They are of 4 feet plant height, have repeat blooming and
short peduncles. Name of this group was given in the honour of Duchess of Portland.
Tea roses: These plants have variable height, with some of the best cultivars being
Climbing Teas. The stems of these roses are weak, hence, large flowers cause drooping.
They are one of the ancestors of the modern Hybrid Tea. Tea roses are winter-tender
and required only light pruning for best growth.
Five broad classes of European roses such as Gallica (R. gallica), Alba (R. alba),
Damask (R. damascena),Centifolia (R. centifolia) and Moss rose (R. centifolia
moscosa) were emerged during 18th Century (Marriott, 2003). European roses were
crossed with China roses during later part of the 18th century because china roses
have low branching habit, recurrent flowering, crimson colour, new fragrance, distinct
flowers with high centre and slender flower buds that unfurled on opening (Higson,
2007). The crossing of the China roses with the old European roses resulted in new
classes such as Portland, Bourbon (Autumn Damask × Parson’s Pink China), Noisette
(Parson’s Pink China × R. moschata), Hybrid Perpetual (Portland × Bourbon × Hybrid
China) and Tea (China × Bourbon or Noisette) (Marriott, 2003 and Higson, 2007).
Roses bred after 1867, were considered as modern roses of the world. Modern roses
were originated from different 10 species namely R. canina, R. gallica, R. gigantea,
R. multiflora, R. moschata, R. Phoenicia, R. rugosa, R. chinensis, R. foetida, and R.
wichurana (Gudin, 2000). The Hybrid Tea roses derived from crosses between Hybrid
Perpetual and Tea roses were the first modern roses (Marriott, 2003). ‘La France’ was
first recognized Hybrid Tea which was developed in 1867.
A French breeder Joseph Pernet-Ducher made crosses between Hybrid Perpetuals and
R. foetida to introduce yellow colour during early 1900. Hybrid Tea roses are upright
with single, well shaped flowers having high spiraling centres at the end of long stems.
They have sturdy and shiny petals, pointed buds, large glossy leaves and strong stems.
Hybrid Tea roses were used to develop many modern rose classes such as Polyantha
(R. multiflora x Hybrid Tea), Floribunda (Polyantha x Hybrid Tea), Grandiflora
(Floribunda x Hybrid Tea) and Miniature (Polyantha x R. chinensis minima) (Marriott,
2003).
Varieties
Some of the important varieties are listed below under different classes
Hybrid Teas
Aalsmeer Gold, American Heritage, Anvil Sparks, Bajazzo, Bhim, Blue Moon
Bonne Nuit, Brandy, Careless Love, Century Two, Charles Mallerin, Christian Dior
Command Performance, Crimson Glory, Doris Tysteman, Eiffel Tower, Ena Harkness
First Prize, Frau Karl Druschki, Friendship, Garden Party, Ganga, Gladiator, Golden
Giant, Granada, Happiness, Inge Horstmann, Jadis, June Bride, Kiss of Fire, Lady
X, Louisiana, McGredy’s Sunset, Mister Lincoln, Montezuma, Mridula, Mrinalini
Nurjehan Oklahoma, Papa Mielland, Paradise, Pasadena, Peace, Peter Frankenfeld
Sonia Meilland, Sugandha, Super Star, Virgo, Abhisarika, Anurag, Arjun, Arka
Parimala, Aruna, Ashwini, Bhim, Century Two seedling, Chambe di Kali, Chitra
Dil-Ki-Rani, Dr. B.P. Pal, Dr. Benjamin Pal, Dr. Bharat Ram, Dr. M.S. Randhawa
Dr. R.R. Pal, Dulhan, Eiffel tower X Queen Elizabeth, Ganga, Golden Afternoon
Haseena Homage, Jawani, Lal Makhmal, Madhosh, Lalima, Mother Teresa, Mridula
Maharani Mrinalini, Mrs. K. B. Sharma, Nayika, Nurjahan, Nehru centenary
Priyadharshini Pink Montezuma, Pusa Ajay, Pusa Arun, Pusa Bahadur, Preyasi, Pusa
Garima, Pusa Mansij, Pusa Mohit, Pusa Priya, Pusa Sonara, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Raja
S.S. Nalagarh, Rajkumari, Raktagandha, Raktima, Ranjana, Ratnaar, Sahasradhara
Shanti Pal, Shreyasi, Sir C. V. Raman, Soma, Sugandha, Surabhi, Surekha, Surkhab
Jawahar, Shiloz Mukherjee, Indian Princess, Pusa Gaurav , Pusa Mahak, etc.
Floribundas
Africa Star, Charisma, Charleston, Else Poulsen, Flamenco, Gene Boerner, Iceberg
Mercedes, Sea Pearl, Shocking Blue, Summer Snow Pusa Shatabdi, Akash Sundari
Delhi white Powder Puff, Delhi Pink Powder Puff, Anitha, Arunima, Banjaran
Chingari, Deepak, Delhi Brightness, Delhi Princess, Dr. S. S. Bhatnagar, Himangini
Jantar Mantar, Krishna, Lahar, Loree, Madhura, Manmatha, Manasi, Mohini, Navneet
Neelambari, Prema, Punchu, Pusa Abhishek, Pusa Barahmasi, Pusa Komal, Pusa
Pitambar, Rupali, Sabnam, Sadabahar, Shola, Sindhoor, Suchitra, Surdas, Suryakiran
Suryodaya, Tarang, Pusa Virangana, Pusa Manhar, Pusa Urmil, Pusa Muskan, Rose
Sherbet, etc.
Rose 183
Polyanthas
Baby Faurax, Cameo, Chattilon Rose, Echo, Nartaki, Paul Crampel, Swati, Vatertag
Miniatures
Blue Mist, Chandrika, Cricri, Dazzler, Deep Velvet, Dwarf Queen, Honey Comb,
Little Buckaroo, Little Flirt, Pushkala, Starina, White Madonna
Climbers
Casino, Cocktail, Delhi Pink Pearl, Delhi White Pearl, Golden Showers, Marechal
Niel, Pinata, Prosperity, Royal Gold
Poly house varieties
Long stemmed varieties : Aalsmeer Gold, Bianca, Black Magic, Dallas, First Red,
Grand Gala, Grand Prix, Jacaranda, Konfetti, Noblesse, Ravel, Red Velvet, Skyline,
Tineke, Virginia, Vivaldi. Medium stemmed varieties: Europa, Flirt, Frisco, Golden
Times, Kardinal, Kiss, Lambada, Ohio, Prophyta, Souvenir, Tina, Vanilla.
Pusa Shatabdi Pusa Ajay Pusa Mohit
Pusa Arun Pusa Komal Pusa Mahak

Fig. Recently Released Rose Varieties from ICAR-IARI
Propagation
Rose can be propagated by seed and vegetative methods like cutting, layering grafting
and budding.
Seed: Seed propagation is generally followed by breeders to produce new varieties.
Seed propagation is also used to multiply rootstocks like R. canina. Seed is harvested
from mature and ripe hips. The seeds are botanically achenes with a very hard seed
coat. The seed coat can be softened by following acid scarification. The seeds of rose
contain an immature embryo resulting in dormancy. Stratification is an ideal and
widely followed method for breaking dormancy. The seed is placed in media like
sphagnum moss and wet stratified at 1.6-4.4 0C for 2-6 months depending on genotype.
The treated seeds are sown in raised beds or plugs in the month of October- November.
Cuttings: Stem cuttings are used for clonal propagation of root stock. They are also
used for propagation of vigorous cultivars. Roses belonging to classes of climbers,
miniatures and polyanthas are propagated by cuttings. Propagation of roses by cuttings
is slowly gaining prominence in many countries. IBA 1000- 2000 ppm is used for
rooting of cuttings.
Layering: This method is rarely followed and limited to climbers and ramblers.
Ground layering and air layering are generally followed.
Rootstocks required for budding and grafting
The rootstocks play an important role in budding and grafting of the roses. Climate,
compatibility, soil, pests and diseases and utility play a vital role in the selection of
root stocks. Some of the root stocks widely used are listed below
Rosa indica var. ororata

This is recommended for Northern plains. This can with stand dry, wet conditions and
salinity. This rootstock is also tolerant to powdery mildew and insect pests.
Rosa bourboniana
This is widely used in North India for producing standard roses as it throws vigorous
and strong shoots. It has not gained prominence because of susceptibility to powdery
mildew.
Rosa multiflora
This is widely used as root stock in South and Eastern India and hills. It is resistant
to nematodes.
Rosa canina
This is commonly used as root stock in Europe. This is propagated by seed and is
resistant to drought and alkaline conditions.
R. manetti, Dr. Huey, R. laxa and Natal briar are also used as roots tocks in other
countries. Natal Briar is gaining prominence as rootstock for green house roses.
Fig. Preparation of Rootstock Rosa indica var. odorata

Rose 185
Budding: Roses are commercially propagated by T budding or shield budding. The

ideal time for budding in North India is from January to March. In case of areas with
mild climate , it can be done throughout the year.
Budding in rose
Stenting: It is a quick method of propagation of roses where grafting of a selected
cultivar is done on an unrooted cutting of a root stock resulting in a complete plant in
3-4 weeks. The stented plant is called a stentling. Whip grafting is used for stenting.
A stem having five leaflet leaf and a single dominant axillary bud is used as a scion.
A stem consisting of a single internode without buds or leaves is used as root stock.
Scion and stock are held together with the help of a peg. The basal end of a rootstock
is dipped in a powder with IBA at 0.4%. The rooting medium is a mixture of peat
and perlite in 1:1 ratio. The relative humidity is maintained at 100% with intermittent
misting. The ideal temperature is 25oC.
Climate
Production of roses is favoured by an extended growing season with a majority of
sunny days. Roses in gardens should have sunshine for a minimum of six hours and
prefer morning sunlight. Temperature has a significant influence on quality aspects
such as stem length, bud and leaf size and stem diameter. The ideal temperature
for rose cultivation is 15-27oC. Best commercial quality is obtained when the night
temperature is round 16oC. Optimal rose production occurs at 12-15 mol/m2/day. The
ideal humidity is 60-65%.
Soil
Rose plants prefer well drained soil having a pH near to seven. Roses are also tolerant
to pH below 7 as long as it is not below 5.5. Roses are not salt tolerant, so EC values
should be less than 2.0dsm-1. Sandy loam soils are preferred due to their rapid
infiltration rates. Roses are susceptible to water logging and cause leaf fall under such
conditions.
Bed Preparation and Planting

Planting of rose in gardens is done in beds of different shapes. The beds are prepared
by incorporation of organic manure and basal dose of phosphorus in the soil. Planting
should be done in well prepared beds. Planting should be done in such a way that the
bud union should be 2.5-5.0 cm above the soil level. After planting, the plants are to
be watered copiously. In case of bare root roses, the roots along with the stem up to the
bud union should be kept in water for six hours before planting. In north Indian plains
and Eastern India, planting can be done from October to February. In Southern India ,
planting is preferred during October- December. In temperate areas , planting is done
during spring and autumn. In areas with mild climate, planting can be done throughout
the year. Planting distance for gardens varies from 30-75 cm between plants and rows
depending on the class, variety, soil and climate. In polyhouses, rose is planted on
raised beds having one metre width, 30 cm height and length as per the structure.
Roses are planted in double lines at 30 x 15-20 cm. The soil may be sterilized with
soil sterilizing chemicals and thoroughly mixed with FYM , phosphatic and potassic
fertilizers. Farm yard manure at the rate of 100 t/ha should be thoroughly incorporated
in the soil.
Lighting: Four year old plants of rose cv. Dallas were grown at a minimum temperature
of 120C with 2000 lux supplementary lighting (Total light period of 16hrs/day) from
HPS lamps during the period of Nov-Feb. Flower yield increased by 18% over control
with increase in quality. No further increase in yield was observed when raising the
irradiance to 3000 lux.
Irrigation
Drought stress in rose field cause defoliation, sun burn of canes and may contribute to
spider mite. However, over watering or poorly drained soils may cause root disease or
nutritional harms. Rose production cycle may be delayed due to water stress applied
at the stage of leaf primordia formation but do not have any negative effects on flower
shoots or the flower buds quality. Water stress at the stage prior to petal initiation
affected the quality of flower buds i.e. reduction in the number of well formed petals
and height of the flower buds. Water stress applied prior to stamen initiation affects the
quantity and the quality of flowering shoots and buds , whereas, water stress applied
after stamen and carpel formation do not affect the number of flowering shoots or
quality of flowers produced. Generally, a rose plant requires water at 8-10 ml/m2 a day.
Carbon Dioxide Enrichment in Greenhouses: Rose plants respond to CO2
enrichment of the greenhouse atmosphere with a decrease in the rate of lower bud
abortion, an increase in lateral sprouting (Hand and Cockshull, 1975) and an increase
in the fresh weight of flower stems (Mortensen & Moe, 1983). Prevention of flower
bud abortion can be a result of alteration in partitioning of assimilates between upper
buds. An additional possibility is that the effect of the CO2 on the flower bud retention
is due to anti ethylene action of CO2. The increase in number of flowers and quality
may be the result of CO2 on photosynthetic process, partitioning of assimilates and the
effect of CO2 on ethylene. Increasing CO2 levels during day time to 800-1000ppm are
beneficial for rose production due to increased dry matter production.
Rose 187
Pruning
Rose requires annual pruning exercise to revitalize the plant before it produces a new
flush of blooms in the season. Pruning encourages new growth from bud union. This
removal of old growth sometimes acts as a form of dormancy in warmer climates
which is otherwise lacking. Pruning slows down the plant processes for a short period
of time. Pruning in rose is done for the following reasons
1. To enhance the growth of an old and unproductive rose.
2. To make the plant to produce fewer, larger blooms or many, smaller blooms.
3. To remove old and diseased shoots.
4. To shape the plant.
5. To control the blooming time in the season, so that the blooming coincides with
most favourable time to get good quality blooms.
6. To encourage repeat blossoms.
Pruning Types in Rose
Hard Pruning or Low Pruning

The shoots are cut back to three or four buds from the base or bud union. This
leaves short sturdy shoots. Hard pruning is suggested for newly planted bush roses
of the hybrid tea, floribunda and grandiflora tribes. Hard pruning is frequently used
by growers to produce show blooms for exhibition. This method is not suitable for
established garden roses and should not be practiced. It may be used to rejuvenate sick
and neglected plants.
Moderate or Medium Pruning
The shoots are cut back to about half of their length. Weaker stems are cut back more
depending on their position on the bush. Moderate pruning is suitable for established
garden roses. Floribundas, hybrid teas and grandifloras respond well to this type of
pruning .
Light or High Pruning
The shoots are cut back to about two thirds of their length. In this method, after
removal of unwanted wood, the remaining stems are simply tipped. Light pruning
is not generally suggested as it produces spindly bushes because it results in an early
blooming bush with poor quality flowers. In case of vigorous hybrid teas, climbers and
shrub roses, light pruning is the only the way to cut these plants.
Hybrid Tea Roses: Hard Pruning is mandatory to develop a strong root system and
to encourage the growth of sturdy, fresh shoots near to the base of the bush in newly
planted roses. Moderate pruning is the best method for general garden display of roses.
Hard pruning is sometimes used for show blooms. In case of hybrid teas, only 4-5
shoots are left out after pruning.
Floribunda Roses: Moderate pruning is the excellent way to prune established

floribundas. But hard pruning is done in old stems within a few inches of the ground,
while light pruning is carried out in new shoots arise from the base. This method
ensures a long period of continuous bloom. In floribundas, many older shoots are
allowed after pruning due to the habit to bear flowers on short stems in clusters.
Standard Roses: Hard pruning is recommended for standard roses. Stem length
should be about 20 cm long. Moderate pruning is suggested to form an appropriately
balanced head which will produce abundance flowers. Hard pruning should be avoided
on established tree roses due to effect on the shape of the plant which make it further
less attractive.
Miniature Roses: Pruning is not needed for miniature roses except the removal of any
dead or broken shoots.
Climbing Roses: Pruning is not required for climbing roses except removal of dead
canes and tips.
After Pruning
After the pruning operation is over the pruning cuts may be sealed with a proprietary
fungicidal paste like Bourdeaux mixture or Blitox Paste. A dormant spray of pesticide
may be given before the sensitive buds sprout. Fertlizers can be applied after 2-3
weeks.
Bending
Bending was originated in Japan. All weak shoots are bent down to fill any area full of
foliage to attain a desirable leaf area index by optimizing photosynthetic potential and
facilitating the transport of sugar to the developing shoots. The shoots which arise on
dormant buds are usually more vigorous and produce high quality flowers. Bending
is required for keeping enough leaves on the plant for production of carbohydrates.
Nutrition
A fertilizer dose of 520 kg N, 868 kg P2O5 and 694 kg K2O/ha/year was recommended
for high density planting (30x30 cm) of Super Star under open field conditions
(Bhattacharjee and Damke, 1994). Potassium application rates affected the number
and quality of flowering stems and reduced diseases. Potassium rates closer to 50 g/m2/
year are recommended to obtain maximum quantity of commercial stems regardless
of the cultivar (Barbosa et al., 2007). Heavy dose of organic manure like FYM at the
rate of 50-100 t/ha is recommended in rose. Bhattacharjee (1994) observed that the
soil application of sulphur at 10 kg/ha, magnesium sulphate at 50 kg/ha and calcium
sulphate at 50kg/ha significantly improved flower yield and quality in cv. Raktagandha
Weeding
Generally, weeding in roses is done manually. Rajamani et al. (1992) recorded
better control of monocot weeds with glyphosate 1.0 kg a.i/ha and dicot weeds with
oxyfluorfen 0.5 kg a.i/ha.
Rose 189
Harvesting, Packing and Transport

Roses should be harvested at the tight bud stage when one or two petals begin to
unfold. The stage of harvest depends on the variety, distance to market place, climate
and consumer preference. Roses cut too early may develop bent neck. Flowers should
be cut in the morning or evening. They should be cut leaving two 5 leaflet leaves on
the stem.
After cutting, they are immediately placed in a hydrating solution to maintain turgidity.
After they are cut, they are cooled or graded. Roses are stored at 2-3oC with a relative
humidity of 90-95%. The flowers should be transported to cool rooms. Precooling
removes the field heat and improves the post harvest life. The hydrating solution may
be acidified with citric acid 300 ppm to improve the uptake of solution. The vase life
can be improved by using floral preservatives in vase solution. Aluminum sulphate
and citric acid @ 300 ppm improve the vase life. The flowers can be wet stored at
2-3oC. After cooling the flowers are shifted to grading room. All the inferior stems and
those infested with pests and diseases are removed. The flowers are sorted to different
grades manually or automatic graders. Long stemmed varieties are graded from 40 cm
onwards with a difference of 10 cm whereas; short stemmed are graded from 40-65
cm with a difference of 5 cm. Then graded stems are made into bundles of 20 each.
The buds are wrapped with corrugated paper and leaves are removed from lower 5 cm
portion of the stems. The bunches are packed in fiber or card board boxes of 100 × 32.5
× 20 cm which accommodates approximately 80-100 cut roses of 60-65 cm length .
The stems should be tightly packed to avoid movement during transport.
The optimum yield of cut roses in open field is 25-50 stems/m2/year whereas in Indian
poly houses, yield is 150-200 stems/m2/Year. Loose flower yield is 3-5 tonnes/ha/year.
Pests and Diseases
Insects
Many types of insects affect roses of modern era. Insect pests reduce decorative value
of roses in the garden and decrease productivity of commercial rose cultivars. During
severe infestation, these insects cause death of plants. The insect -pests of rose are
described hereunder.
Aphids: Aphids are small and soft-bodied insects having piercing and sucking
mouthparts. These grow early in the season on tender parts such as shoots, buds
and flowers. They cause damage by sucking plant sap and infected flowers become
malformed. Aphids secrete sweet honeydew on which fungi grow and produce black
sooty mould. This reduces the ornamental value of rose. Aphids can be controlled
by natural enemies such as lady bird beetles. Severe infestations can be controlled
by spraying insecticides like monocrotophos (1.5 ml/lt), malathion (1.0 ml/lt) and
dimethoate (1.0 ml/lt) at 10-15 days interval. It can be controlled by neem oil (10 ml/
lts) spray.
Thrips: Flower thrips and western flower thrips are two most common species in
roses. Thrips are tiny insects. Young thrips are of light yellow to lemon colour and are
of spindle-shaped. These insects cause damage mainly by feeding on flowers. Heavy
infestation reduces the beauty of the buds and flowers and prevents opening of buds.
Thrips also infest plants by punching plant cells with their mandibles and sucking up
plant sap of young and actively growing tissues. Silver or bleached damaged areas
are developed on flower petals that ultimately turn brown. Petals and leaves become
crinkled or distorted. Thrips can be effectively controlled by spraying insecticides like
malathion (1.0 ml/lt), imidacloprid (0.3 ml/lt), Dimethoate (1.0 ml/lt) and spinosad
(0.3 ml/lt). Spinosad is one of the most important insecticides that provides very good
control of thrips
Leafhoppers: These are very small, light green or pale green insects which suck cell
sap. Both adults and nymphs suck sap from the undersides of leaves and tender stems,
resulting in spotted or yellow leaves. A white or yellow stippling of the leaves is the
most common symptom in rose. Leaf hoppers can be efficiently controlled by spraying
malathion (1.0 ml/lt), imidacloprid (0.3 ml/lt), and Phosalone (2 ml/lt).
Spider Mites: These are minute insects which are not visible to the naked eye. They
feed on the underside of the leaves by sucking sap from plant cells. Heavy infestation
by mites causes localized cell death which results in light coloured stippling. Leaves
give a bleached or bronzed appearance on heavy population of mites. Severely injured
leaves may curl and drop from the plant. During initial stage, mite infestation is only on
the undersides of leaves whereas mites produce webbing on the top of leaves and other
plant parts under heavy infestation. Mites are favoured by hot dry weather along with
dusty conditions. Well watering of plants reduces the mite population. Mite infestation
can be reduced by spraying water underside of leaves. These can be controlled by
spraying miticides like dicofol (2.5ml/lt), soluble sulphur (3g/lt), vertimac (2ml/lt)
and Omite (2ml/lt).
Scale: They can be easily noticed by the reddish encrustations on the shoots. Their
bodies are covered with a hard scale-like covering which may be elliptical, tear-shaped,
or oyster shaped, round. Scale damage plants by sucking plant sap with their thread-
like sucking mouthparts. Heavy infestations reduce plant vigour and growth which
may further cause the death of shoots or even whole plants. They can be controlled by
spraying insecticides like dimethoate (2g/lt).
Chafer Beetles: These are beetles that feed on the growing points, making irregular
holes and punches on the leaves. The grubs feed on the roots. These can be controlled
by insecticides such as chlopyriphos (1.5ml/lt)
Termites: Termites cause damage to rose plants even before they are fully established.
They destroy the underground parts. They are very difficult to control as they colonize
under the soil. They can be managed by soil application of chlopyriphos (1.5ml/lt) and
Imidachloprid (0.2 ml/lt) to the extent.
Mealy bugs: These are small insects with white cottony filamentous growth on the
exterior. They damage the plants by sucking juices from the shoots. They can be
effectively controlled by spraying monocrotophos (1.0ml/lt) and dimethoate (2ml/lt).
Rose 191
Diseases
Die Back (Diplodia rosarum): It causes death of the plant from top downwards.
In the initial symptoms, blackening of the stem from the pruned end occurs. Heavy
infestation causes death of the plant. This pathogen enters into the plant through
wounds, injuries and pruning cuts. To control this disease, affected parts should be cut
away and dump in the soil. The pruning cut should be slanting to prevent accumulation
water. The pruned end should be sealed with fungicide mix such as Bourdeaux paste
(4 part copper carbonate+ 4 part Red Lead + 5 part Linseed oil). The disease can also
be controlled by spray of Carbendazim (2 g/lt).
Powdery Mildew (Sphaerotheca pannosa): It is a major disease of roses grown in
greenhouses. It also attacks field grown roses. Symptoms include powdery growth on
the lower side of the leaves. The disease appears during warm days and cool nights.
Infested flower buds fail to open. The disease can be effectively controlled by sprays
of Carbendazim (1 g/lt) and wettable sulphur (2g/lt).
Black Spot (Diplocarpon rosae): The disease is recognized by dark brown, circular
spots with fringed borders. The spots expand and collapse, leaves turn brown and fall
on heavy infestation. Rose species such as R. wichurana, R. rugosa, R. laevigata, R.
multiflora, R. virginiana and R. roxburghii are resistant to black spot. This disease can
be controlled with chlorothalonil (2g/lt), benlate (1ml/lt), Carbendazim @ 1 g/l twice
at fortnightly intervals or Azoxystrobin @ 1g/l.
Downy Mildew (Peronospora sparsa): Downy mildew is common in greenhouse
grown roses. Infections occur on young plants during extended periods of cool, humid
weather in early to mid spring. Purplish red to dark irregular spots are developed on
infected leaves. Downy mildew is effectively controlled by spraying chlorothalonil
(2g/lt) and mancozeb (2g/lt).
Rust (Phragmidium spp.): Reddish orange pustules on leaflets and petioles describe
this disease. In severe infection, defoliation occurs. It can be controlled by Dithane
Z-78 (2g/lt).
References
Barbosa, Jose Geraldo, Joao Miranda dos Santos, Jose Antonio Saraiva Grossi, Paulo Roberto
Cecon, Helenita P. Rodrigues and Fernando Luiz Finger. 2007. Quality and commercial
grade of rose yields as affected by potassium applications through drip irrigation. Acta
Hort., 751: 83-87
Bhattacharjee, S. K. 1994. Influence of secondary nutrients on Rosa hybrida cv. “Raktagandha”.
Floriculture- Technology, Trades and Trends (Prakash, J. and Bhandary, K. R. ed.) Oxford
& IBH Publishing Co. ltd. pp.100-102.
Bhattacharjee, S. K. and Damke, M. M. 1994. Response of Super Star rose to nitrogen,
phosphorus and potash fertilization. Indian J. Hort.,51(2):207-213.
Cairns, T. 2003. Horticultural classification schemes. In : A. V. Roberts, T. Debener, S. Gudin.
Eds. Encyclopedia of Rose Science, Volume I. Elsevier pp.117-124.
De Vries D. P., and Dubois L. A.M. 1984. Inheritance of the recurrent flowering and moss
characters in F1 and F2 Hybrid Tea x Rosa centifolia muscosa (Aiton) Seringe populations.
Gartenbauwissenschaft. 49: 97–100.
Debener, T. 1999. Genetic analysis of horticulturally important morphological and physiological

characters in diploid roses. Gartenbauwissenschaft. 64:14–20.
Debener, Th. and Linde, M. 2009. ‘Exploring Complex Ornamental Genomes: The Rose as a
Model Plant’, Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 28: 4, 267 — 280
Gudin, S. 2000. Rose: Genetics and Breeding. Chapter 17. In : Plant Breeding Reviews, Volume
17, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 159-189.
Gudin, S. 2003. Breeding Overview. In : A. V. Roberts, T. Debener, S. Gudin. Eds. Encyclopedia
of Rose Science, Volume I. Elsevier pp.25-33.
Hand, D.W. and K.E. Cockshull. 1975. Roses I: The effects of CO2 enrichment on winter bloom
production. J. Hort. Sci. 50:183-192.
Hareing, P.A. 1986. Modern roses 9. American Rose Society, Shreveport. LA.
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Ellen, California (www.quarryhillbg.org/page14.html)
Hurst, C.C. 1941. Notes on the origin and evolution of our garden roses. J. Royal Hort. Soc.
66:73-82.
Maia, N., and Vénard, P. 1976. Cytotaxonomie du genre Rosa et origine des rosiers
cultivés.p.7-20. In: Travaux sur rosiers de serre. FNPHP, Antibes.
Marriott, M. 2003. Modern (Post 1800). In : A. V. Roberts, T. Debener, S. Gudin. Eds.
Encyclopedia of Rose Science, Volume I. Elsevier pp.402-409.
Mortensen, L.M. and R. Moe. 1983. Growth responses of some greenhouse plants to
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89:8-24.
13
Carnation
S.R. Dhiman, Puja Sharma, Bharati Kashyap
Arshi Sultanpuri, Kalkame Ch. Momin and
Pratibha Chauhan
Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) is one amongst the commercially important

cut flowers traded worldwide. The genus Dianthus has about 300 species of annual,
biennial and perennial herbs of which Dianthus caryophyllus is the most important
species commercially. The genus Dianthus in Greek means ‘Flower of Zeus’ or
‘Divine Flower’. Linnaeus chose the species name, caryophyllus, after the genus
of Clove, as the fragrance from carnation is reminiscent of clove. It is genetically a
quantitative long day plant based on its photoperiod requirement (Blake, 1955). The
Dianthus species are adapted to the cooler Alpine regions of Europe and Asia and are
also found in Mediterranean coastal regions. Carnations were the first flowers to be
cultivated on commercial scale in high altitude areas of tropics for export to Europe
and North America.
It is cultivated throughout the world. The largest growing areas of carnation are in
Bogota and Colombia. Carnation is also grown in Italy, Spain, Kenya, Sri Lanka,
Canary Islands, France, Holland, Germany, Israel and USA. In India, main production
areas are located around Pune and Bangalore. It is also being grown in Solan, Shimla,
Mandi, Kullu, Chamba, Sirmour, Bilaspur and Hamirpur districts of Himachal
Pradesh. As per the State Department of Horticulture - Himachal Pradesh, carnation
occupied 44.07 hectares out of 705.77 hectare total area under floriculture in the state
during 2018-19. The acreage of carnation is still expected to increase because of the
favourable climatic conditions for its cultivation in different parts of Himachal Pradesh
and other hilly states of the country.
In India, depending upon the regions, there is a wide difference in temperature, light
intensity and humidity which not only affect the yield and quality of the flowers but also
limit their availability for a particular period of the year. To produce quality flowers,
carnation needs to be grown under cover, that is, in greenhouse which provides the
plants with the optimum condition of light, temperature, humidity and carbon dioxide
for proper growth and to achieve maximum yield of best quality flowers. Though, there
are different types of the greenhouses, naturally ventilated polyhouses are preferred in
mild climate in which temperature is reduced by ventilation (Ryagi et al., 2007).
Origin and Description

Carnation belongs to the family of Caryophyllaceae and is believed to be the native
of Mediterranean region. The centre of origin extends from Eurasia to South Africa.
It is a half hardy perennial with branching stems and tumid joints. Leaf blades are
simple, entire and usually narrow. Leaves are linear, glaucous, in opposite or decussate
pairs. Stipules are scarious, entire or lacearate. Each stem forms a terminal flower and
hence inflorescence is generally a terminal cyme, sometimes racemiform, bracteates.
Flowers are bisexual, occasionally unisexual. Calyx free or united below, cylindrical
with scaly bracts at base. Most carnations are diploid (2n=30). Tetraploid carnations
are also available which produce larger flowers, but less productive. The hybrids
continue flowering for longer periods which produce blooms continuously in mild
weather.
Importance and Uses
Carnation is well suited for cut flowers, due to its excellent keeping quality, wide range
of colours, ability to withstand long distance transportation and to rehydrate quickly
after continuous shipping. It can also be used for bedding purposes, pots, borders,
edging and rock gardens. Though cut carnations are traded in the world market year
round, they are in particular demand for the Valentine’s Day, Easter, Mother’s Day
and Christmas. Miniature carnations are now gaining popularity for their potential
use in floral arrangement. In India, places having cool climate like; Kalimpong,
Kodaikanal, Bangalore, Pune, Nasik, Himachal Pradesh etc. are most suitable areas
for the production of carnation cut flowers, which may also be exported to Europe.
Classification
Based on the availability of large number of varieties and diversified cultural
requirements, carnations are classified as:
a) Chabaud or Marguerite Carnations: These are annual carnations developed
by crossing of D. chinensis with D. caryophyllus. Flowers are single or double
and are propagated by seeds. Flowers are large with fringed petals and have
shorter post harvest life. The various kinds of Chabaud are Giant Chabaud,
Compact Dwarf Chabaud, Entant de Nice, Fleur de Camelia and Margarita.
b) Border and Picotee Carnations: The flowers of border type carnations are
symmetrical and are the easiest to grow. The flower colour varies from single to
blended colour with irregular markings. The petals are broad and smooth edged.
The flowers are generally frilled with open centers. In Picotee type ground
colour is without spot or bars. The edges are regular and of bright colour.
c) Malmaison Carnations: These are strong, sturdy and stiff plants with broad
leaves. Flowers are large, double with well filled centres and are mainly pink
coloured with good fragrance.
d) Perpetual Carnations: These are hybrids of different Dianthus species that
flowers round the year. The plants are not hardy and are generally treated as
cool greenhouse plants. They bear flowers round the year with long stalks
Carnation 195
which make them suitable for cut flowers. Perpetual flowering and greenhouse
carnations are of modern origin.
The commercially important perpetual carnations can be grouped into four major
groups: Standard, Spray, Dianthini and Mignon or Micro types. Out of these, the large
flowering Standard types are the most commercially important types.
i) Standard types: The standard type was the first group of carnation used for
large scale production. In this type, flower buds formed on short lateral shoots
arising from the axis of the upper leaves are removed to leave one large, terminal
flower on a long leafy stem, therefore, it has one large flower on an individual
stem. Flowers of standard types are available in various colour combinations.
ii) Spray types: In spray or miniature type, terminal flower bud is removed at an
early stage to encourage more even development of the lateral flowers, which
then produce a multiple flowered stem. The spray types produce many flowers
of smaller size and are better adapted to higher temperatures than the standard
types.
iii) Dianthini type: These varieties are more or less closely resemble the spray
types in appearance. However, these plants have longer stems, smaller flowers
with higher production. The flowers of these types of carnation are yet to
become popular in the market.
iv) Mignon or Micro type: Mignon or Micro types also have much similarity with
the normal spray varieties. The difference is that these plants have shorter stems
and yield is higher than spray varieties. However, demand for these types in the
market is less.
Varieties
A. Standard Varieties
Red Master, Gaudina, Sangria, Aicardi, Turbo, Guapo, Cantalupo, Merlino, Peter,
Sergio, Domingo, Decio, Monte Lisa, Don Pedro, Joker, Britannia, Tanga
White Baltico, Madame Collette, Angelica, White Dona, Cool, Nordika, Dover, Snow
Storm, Memory, White Giant, White Perfection, Icecap, Asso, Emotion
Yellow Liberty, Hermes, Diana Yellow, Kiro, Soto, Exotica, Yellow Dot Com, Pinto,
Esty, Tahiti, Diana, Laser
Pink Pink Diamante, Pink Sim, Shocking Pink, Berta, Navona, Dumas, Star Ginevra
Light Pink Varna, Rubesco, Kleos, Charmant, Cipro, Pink Dover, Bacio
Orange Helix, Malaga, Tamarind, Orange Firato, Orange Prestige, Orange Pinto
Purple Marathon, Golem, Lavender Lace, Sibilla, Farida, Margaret, Imperial Clove
Green Lady Green, Lady Spring, Prado Fresh, Prado Refit, Prado Pino, Prado Mint,
Prado Nova, Java
Bicoloured/ Madras, RendezVous, Happy Golem, Bright RendezVous, Dark RendezVous,
Stripes Tempo, Falicon, Forever, Harmony, Super Star, Raggio-di-Sole
B. Spray Varieties
Red Red Eye, Red Fuego, Red Vital, Aliser, Darling, Etna, New Elsy, Red Arrow,
Karma, Electra
Yellow Stella, Prestige, City, Imagine, Mila, Sonia, Abril, Eureka, Limon, Lior,
Castillo, Annelies
White White Prestige, Milky Way, Elvis, Coconut, Bounty, Vanilla, White Smart,
Excel, Royalette, Tibet, Amalia, Virgo, West Crystal, Opale, Hermon
Pink Rosa Bebe, Spur, Suprema, Celebration, Osiris, Donora, Fantasia, Nuria,
Rossini, Medley, Barbara, Silvery Pink
Orange Sunshine, Autumn, Fancy Fuego, Disney, Eilat, Tip Top, Target, Niky,
Macarena, Amaya
Purple Purple Chopin, Aida, Boreal, Duraongo, Roxette
Variegates/ Challenger, Martina, Saffora, Garfield, Naomi, Jacobine, Picaro, Sintonia
Striped
C. Pot Carnations
Red Charmtop, Pinky, Arosa,
Pink Davinci, Maldeves, Briljant, Pink Surprise
White Sunny, Cosmos, Cristal, White Surprise
Fancy Cerratop
Growing Structures
Most of the cut carnations are commercially grown under protected conditions to
ensure quality and yield. Design and orientation of greenhouse are of great importance
so as to ensure sufficient amount of light and proper ventilation. A greenhouse having
ridges in the north - south direction is ideal for proper ventilation and light intensity.
The plants are grown in beds of 1-1.2 m wide running in the same direction and the
path of 60 cm for movement in between the beds and towards the side wall is desirable.
Poly greenhouse provided with fan and pad system can bring down the temperature
by 8-10°C. However, top ridge and side ventilation also give fresh air exchange and
thereby lowers the temperature inside the greenhouse.
Soil
Site selection and proper soil preparation are very important for the long term production
of carnations. A well-drained sandy loam or loam soil rich in organic matter content
with pH of 6.0-7.0 is most ideal for carnation cultivation. Soils with high amount of
clay or silt can be improved by incorporating organic matter or compost. A soil EC of
0.8 - 1.2 dSm-1 during the vegetative stage and 1.2 - 1.5 dSm-1 during the generative
stage is best for carnations. The soil must have sufficient aeration and drainage because
the roots of carnation are highly susceptible to poor drainage conditions resulting in
many fungal diseases like; Fusarium wilt. The selected site should be free from weeds,
nematodes or soil-borne pathogens. Pre plant soil sterilization with steam, solarisation
or 5 % formalin is beneficial in making soil free from weeds, nematodes and soil-
borne pathogens.
Climate
For commercial cut flower production, carnations are grown in greenhouses by
maintaining optimum growing environment. Growth and flowering of carnations
Carnation 197
are influenced by the environmental factors like; temperature, light, carbon dioxide,
humidity etc.
i) Temperature
Temperature considerably influences the growth rate, flower production and quality
of the carnation flowers. The areas having high light intensity during winters and
mild temperatures in summers produces the best quality carnations. The standard
carnation prefers a cooler climate than spray varieties. For quality flower production
in carnation, the optimum night temperature is 10-11°C during winters and 13-15.5°C
in summer months, whereas, the optimum day temperature range is 18-24°C. The
rate of development of floral buds is primarily controlled by temperature and high
temperature is needed for the development of flower bud to anthesis. High day and night
temperatures, especially during flowering of carnation can result in abnormal flower
opening and calyx splitting. Calyx splitting of flower can be minimized by regulating
temperature of the polyhouse to 15.6°C on cool days and 18.3°C on sunny days. With
increased temperature, stem length, mechanical strength of stem, flower size, number
of petals per flower and keeping quality of carnation decrease considerably. On the
other hand, very low temperature delays flower bud development markedly.
ii) Light
Growth behaviour of carnation plants is influenced by duration and intensity of light.
Genetically carnation is a quantitative long day plant, i.e., flowering as such is not
inhibited by short days but is definitely hastened by long days (Blake, 1957). Long
photoperiod usually promotes flowering while short days tend to delay it. Flower
quality can be improved by providing long days only for a short period (4-6 weeks)
when the shoots have 4-7 pairs of leaves. Many of the carnation cultivars respond to
15-21 days of lighting. Depending on the cultivars there are differences in requirement
of photoperiod. The critical photoperiod for most standard and spray carnations
is about 13 hours. Long day photoperiods restricts the growth of lateral shoots of
perpetual flowering carnations and accelerates early flowering, whereas, short day
photoperiods promotes development of lateral shoots and delays the flowering during
the vegetative phase. After flower initiation, the short day photoperiods have no effect
on the flowering time of the terminal shoots and the vegetative growth of the lateral
shoots. For low light intensity during the growth period, supplementary lighting
throughout the night is very effective in promoting flowering. However, continuous
long photoperiods produce long and thin shoots of inferior quality and hence, results
in the poor flower quality.
During flower initiation, low light intensity encourages the production of more leaves
before the harvest of flowers and retards the pace of flower initiation. Whereas, high
light intensity accelerates the rate of flower initiation and the stems have lesser number
of leaves at the time of harvesting. If the carnation shoots have at least 4-6 pairs of
leaves, the increase in light intensity reduces the number of days to flower from 120
days to 90 days (Mukherjee, 2008).
iii) Humidity
The plants must be protected from rain and dew during flowering. Wet buds and
flowers are susceptible to fungal diseases. For commercial cultivation, the humidity
of greenhouse should be maintained at 80-85% during beginning of vegetative growth
and 60-65% during full growth stage. Hot and humid climate is not suitable for
carnation cultivation.
iv) Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide level affects both plant growth and flower quality in greenhouse
carnation. The effectiveness of the carbon dioxide treatment greatly depends on the
temperature and light conditions. High light intensity along with high levels of CO2
increases photosynthetic activity, which in turn enhances floral induction (Bunt et
al., 1981). Carbon dioxide level influences both the plant growth and flower quality
in carnation. Goldsberry (1963) suggested that enrichment of the atmosphere to an
extent of 550 ppm CO2 increased the number and weight of carnation flowers. The
best quality and the quantity of flowers can be obtained when CO2 concentration in the
greenhouse is maintained at 300 - 500 ppm on cloudy days and 750-1500 ppm during
sunny days under high light intensity and in a temperature range of 14-15°C. Under
favourable environmental conditions, additional carbon dioxide increases the flower
production by 10-30%.
v) Ventilation
The carnation being a cool-temperature plant, abundant fresh air circulation and
ventilation should be provided for proper growth and flowering of carnation. In
greenhouses having cooling systems, the exhaust fans and the cooling pads will take
care of proper air circulation. Greenhouses without any cooling facilities should have
vents on the sides or at the roof for proper ventilation. A ventilation of 25-30% of the
polyhouse ground area is ideal. Very low ventilation results in the withering of plants
due to drought.
Propagation
Carnation can be propagated both by seeds and vegetative methods. Seed propagation is
normally practiced to raise marguerite type carnation that breed true from seeds and for
the crop improvement through hybridization. However, perpetual flowering carnations
are vegetatively multiplied by means of terminal stem cuttings. Micropropagation
techniques have also been standardized for large scale multiplication of disease free
plants.
a) Terminal stem cuttings
Commercially, perpetual carnations are multiplied through terminal stem cuttings
obtained from healthy, vigorous and disease free mother plants maintained in a
certified nucleus block under protected conditions.
Carnation 199
Maintaining healthy mother plants in good vegetative condition is very essential

because the quality and quantity of carnation cuttings and subsequent flower
production greatly depends on the quality of mother plants. A diseased and weak
mother block cannot produce healthy crop. Hence, proper raising of mother stock and
the subsequent maintenance of mother plants is necessary throughout the growing
period. These mother plants are grown with nitrogen to promote vegetative growth.
Foliar feeding of plants with micronutrients @ 2.5 g/l and 15 ppm of ethrel after 3 - 4
days of every harvest of cuttings enhances the shoot production for cutting in the next
lot (Gupta and Bhattacharjee, 2002). Spray of Dithane M-45 (0.25 %) and Bavistin
(0.1 %) at fortnightly intervals reduces incidence of diseases. At the time of planting,
application of NPK at the rate of 30g, 20g and 10g/m2 along with 5 kg/m2 well rotten
FYM will give better results. Mother block should be grown in places where earlier
no carnation plants were grown or after one cropping. The beds should be thoroughly
sterilized to minimise the disease infection. The soil should be well drained in order to
avoid water logging of plants and free from soil borne diseases.
Disease free and healthy cuttings should be collected from the mother plants as soon as
they reached the right length and vigour. The cuttings are to be made from high quality
mother plants which were never allowed to flower and none of the shoots had ever
attained more than six nodes. Terminal cuttings of about 10-15 cm with 4-5 pairs of
leaves for standard carnations and 8-10 cm long for spray carnations are harvested for
commercial flower production in carnation. In the commercial production of rooted
carnation plants, it is also important to store the cuttings which would allow cutting
producers to regulate market supply during surplus production or peak demand to help
accommodate propagation and production schedules. Low temperatures are commonly
used for postharvest storage of in vitro propagules, transplants, and rooted cuttings
(Zencirkiran, 2010). For long term storage, cuttings are placed in polyethylene bags
or polyethylene lined boxes to prevent them from dessication. Storage of cuttings can
be done in polythene bags at 0-1°C for several weeks before rooting or can be directly
taken for rooting in rooting chambers having intermittent mist systems for maintaining
temperature and humidity.
A study was conducted to find out the storage life of carnation cuttings at Dr. Y S
Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan (Himachal Pradesh)
where it was observed that un-rooted cuttings of carnation packed in cellophane lined
boxes can be stored at 2°C temperature and 75 % relative humidity for 35 days without
significant reduction in the quality and quantity of rooted cuttings (Momin, 2012).
Harvesting of all the cuttings from a plant at one time should be avoided to prevent
the plant losing too much of the assimilating leaves. Treatment of unrooted cuttings
with a combination of fungicides Dithane M-45 (0.2%) and Bavistin (0.1%) for half an
hour before planting reduces the spread of fungal diseases during rooting. Quick dip
treatment of the basal end of cuttings with NAA @ 500 ppm before planting improves
rooting of cuttings. The cuttings are planted in the plug trays filled in with rooting
media, normally a mixture of sand and cocopeat, for better rooting of cuttings. More
frequent misting is required during summer months. There are various types of media
used for the rooting of carnation cuttings such as sand, perlite, vermiculite, cocopeat
(or coconut fibre dust), sphagnum moss, vermiculite, etc. Mixtures of two or more
materials can also be used as rooting media. However, Singh et al., (2002) observed
the perlite as the best medium for rooting. In general, rooting medium having 20-35%,
moisture content, 60% porosity, 30-40% aeration and a pH ranging between 6.0 and
6.8 are conisdered. The medium should be sterilized with formalin before planting of
cuttings.
Recently a new propagation methodology for rooting of carnation cuttings has been
introduced in which a trench is dug out up to a depth of 30 cm and the width in
accordance with the width of the plug trays. Here, the trench is filled with a thin layer
of sand and the plug trays containing growing media and carnation cuttings are placed
over the sand layer. Just after planting, trenches are irrigated thoroughly. Then the
trench is covered tightly with a polythene sheet and low cost portable propagation
tunnel covered with plastic cover is placed over the trench. It has been observed that
this method of propagation is better as compared to the conventional method in terms
of more percentage of rooted cuttings with better quality roots and labour and water
saving cost. Cuttings normally develop sufficient root system within 25-30 days of
planting.
b) Micropropagation
This is a commercial method of multiplication of carnations on large scale through
tissue culture. The main aim of in vitro propagation is to produce disease free
planting material on a large scale. Shoot tips or apical meristems are mainly used
for micropropagation to produce virus free plants. Surface sterilization of explants
with mercuric chloride (0.1%) for four minutes has been found ideal for shoot tips
and nodal segments. Murashige and Skoog basic medium containing NAA (1 mM),
kinetin (20 mM), sucrose (15 g/l) and agar (6 g/l) is ideal for establishment and shoot
multiplication and medium supplemented with NAA (1 mM), BA (3 mM) and IBA
(5 mM) is ideal for rooting. The rooted plantlets are hardened on potting medium
containing equal proportions of soil, perlite and organic manure.
Polyhouse Cultivation Propagation of Carnation by Cuttings

Carnation 201
Propagated sapling in Cube or protray Carnation crop in Agro net shed
Bed Preparation
For growing quality carnations, soil should be ploughed up to a depth of 60 to 70
cm so that it become loose and retain sufficient air and water as it will stimulate the
rooting. To improve the aeration and soil fertility, organic matter should be added.
Generally, well decomposed farm yard manure @ 25 kg, leaf mould @ 25 kg, neem
cake @ 500 g and bone meal @ 200 g per m2 is added. Adding coco peat (3 kg/m2),
humic acid granules (5 g/m2), seaweed granules (5 g/m2) and micronutrients (3 g/
m2) can improve the texture and nutrient status of the growing medium. The organic
manures should be mixed thoroughly with soil followed by pre-planting sterilization
of soil either with steam or chemical fumigants so as to eradicate pathogens and pests.
Steam sterilization involves passing of aerated steam at 60-72°C through the soil
covered with good quality plastic sheets. Of late, either Dazomet (30 - 40 g/m2) or
H2O2 (300 ml/m2) is commonly used for soil sterilization. The soil is moistened first
and then drenched with the fumigant and immediately covered with plastic. After 48
hrs the plastic cover should be removed and the soil should be thoroughly turned for
proper aeration. The fumigant should be removed by leaching with plain water 3-4
times with turning of soil each time.
Before the planting, the basal fertilizer dose of single super phosphate @ 200 g/m2,
potassium sulphate @ 150 g/m2, magnesium sulphate @ 50 g/m2 and borax @ 2 g/m2
along with 3-5 kg per m2 of well rotten FYM should be evenly spread and thoroughly
mixed with the media in the beds. Manures and fertilizers should be added to the soil
two weeks before the planting of rooted cuttings. Generally, the beds having width of
1-1.25 m of desirable length (not more than 25 m) should be raised (15-20 cm) above
the ground level for proper drainage. A path in between two beds should be sufficiently
wide i.e., about 45 - 50 cm to carry out all cultural operations, efficiently. However,
balanced development of the crop occurs when the beds are formed in the North –
South direction.
Planting
Planting should be done preferably in the evening hours. Planting schedule is very
important to regulate the flower production to get the maximum number of quality
flowers to meet the consumer’s demand and to obtain more profit. Under controlled
greenhouse conditions, carnation can be planted round the year. In India, planting of
carnation during mid September-November is ideal for northern plains to obtain flush
of carnation flowers from February to April, whereas October-February planting is
suitable for hilly areas to get flowers during mid-April to mid-July. In areas having
snowfall planting should be done during March-April to get flowers during August to
October. Mid-hills of Himachal Pradesh are practically suitable for year round flower
production of carnation.
Spacing and Planting Density
Spacing and planting density are interrelated and usually depends on the planting
pattern, cultivar, light intensity, planting time, pinching and the crop duration.
Preferably, standard carnations are planted at the spacing of 20 x 20 cm from plant
to plant and row to row, respectively and spray types are planted at the spacing of 30
x 30 cm from plant to plant and row to row, respectively. Spacing of 20 x 20 cm can
accommodate 25 plants/m2. Air movement between the plants and spray penetration is
improved with wide spacing 30 cm x 30 cm under ordinary conditions. High planting
intensifies the first flush of flowers but the quality of flowers declines gradually after
the initial season while wider spacing spreads the yield and produces the quality
flowers. Planting should be done at shallow depth to encourage rapid root growth.
Deep planting will result into root rotting and stem rot. Therefore, cuttings should be
planted at the same depth as they were in the rooting medium (Besemer, 1980).
Support System
Both standard and spray carnations require proper support system in order to get
straight stems as bend and crooked stems decrease the flower quality and its market
value. Poorly supported branches easily break, making them susceptible to diseases.
Various kinds of material like; plastic mesh, string, bamboo, canes, etc. are used for
plant support. In recent times, staking of plants with 4-5 layers of zinc galvanised
metal wires or plastic (nylon) fixed to the frames is an important cultural practice in
carnation growing. Before planting, the first layer of netting should be laid out. The
frames can be made from angle iron or pipes, whereas, netting can be done with GI
wire of 16 gauge for length wise fixing and nylon threads for width. Generally, the
bottom nets having squares of 7.5 x 7.5 cm are placed 12 cm above the soil medium in
the first planting and then the subsequent nets with squares of 15 x 15 cm are placed at
the distance of 15 cm from one another.
Special Operations
a) Training
Training is a very important and continuous operation in carnation cultivation. This
operation helps in keeping the plants within the specified area in the net to grow
straight without bending at the bottom.
b) Pinching
Pinching or stopping is an important operation in the successful production of quality
carnations and useful in flower regulation. Pinching is the removal of apical portion
Carnation 203
of the main stem at an early stage to encourage the lateral shoots to develop. Pinching
should be done approximately 4-5 weeks after planting at or below the sixth node of
the carnation plants. It generally increases the number of flowering stems but delays
flowering. Three types of pinching methods are being followed in carnation:
i) Single pinch: It is the removal of the apical portion of main shoots below sixth
node to give about 5-6 lateral shoots which produce flowers. This is done for
early crop. This method is particularly applicable to cultivars which produce
higher proportion of quality blooms like the hybrid standard carnations.
ii) Pinch and a half: This method is followed to regulate the supply of flowers
throughout the year. It involves the single pinching of main stem tip to induce
4-5 lateral shoots. When these lateral shoots develop 5-6 pairs of leaves, only
half the number of the lateral shoots are pinched. Two to three flowers are
obtained in first flush and 6-8 in the later flush. This system reduces the amount
of first crop and provides steady production of flowers without any peak time
but reduces the quantity of the first crop.
iii) Double pinch: It is the single pinching of the main shoot below sixth node
and pinching of all laterals again when they are 8-10 cm in length at 2-3 nodes
approximately 5-6 weeks after first pinch. Generally 8-10 shoots are retained.
This pinching produces larger number of flower bearing shoots and delays the
flowering but produce weak shoots and poor quality and hence, is not commonly
followed. Generally single pinch, pinch-and-a-half methods produce excellent
quality flowers
c) Disbudding
Disbudding is an important operation in standard and spray carnations. In standard
carnations, all axillary or lateral buds are removed and apical bud is retained on the
shoots. These should be removed as soon as they can be handled between forefinger
and thumb without damaging the leaves and stems to get good quality flowers. In spray
or miniature carnations, central flower bud (terminal bud) is removed to encourage the
lateral flower buds to develop a perfect spray formation.
d) Deshooting
Removal of unwanted shoots which generally arise in the leaf axil on the flowering
stems is called deshooting. This operation is done manually when such shoots are
about 2-3 cm long.
e) Weeding
Weeding is the removal of unwanted plants from the cultivation area. Generally,
manual weeding is followed in carnation by using small hand hoes or forks. Weeding
is combined with soil loosening for good aeration as well as water and nutrient
percolation into the root zone.
f) Flower regulation
The main objective of a grower is to produce maximum number of excellent quality
flowers at the time when the prices are high. Carnation shoots change from a vegetative
to a reproductive condition when the plants have 6 pair of leaves. Carnations produce
flowers in flushes as each set of lateral buds extends and terminates in a flower. A
heavy flush of flower over a shorter period is not desirable unless it is intended for a
specific date such as Diwali, New Year and Valentine Day. Time of flowering, duration
of flush and subsequent flower production are directly affected by various factors
such as, planting time, pinching methods, supplementary lighting and application
of growth regulators. Several of these factors can be manipulated to control time of
flowering and the amount and quality of flower production. Under mid hill conditions
of Himachal Pradesh, flowers can be produced throughout the year as these factors can
be controlled under naturally ventilated polyhouse conditions easily and flowers can
be produced practically round the year. An experiment was conducted to evaluate the
economics and profitability of carnation production influenced by planting dates at Dr.
Y S Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan (Himachal Pradesh)
and March planting was identified as the best planting time over other planting dates
with highest cumulative returns to produce desired quantity and quality flowers to
meet the growing domestic as well as international demand (Sultanpuri, 2018).
Nutrition
Carnation requires a high level of nutrition for optimum plant growth and better
yield with high quality flowers. The deficiency of one or more of the major nutrients
limits plant growth and flowering. Nutrient application in small quantities, but more
frequently, favours better growth and flower production. At the time of land preparation
sufficient quantity of organic manure must be added. Generally, recommended dose for
carnation is FYM (5-10 kg/m2), N (30 g/m2), P (20 g/m2) and K 10 g/m2 for standard
carnations, whereas, in case of spray carnation it is the same except that N is 40 g/m2
instead of 30 g/m2. The dose of nitrogen is given in two splits, i.e., one dose before
planting and the remaining half after one month of planting.
Apart from the above fertilizers, bio-fertilizers and bio-control agents for the control
of pest and diseases can be incorporated in the soil at the time of bed preparation.
Biofertilizers like; Azospirillum, Phosphobacteria, Trichodermaviridi, Pseudomonas
fluorescens, VAM etc. provide an alternative to agricultural chemicals as being more
sustainable and more ecologically sound practices to increase crop productivity. It
has been found that application of the mixture of biofertilizers containing vesicular
arbuscular mycorrhiza species (VAM), Azospirillum and phosphate solubilizing
bacteria (PSB) at the rate of 5-10 g in the root zone of the plant at the time of planting
improve the crop growth and the quality of carnation flowers (Anonymous, 2007).
Fertigation control involves the determination of both timing and quantity of
fertilizer and water application. Inadequate plant nutrition causes serious disorders in
carnation cultivation and may eventually lead to decline of plant vigour and ultimately
reduction of yield. Fertigation combines two main inputs required for plant growth
and development i.e. water and nutrients. The right combination of water and nutrients
Carnation 205
is the key for high yield and quality. Fertigation is done with N at 100 ppm and K at
140 ppm twice in a week along with other nutrients like; Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, Mo
and B. Excess of K may cause Mg and B deficiency. Carnations are very sensitive
to boron deficiency which causes excessive calyx splitting and abnormal opening of
flower buds. Less than 20 to 25 ppm foliar boron levels cause shortened internodes,
clubbiness, distorted flower buds and ‘witch’s broom’ symptoms. On the other hand,
excess boron (3000-5000 ppm) has been found toxic to the plants which expresses as
leaf tip burn symptoms.
Irrigation
Irrigation should be done immediately after planting. Drip irrigation system is being
followed in carnation cultivation after well establishment of rooted cuttings, generally
after 3 weeks of planting. Laterals are laid out every alternate row and emitters are
spaced at 30 cm apart. Overhead sprinkler irrigation is usually not used in carnation
cultivation as it encourages the fungal diseases. The amount of water to be given per
irrigation depends upon factors like air temperature, light intensity, humidity, soil
type and soil temperature. Fully grown carnation plants require 4-5 liter of water/m2/
day. During summer months, the crop requires 2-3 irrigations in a week, whereas, in
winters frequency of irrigation may be at the intervals of 7-10 days. It is advisable to
check the irrigation water quality in terms of EC and pH. Stagnation of water should
be avoided to minimize the incidence of diseases.
Harvesting
a) Stage of harvesting: The harvesting stage is fixed depending on the type of
carnation and market demand. Stage, time and the methods of harvesting plays
an important role in deciding quality of flowers.
Harvesting stages based on type of carnation
Type Harvesting stage
Standard carnations Paint brush stage, when petals have started to elongate outside calyx
Spray carnations With two flowers open and rest of them showing colour
Harvesting stages based on market demand:
S.N. Harvest stage Target market
1. Tight bud stage This is for long distance markets. However, it is not practiced in
commercial cultivation, since some of the flowers may not open
at all after harvest.
2. Paint brush stage This stage is ideal for long distance markets or for use after a
couple of days.
3. Semi-open stage This is ideal for short distance market. The flowers can be used
in a day or two days after harvest.
4. Open stage This is ready-to-use harvest stage and not suitable for travel.
b) Method of harvesting
Carnation flowers are preferably harvested in morning hours when they are turgid.
The flowers are harvested by either snapping the stem off at a node or cutting off with
a sharp knife or small shears. The cut given on the stem should be smooth to avoid
injury to flower stem or to the mother plant. As soon as the flowers are harvested, the
cut ends should be kept dipped in water or preservative solution (sodium hypochloride
at 1 ml/10 litre of water). Cutting the flower stems leaving 3-4 nodes above the ground
is required for growth of the ratoon crop in the following season.
Post Harvest Handling
a) Precooling
The harvested flowers are kept at a temperature of 4°C to 6°C soon after harvesting to
remove field heat. Rapid precooling of flowers maintains quality as well as increases
the longevity of flowers.
b) Grading
The flowers are graded to different classes according to their quality. Before grading
the foliage at the bottom half of the stem should be removed (stripping). Standard
carnations are graded based on uniform size and length of stem, free from pests,
diseases and physiological abnormalities.
The Society of American Florists suggests the following parameters to ensure quality:
1. Flower and leaves should be bright, clean and firm
2. Flowers should have fairly tight petals at the centre
3. Flowers should be symmetrical in shape and size representative of the cultivar
4. Flowers should be free from calyx splitting
5. Flowers should be free of decay and mechanical damage
6. Flower stems should be free of lateral buds and suckers
7. Flower stems should be straight and have normal growth.
Based on minimum flower diameter and stem length, the Society of American Florists
has developed the following grades:
S.No Parameters Grades
Blue or Fancy Red or Standard Green or Short
1. Bud diameter (mm)
a) Tight 50 44 None
b) Fairly tight 62 56 None
c) Open 75 60 None
2. Stem length (cm) 55 43 30
Carnation 207
The European Economic Community has developed the following grades of carnation
based on stem length:
Description code Minimum and maximum stem length (cm)
0 Less than 5 cm or flowers without stem
5 5-10
10 10-15
15 15-20
20 20-30
30 30-40
40 40-50
50 50-60
60 60-80
80 80-100
100 100-120
120 >120
c) Conditioning of flowers
Carnation flowers are very sensitive to ethylene. Ethylene accelerates senescence
of flowers and sleepiness of petals. As flowers are sensitive to ethylene, the cut
flowers should be treated with anti-ethylene preservatives such as silver nitrate, silver
thiosulphate (STS), 1-methylcyclopropane (1-MCP), 6-methylpurine etc. as these
chemicals inhibit the ethylene production in carnation cut flowers. However, STS
(1mM) is not recommended these days as silver being a heavy metal is hazardous to
the environment and its disposal after use becomes difficult. An external application
of sucrose has been found to suppress the ethylene binding and ultimately reduce the
ethylene sensitivity. Sucrose treatment also decreases the ACC oxidase (precursor of
ethylene) and ACC synthase activities. Therefore, the flowers after harvesting and
grading should be pulsed with 10% sucrose + 8-HQC + 25 ppm silver nitrate + 75
ppm citric acid 8-10 hours before transportation to increase storability and vase-life
of cut carnations. After pulsing, the flowers should be stored at 2-4°C temperature and
95% relative humidity in water with a nutritive solution. This is necessary to prevent
sleepiness in cut carnations.
d) Bunching
After grading, the flowers are bunched in two layers with 20 flowers per bunch for
standard carnation types and 10 stems per bunch (consisting of 35 opened or partially
opened flowers) in each stem for spray carnation types and kept at 0-20C for 12-14
hours.
e) Packing
After conditioning, the flowers are wrapped with polythene or polypropylene sleeves
to protect them from mechanical damage and to improve the appearance. Normally
perforated sleeves are used as wrapping material. The basal ends of the stems can
be placed in absorbent cotton saturated with water and enclosed in waxed paper or
aluminium foils. Different types of corrugated fibre board boxes are used for packaging
of carnation flowers. The boxes must be strong enough to withstand the weight of at
least eight full boxes placed on top of one another under conditions of high humidity.
For long distance transport, telescopic style boxes made up of corrugated fibre board
are recommended. Normally a box size of 122cm, 50cm and 30cm length, width and
height respectively is used. Standard carnations are packed with 24, 28 or 32 bunches
per box according to the grade. Spray carnations are packed with 100 bunches per
telescopic corrugated carton. All gaps inside the boxes should be filled with shredded
paper. Sides of box should have vent holes with flap. Total vent size should be equal to
4-5% of the area of the end wall of the box.
Transportation should be done in a refrigerated van at 2-4°C temperature to maintain
the cool chain up to cargo. However, for local markets it should be done by trains,
buses and trucks during night hours.
Yield
Yield of carnations depends on type and cultivar, growing region and environment,
planting time, plant density, pinching methods and also the period of harvest. In
general, spray carnations produce more flowers than standard carnations. The number
of flowers in standard carnations ranges between 8 and 12 flowers/ plant/year. In
general 200-350 flowers/m2 can be obtained from standard carnation, while 250
flowers/ m2 can be obtain from spray carnation.
Insect Pests and Diseases
Red Spider Mite (Tetranychus urticae): This is the most serious pest in carnations.
The mites are minute red insects which feed on the undersides of the leaves, suck the
sap and eventually the leaves turn pale, withered, bronze and show severe webbing.
Plant growth, crop quality, yield and vase life of carnation flowers decreased. In
severe cases, plants become stunted with off-colour and smaller flowers.This pest is
best controlled with miticide aerosols. Spraying of Malathion or Metacid (0.1 %) or
Dicofol (0.2 %) at fortnight interval is reported to be effective.
Aphids (Myzus persicae): Aphids suck the sap from the leaves and disfigure the young
growth. In case of severe attacks, they leave sticky deposits on the leaves and flower
buds. Aphids also act as vectors for ring spot and carnation mosaic viruses. It can be
controlled by aphids, foliar spray of Rogor or Basudin (2 ml/l) is very effective.
Thrips (Thrips tabaci): Thrips also suck the sap from the leaves, causing them to
turn yellow and patchy often with black specks and slight wrinkling. They also cause
streaks in the flowers and the stems making them unmarketable. Red and pink cultivars
are more susceptible. It can controlled by Malathion (2 ml/l) or Rogor (1 ml/l) or
Sumithion (3.5 ml/l) can be used for effective control of thrips.
Bud Borer: Caterpillars are mostly a problem of the carnation bud. The eggs are laid
in the buds and the larvae eat into the bud that is completely damaged. The larvae
feed on leaves, flower buds and flowers. They make characteristic round holes in
buds and flower heads. The infested buds fail to open. The attack by this pest is more
Carnation 209
during warm conditions. Caterpillars can be handpicked and manually destroyed.

Alternatively, spraying of Novaluron @ 3 ml/l or Indoxacarp 14.5 SL @ 1 ml/l or
Fenitrothion 50 EC at 1.5ml/l can also control the bud borer.
Root Knot Nematode (Meloidogyne spp): Symptoms appears as stunted growth of
plants with galls or knot like swellings of various sizes on roots. Leaves are yellow
in severe infestations. Nematodes can be eliminated by growing plants in fumigated
soil. Application of Furadon, Aldicarp or Nemaphos @ 10g/m2 controls nematodes in
carnation.
Diseases: The important diseases of carnation and their possible control measures are:
Fusarium wilt: The disease caused by Fusarium oxysporum var. dianthi, a soil borne
fungus, is one of the most serious diseases as it is causes severe damage to the carnation
crop. This pathogen is very virulent when the temperature is high and the damage in
soil is poor. It results is wilting of foliage, often only on a few branches followed by
death. In the later stages, rotting of the stem is seen below ground level with internal
brown streaking extending up to stem. If pulled the plant breaks off easily while the
firm roots remain in the soil. Infected cuttings wilt and die rapidly.The best control
measures are soil sterilization or chemical fumigation of the soil, use of pathogen free
plants and proper sanitation in the greenhouse. Diseased plants should be rogued
and destroyed to reduce the source of infection. Drenching the soil with Bavistin (0.1
%) and Dithane M-45 (0.25 %) at fortnightly intervals is quite effective. Benomyl or
Rhidomil @ 2g/lit of water can also control the spread of the disease.
Stem rot: It is caused by Rhizoctonia solani. It affects the plants at soil level and the
plant dies within a week or 10 days. The plants start wilting ollowed by yellowing of
foliage and ultimately the death of plants. Stems sometimes show a brown discoloration
and cracking just below soil level. The brown rot can extend upto the stem. Fluffy,
light brown fungal hyphae can sometimes be observed on the surface of the rotting
tissue. Early stages of the disease can be confused with fusarium wilt, but differ in that
no internal brown streaking is observed.
Control
• Plant material derived from pathogen tested stock into fumigated soil.
• Relative resistance of carnation to R. solani can be increased by good air
circulation, good drainage, shallow planting of cuttings and a low or medium
fertility level.
• Incidence of the disease can be reduced by drenching with fungicide (Bavistin
or Benomyl @ 2g/litre) before planting.
• Copper oxychloride (0.4 %) is also very effective.
• If disease develops infected plants should be removed and apply Rhidomil or
Benomyl @ 2g/lit as a soil drenching.
Rust: It is caused by Uromyces dianthi or U. caryophyllinus. Early infections appear
as pale green blister like swellings, which erupt releasing reddish to dark brown
powdery masses of spores. Postules can be up to 10 cm in length and occur on stems,
leaves and calyces. Severely infected leaves may turn yellow and die. The disease
is common under warm humid conditions. It reduces plant vigour and quality of cut
flower. To control wet foliage should be avoided and infected plants should be
rogued. Maintain a regular preventive spray program using mancozeb @ 1.5g/lit,
zineb @ 1g/lit and sulphur @ 1g/litre or Bavistin (0.1 %) / Dithane M-45 (0.25 %) to
keep the disease under check.
Grey mould: It is caused by Botrytis cinerea. Initially a wet tan coloured blotch
develops on petal tips and spreads rapidly through the petals to produce a fluffy
gray mould. This disease can develop on cut flowers while in transit. The disease is
favoured by high humidity. It can be controlled by reducing the humidity, maintain
good ventilation and hygiene practices. Rovral @ 0.5g/litre or Benlate @ 1.5g/litre is
registered for control of Botrytis on carnations.
Stem and root rot: It is caused by Phytophthora spp. Symptoms are seen as withering
and yellowing of foliage, leaf death, external browning of stems and internal browning
at nodes. Stem and root rot may be present. Wet conditions, over watering and badly
drained soils favor developments of the disease. For effective control, over watering
and poorly drained soils should be avoided. Drenching with Benomyl @ 2g/litre or
Aliette @ 2.5 g/litre can also reduce the disease incidence.
Alternaria leaf spots: This disease is caused by Alternaria dianthi. Small purple
spots appear on the leaves, stems and occasionally on the flowers. These develop in
to spots upto 5mm in diameter with brown center surrounded by broad purple margin.
Spores resembling black specks develop randomly in the center of spots. Heavily
infected leaves may die. Infected branches may be girdled, particularly at the nodes.
The temperature beyond 23.80C is known to increase the disease incidence. Avoid
excessive moisture in crops. Disease can also be controlled by spraying with Zineb
@ 1g/litre, Mancozeb @ 1.5g/litre, Hexaconazole @ 1ml/litre or Propiconazole
@ 1ml/litre
Fairy ring spots: This is caused by fungus Cladosporium echinulatum.Whitish tan
coloured spots upto 5mm in diameter surrounded by a narrow red purple margin.
Black pin-head sized spore masses occur in concentric rings on the surface of the
spots. The disease occurs on the leaves, stems and calyces. Spray of Bavistin (0.1 %)
or Dithane M-45 (0.25 %) or Mancozeb @ 1.5g/litre or sulphur @ 1g/litre regularly
at 10 day intervals reduces the disease incidence.
Carnation Mottel Virus (CMV): CMV is the most common virus detected in
carnation. Usually infected plants are symptom less, however some cultivars can show
a mottling pattern on the leaves. It reduces flower quality and production and may
cause inconsistent colour integrity in the petals. CMV has no known rector and is
highly infectious. Prevention is the only option, as viral disease cannot be controlled
by chemicals. Use plants derived from pathogen tested stock and maintain strict
hygiene practices can minimize the disease incidence.
Calyx splitting: Calyx splitting is an important disorder in carnation, which has been
associated with many factors like genetic, environmental, nutritional and other cultural
Carnation 211
practices. The cultivars with short and broad calyx are more susceptible than the ones
with long and narrow calyx. Irregular or fluctuating temperature during flowering also
induces calyx splitting. Low temperature below 10°C leads to the development of an
extra whorl of petals inside the calyx. The calyx unable to hold these extra growing
petals later splits up. Nutritional make up of plants also influence calyx splitting. Low
nitrogen, high ammonical nitrogen or low boron levels enhance calyx splitting. Closer
spacing has also been reported to encourage calyx splitting.
Control
• Selection of cultivars such as, Espana, Carboret, Red Corso, Pamir, Raggio-di-
Sole etc. that are less prone to calyx splitting.
• Regulation of day (20-25°C) and night (12.5-15.5°C) temperatures and
maintenance of optimal levels of nitrogen (25-40 ppm) and boron (20-25 ppm)
in the growing medium can minimize this disorder.
• Spraying of borax @ 0.1% at fortnightly intervals will reduce the disorder.
• Calyx splitting can be reduced by placing a rubber band around the calyx of the
flower which has started opening.
Sleepiness: Sleepiness causes huge post harvest losses in cut carnation. It occurs due
to exposure of flowers to ethylene or water stress. Also, the incidence of sleepiness has
been found to be higher when the flowers are stored for a longer period or when they
are exposed to higher temperature. Spraying of STS 0.4 mM before harvesting the
flowers will correct this disorder.
Grassiness: Grassiness refers to failure of plants to produce flowers. This is a genetic
disorder which varies from variety to variety. It can Removal and destruction of
affected plants is the only way of correcting this disorder.
Slabside: This disorder refers to uneven opening of flower buds resulting in the petals
protruding on one side only, giving an asymmetrical and lopsided shape to the flower.
It is common during cooler periods. It can be overcome by gradually increasing the
temperature to optimum level.
Calyx tip die back: Potassium deficiency and water stress cause tip die back. This
disorder commences with browning of the calyx tip and it progresses downwards
damaging a major part ofthe calyx. It is often followed by occurrence of secondary
fungal infection which makes the flower unmarketable. It is controlled by spraying of
potassium chloride @ 5g/l two times at 10 days intervals and providing adequate water
@ 4.5 l/m2 can minimize this malady.
Internode splitting: Splitting of internodes affects the quality of cut flowers. Splitting
is due to boron deficiency. It can control by application of borax @ 2g/m2 will correct
internode splitting.
References
Anonymous. 2007. Package of practices for floriculture and landscaping, Directorate of
Extension Education, Dr. Y S Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan
(H.P.).
Besmer S T. 1980. Carnation.In: Introduction to Floriculture. Larson R A, (ed.). New York,
USA:Academic Press. pp. 49-79.
Blake J. 1957. Photoperiodism in the perpetual flowering carnation.Rep. 14th Int. Hortic.Congr.
Netherlands, 1955.H Veemnan and ZonenWangeningen, Netherlands.331-336.
Gupta Y C and Bhattacharjee S K. 2002. Carnation. Tech. Bull. No. 15, AICRP on Floriculture,
ICAR, New Delhi.
Momin Kalkame Ch. 2012. Effect of nutrient management on cutting production, storage and
rooting of carnation (Dianthus Caryophyllus L.). PhD thesis, Dr. Y S Parmar University of
Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan (H.P.).
Mukherjee D. 2008. Speciality cut flower production technologies. Kolkata: NayaUdyog. pp.
151-216.
Ryagi V Y, Mantur S M and Reddy B S. 2007. Effect of pinching on growth, yield and quality of
flower of carnation genotypes grown under polyhouse. Karnataka Journal of Agricultural
Science, 20(4): 816-818.
Singh K P, Suchitra, Raghava S P S and Misra R L. 2002. Effect of media on rooting of carnation
cuttings. Journal of Ornamental Horticulture 5(2): 53.
Sultanpuri Arshi. 2018. Effect of staggered planting on growth, flowering and profitability of
carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) for extended flower availability. PhD thesis, Dr. Y S
Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan (H.P.).
Zencirkiran M. 2010. Cold storage of rooted and non-rooted carnation cuttings. African Journal
of Biotechnology 9(24): 3603-3606.
14
hrysanthemum
L.N. Mahawer, A.L. Regar and Sadam Hussain
Chrysanthemum takes its name derived from the Greek word chryos meaning gold
and anthos meaning a flower, as many species have yellow flower heads. The genus
Chrysanthemum belongs to family Asteraceae. It is herbaceous perennial plant. The
genus comprises some 200 species of annuals, perennials and shrubs from northern
temperate zone (chiefly Europe and Asia), whereas some researchers claim it was
originated only from China. Though botanists have retained only the annual species
under the genus Chrysanthemum (Beckett, 1983; Dole and Wilkins, 1999).
Annual chrysanthemums which are propagated through seeds. Annual chrysanthemum
comprise of three species viz., Chrysanthemum segtum (corn marigold), Chrysanthemum
carinatum (tricoloured chrysanthemum) and Chrysanthemum coronarium (crown
daisy or garland chrysanthemum). The crown daisy or garland chrysanthemum (C.
coronarium) is a native from Southern Europe, branching annual with finely cut
foliage reaching a height up to a metre, size of flowers varies from 2.5 to 4 cm and
colour is usually in shades of yellow and white with cream zone at the center (Vishnu
Swarup, 1967).
Importance and Uses
Chrysanthemum is the number one dollar earning flower in the United States and
cultivars suitable for growing throughout the year have been evolved there. The
members of National Chrysanthemum Society run into thousands in several countries.
It ranks second (next to rose) in the international cut flower trade. In India, it occupies
a place of pride both as a commercial flower, garden plant, pot plant and as a popular
exhibition flower.
Large number of chrysanthemum cultivars which exhibit wide variation for characters
like growth habit, size, colour and shape of blooms makes chrysanthemum suitable
for varied purpose. Its erect and tall growing cultivars are suitable for background
planting in borders and as cut- flowers. The dwarf and compact growing ones are
suitable for front row planting or pot culture. The decorative and fluffy bloomed small
flowered cultivars are ideal for preparation of garland and hair decoration. The extra
large- bloomed cultivars are prized for their exhibition value. Certain species like
Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium and Chrysanthemum coccineum are cultivated as
sources of pyrethrum, a natural insecticide.
Origin and Distribution

It is native from Asia and Northern Europe. Most of the species originated from East Asia
and center of diversity which is exist in China. Florist’s chrysanthemum is a complex
hybrid origin and has derived from a number of species such as Chrysanthemum tweak
[(Kher, 1989; Arumugam et al., 2006), C. indicum (L.) Desmoul. (Thistlethwaite,
1960; Beckett, 1983; Anderson, 1987)] bearing single yellow flowers, C. japonicum
(Mak.) Kitam (Anderson, 1987), C. ornatum (Kher, 1989), C. sinense bearing single
white ray flowers (Thistlethwaite, 1960), C. satsumense (Kher, 1989) and C. veslitum
syn. C. morifolium (Beckett, 1983) and certain other species native of eastern Asia,
viz. China and Japan (Hay and Beckett, 1971).
In the international cut flower trade rose is first and chrysanthemum ranks next to it.
In India also, it is highly prized crop and has occupied a place of highly esteemed
commercial flower with the name of `guldoudi, derived from ‘gul-e-doud’ meaning
the ‘flower of Doud’ and a cultivar from India named ‘Gul-doodi is reported to be
growing in Holland since 1690. Commercially it is being cultivated in Maharashtra,
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar.
For local consumption it is also being grown in all the temple cities of the country. Its
cultivation history is very old as evidently China had been cultivating it since 500 B.C.
and Confucius, the Chinese philosopher has also described its yellow glory as early as
550 B.C. and the cultivated chrysanthemums after over 1,000 years of development
were exported from China to Japan about A.D. 750 where Japanese further developed
the Chinese cultivated varieties through cross- fertilization with wild Japanese varieties
(Thistlewaite, 1960).
Taxonomy
Florist Chrysanthemum (Dendranthema x morifolium) a perennial group of plants, are
half-hardy border perennials and hardy greenhouse plants which are usually heavily
scented. They have alternate, lanceolate to obovate leaves, from nearly or quite
entire, often lobed or more deeply dissected and terminal. Flower head is known as
capitulum, which have two types of flowers. In a single chrysanthemum the outer rows
of petals, known as ray florets, which are unisexual with pistillate flower, whereas
yellow flowers appear in the centre, which is comprised from stamens and stigmas
collectively called as disc florets. Various classes of chrysanthemum are based on the
forms of the flowers angles of the petals of both types of florets and the size of the
capitulum exist in flower.
Nazeer and Khoshoo (1982) stated that though basic chromosome number for the
genus is n = 9, a wide range of ploidy level (hexaploidy, aneuploidy, polyaneuploidy,
etc., i.e. 2n = 36, 45, 47, 51-75) is found in different cultivars. Self-incompatibility
found in chrysanthemum is either protandry or sporophytic and involves more than
one locus Fryxwell (1957). Drewlow et al. (1973) also reported that nine sibling
clones selected from a highly compatible cross were all self-incompatible. Zagarski
et al. (1983) when crossed 11 sibling lines obtained through 2-generation single plant
self-pollination, in a complete diallel selfing and crossing with completely unrelated
individuals, found that at least three genes were involved which governed self-
Chrysanthemum 215
incompatibility in chrysanthemum. While studying the somatic-genetic analysis of the

apical layers of 16 chimeral sports of cultivar. Stewart and Derman (1970) reported
that a cultivar can be genetically of one colour in L and may be another colour in L2
and as sex cells arise from L2, a L1 white but L2 pink cultivar which appears of white
flower colour will breed pink and vice versa on crossing. It is also recorded that for
flower colour inheritance, the presence of one gene A ensures anthocyanin production,
gene I inhibits carotene production, absence of A and I both give yellow colouration,
absence of only A expresses white flower colours, A without I results into bronze and
brownish red flowers, while combination of A and I results into pink, carmine and
bluish-red flowers (Kher, 1989). Singleness is partially dominant over doubleness,
in which semi-doubles are comparatively much more in the progeny, followed by
singles including anemone types, and then doubles (Kher, 1989)’ Chrysanthemums are
required to be bred for flowering at low temperature, rapid growth following a short
period of long days, longer stems (up to 80 cm), compact and short growth habits,
good sucker production, less and smaller leaves to save planting space and for pollen-
less cultivars. Kher (1986) states that a large number of outstanding spray and loose
type chrysanthemum cultivars in India have been evolved through selection method
such as Apsara, Birbal Sahni, CO1, CO2, Jaya, Jayanti, Sharad Singar etc.
In chrysanthemums, sports are of frequent occurrence so the better ones are isolated
and multiplied. Artificially also, through irradiation with X-rays or 60CO gamma rays
the mutations in chrysanthemums are induced. Broertjes (1966) reported optimum
X-ray close as 1500 R for producing chrysanthemum mutants though mutation
frequency was low. Gupta (1971) reported three groups of cultivars with respect to
optimum dose of gamma rays for induction of mutation limitations in chrysanthemum,
viz. those highly sensitive to gamma rays where I.1)-50 appears below 1.5 KR dose,
those cultivars where 1.1)-50 appears between 1.5 - 2.5 KR and those cultivars where
1.1) 50 appears above 2.5 KR dose. Induction of significant increase in the ray floret
length through gamma irradiation has also been possible. Pink cultivars have been
recorded producing more mutants in the direction of obtaining bronze, yellow and
whites, though the mutants of reverse colours are difficult to obtain. Likewise, whites
generally produce yellow and bronze red-yellow mutants. Broertjes et al. (1976)
produced non-chimeral solid mutants by growing in vitro, the irradiated single cells of
the epidermis, stating that mutation of L, layer produces flower colour mutations while
L, layer mutation causes effect on plant height, vigour and flower size.
Classification
I. Classification based on National Chrysanthemum Society, England.
a. Single: Have one or more outer pistillate flower (ray florets) with disc florets at
the centre.
b. Anemones: Similar to the class single except the disc florets are elongated and
tubular forming a cushion. Disc flowers may be the same or a different colour
from the ray florets flowers.
c. Pompons: A globular head formed by short uniform ray florets flowers, the
shape is considered formal, disc florets flowers are not apparent, further
classified into three distinct size,
(1) Small buttons (4 cm or less in diameter)

(2) Intermediate (4-6 cm in diameter)
(3) Large (6-10 cm in diameter)
d. Decorative: Have a floret arrangement similar to pompons since they are
composed mainly of ray florets flowers but the outer rows are longer than
central flower giving the flowers a flatter appearance or informal shape, sizes
are mostly intermediate and large.
e. Large flowered: Blooms are greater than 10 cm and classified in many shapes.
The disc florets are not apparent in most of these forms.
(i) Incurved double: Globose and formal with ray florets flowers similar in size
to the disc flowers and that curve inward and towards the top.
(ii) Reflexed double: Less formal and globose than the incurved double with
over lapping ray flowers curved downward except for the ray flowers.
(iii) Tubular ray florets: They are classified as
(a) Spider: Ray flowers tubular and elongated into the outer rows but short in
center. The dropping outer row ray flowers are sometimes hooked on the ends.
(b) Fuji: Similar to the spider except the ray flowers may be shorter, droopless and
hooks on the ends.
(c) Quill: Tubular ray florets flowers, long on the outside and short near the center,
resembling feather quills. Ends of flowers are open and not flattened.
(d) Spoon: Similar to the quill except the outer row flowers are open and flattened,
resembling a spoon.
II. Classification based on temperature requirement for flowering
i Thermo zero cultivar: Those cultivars in which flowering occurs at any
temperature between 10-27oC but most consistently at 16oC night temperature.
e.g. Shasta
ii. Thermo positive cultivars: The cultivars continues exposed to low temperature
between 10º and 13ºC inhibited and delayed floral bud initiation, minimum of
16oC required for bud initiation and at high temperature 27oC there will be rapid
flower bud initiation but flowering was delayed.e.g. Cameo
iii. Thermo negative cultivars: Flower bud initiations occurred at low or
high temperature between 10oC and 27oC but continuous exposure to high
temperature delayed flower bud development cv. Defiance. Arumugam et
al. (2006) suggested that chrysantheum requires two critical day lengths
(photoperiods), one for floral bud initiation, other for floral bud development
and these varies due to temperature and variety
Chrysanthemum 217
III. Classification depending upon duration

Early Medium Late
90 days to bloom from final 100-110 days to bloom from 110 and more days to bloom
transplanting final transplanting from final transplanting
Species and Cultivars
Species
The genus Chrysanthemum comprises from 250 species, out of which some of the
important species are:
1. C. boreale: Believed to have been involved in the evolution of florists’
chrysanthemum.
2. C. cinerariifolium and C. coccineum : Grown in temperate regions for making
an insecticide called ‘Pyrethrum’
3. C. carinatum(Tricolour chrysanthemum): Tri colour chrysanthemum,
flowers 5 cm in diameter and winter season annual
4. C. coronarium(Garland chrysanthemum): Garland chrysanthemum, winter
season annual. Flowers are yellow or white.
5. C. frutescens(Paris daisy/ Pot chrysanthemum): Small shrub, 60-90 cm tall,
bearing white and soft yellow flower. Popularly grown as pot plants.
6. C. maximum (White and Yelllow Cut Flower): It is most widely grown for
use of cut flower. Perennial in growth habit and which bears white and yellow
flowers.
7. C. morifolium (Florists’ chrysanthemum): Hybrid species resulted from
repeated interspecific crosses among the elemental species extending over
a period of more than 2500 years. Perennial, bear blooms as a composite
inflorescence with two types of florets arranged on a flattened axis called
capitulum. The outer florets are called ray florets(with only female parts) and
the inner ones are disc florets(bear male and female florets) and a tubular corolla
is made up of five united petals.
8. C. indicum: It is native from China and Japan and named inappropriately as
indicum. Which contain yellow flower and involved in the evolution of florists’
chrysanthemum.
9. C. japonicum: It is grown in Pacific coastal region of Japan and widely used as
an ornamental plant.
10. C. sinense: Native of china and bears blooms of white ray florets. This is
supposed to be source of today florists chrysanthemum.
11. C.sibiricum: It is an one of the parents of Korean hybrids evolved in early
1930s
Cultivars
Large no. of cultivars is present in chrysanthemum. In Japan > 50,000 cultivars, in
India > 500 cultivars and in Britain > 6000 cultivars are reported.
I. Indian cultivars
a) Large flowered (Exhibit)

• White: Beauty, Snow ball, Innocence, Premier
• Yellow: Chandrama, Mountaineer, Super Giaint, Evening star, Pusa Centenary
• Purple and Pink: Pink cloud, Peter May, Royal Purple, Classic Beauty
• Red and Bronze: Bravo, Alfred Wilson, Distinction, Diamond
b) Small flowered
i) For pot cultivation: Dwarf, compactness, profuse branching, uniform
spreading, simultaneous blooming habit, attractive novel colour, good colour
retention quality and healthy leaves.
White Group: Excelsior, Honey Comb, Mercury,Niharika,Sharad Shoba,
Sharad Mala
Yellow Group: Archana, Aparajita, Topaz, Indira, Liliput, Mayur, Peet Singar,
Sharad Kanti
Red and Bronze Group: Arun Singar, Arun Kumar, Flirt, Jaya, Red Gold,
Rakhee
Mauve Group: Ace, Charm,Fantasy, Mohini, Hemant Singar
ii) For cut flowers: The cultivar should possess healthy leaves, long erect stem,
bloom uniformity, tough floret and long vase life etc.
White: Apsara, Himani, Birbal Sahni, Illini Cascade, Baggi
Yellow: Basanti, Freedom, Jayanti, Kundun, Nanako, Sujatha
Mauve: Ajay, Alison, Gaity, Nilima, Sharad Prabha
Red: Blaze, Dainty, Flirt, Jaya, Jubilee, Arka Ravi, Ravi Kiran
iii) For garland making: Cultivars should possess bloom diameter about 5.0 cm,
disc absent or invisible, fluffy bloom, high yielding, long flower duration, good
colour retention, yellow and white colour etc.
• White: Carol, Lilith, Sharad shoba
• Yellow: Vasantika, Hosur Yellow
II. Spray chrysanthemums for international flower trade
• White: Reagan White, Spider White, Cassa, Stallion
• Yellow: Reagan Yellow, Spider Yellow, Cassa Sunny
• Salmon: Reagan Salmon
• Pink: Reagan Improved, Glance Improved
Chrysanthemum 219
• Orange: Tiger, Reagan Orange

• Red: Reagan Red
Indian Varieties
Red Gold –Flirt x Valentine : High yielder
IIHR 10 (Ravi Kiran ) : Hybrid suitable for cutflower
IIHR 11 (Akash ) : Hybrid suitable for loose flower
IIHR mutant 9 (Yellow Gold) suitable for loose flowers
IIHR Sl.5 & Sel-6 Seeding Selection: High yielders and suitable for loose flowers.
IIHR Sel.7, IIHR Sel.8, and IIHR Sel.9 released from IIHR.
NBRI-Agnisikha, Navneet .
IARI- Pusa Anmol, Pusa Guldusta for cutflower, Pusa Keshari, Pusa Centenary for
standard, Pusa Chitraksha, Pusa Sona, Pusa Aditi for Pot mum purpose.
Growth requirements
Day length
Chrysanthemum crop requires long days for vegetative growth phase and short day
length light for floral bud initiation and development phase (photosensitivity). There
are varieties which are not photosensitive and flower at a certain age. This segment is
very limited in both varieties and market share.
At present professional growers make use of the day neutral varieties programming
them year round by manipulating the day length. This article only highlights aspects of
this type of chrysanthemum cultivation. The production cycle of the chrysanthemum
can be split into two viz., vegetative phase (to get the correct stem length) and the
generative phase (formation of the flowers).
Vegetative growth will occur when illumination is 12 hours or more i.e. long day (LD).
Flower induction, the generative phase, requires at least 13 hours of night i.e. short
day (SD). The plants built up florigen hormones needs for flower induction after 5 to
6 hours of short day. The time between the start of the short day period and flowering
is called Reaction Time and which is expressed either in weeks or days. Each variety
has its own specific Reaction Time. The reaction will be influenced by the different
climatic conditions throughout the years, mainly temperature: the Reaction Time
increases at both extremely high and low temperatures.
One can intervene in the process of flower formation by not letting the period of
darkness exceeding 5 hours. This can be achieved through artificial lighting. Lighting
can be done continuously or in cycles. The bulbs may be preferably by 150 Watts. The
bulbs should give disperse light. Spot light types (mirrored bulbs) are not good since
they give focused light. The number of bulbs required per square meter is 9, this way
the Lux at plant level in all spots should come to 90, in those periods where nights are
short to obtain flower induction one should go for black closing to arrive at the correct
number of hours of darkness at least for 13 hours. Black closing is done by closing out
all light with black plastic. Since errors in lighting are irreversible one should check
the electrical system regularly. With the unreliable power supply in India generator is
a must to ensure the availability of power to run the lighting system.
The artificial lighting or black closing, depending on the day length which is correlated
to a particular time of the year. Thus it can occur that in some periods black closing
is not required or both black closing and lighting are required. Understanding the
mechanism of photosensitivity it is obvious that portions of shade created, for example
the rolled up black plastic, gutters and trees have a negative effect on the uniformity
of flowering.
Climate
Light is the source of plant activity. Light is however, the source of heat is also. During
summer when the temperature starts rise, blocking out light with limestone and / or
screens make sure that the Lux (the unit of measurement for light intensity) does not
exceed 70,000. The dark period day length required for flower bud initiation 14-14.5
hours per day and for floral bud development 13-13.5 hours per day is essential for
flower process. The minimum dark period day length required for flower bud initiation
is 9-9.5 hr per day in chrysanthemum. For vegetative growth under long day condition
requires 13 hours light and 11 hrs dark period. Whereas for floral phase under short
day condition 10 hours light and 13 hours dark period is required.
The optimal temperature range for cultivation of chrysanthemum is 16-25oC.
Temperatures below 16 oC but not lower than 12 oC which allows plant growth but
most varieties need 16-18oC for flower induction, otherwise the plant will remain
vegetative.
Temperatures from 25-35oC can relatively easy to be managed by cultivation
techniques like applying limestone on plastic / glass, frequent overhead misting,
different techniques and / or timings of closing the black plastic, installing a protective
screen (shade net, alumunium net screen) and installing a pad and fan system. When
the temperature exceeds 35oC especially the “darker colours” like red, purple and
orange will tend to fade, the number flowers per stem will come lower down and also
reduce flower size.
Soil
Chrysanthemum can grow on different types of soil however rich organic soils are
favourable. The pH should be approximately 6.5, when the soil has a pH which is
too high, use acid fertilizers (phosphates), when it is too low use Calcium Carbonate.
Chrysanthemums prefer a well-drained slightly acid soil with a pH value of 6.5
(Brickell, 1992). Dole and Wilkins (1999) suggests a soil pH ranging from 5.7 to 6.2
and Kher (1989) from 6.2 to 6.7. The electric conductivity level (EC) indicates the
salinity of the soil, it should be checked regularly. A soil – EC of 1 – 1.5 is good. When
the EC is too high besides adjusting the fertilizer mixture, one can wash out the soil by
excessive irrigation (not on heavy soil types).
Chrysanthemum 221
Soil preparation
The soil should be leveled before planting to obtain a homogenous crop. The soil has
to be made free from soil born diseases by summer ploughing of soil also known as
soil solarization process for 30 days in May-June month and weeds once a year. This
can also be done with methyl bromide or by steam. To improve the structure and
water retaining capacity of soil can be mixed with cattle manure or coco peat. Since
chrysanthemum has a shallow root system it is only required to mix it in the top layer
(the first 25 cm).
Soil disinfection
If Chrysanthemum is to be grown for the first time, it is advisable to disinfect the soil.
This can be done by fumigation under protected condition.
Irrigation
The availability of the correct amount of water is extremely important for a uniform
growth. Quantity of water as well as distribution of water is important. This requires
a good control and a correct irrigation system. Dry spots leads to retarded growth of
plants and wet spots to a fungal disease called Pythium or Septoria leaf spot
Overhead sprinkling system with rotating sprinklers is the method. This not only gives
uniform growth but also provides the required relative humidity in the greenhouse
(75%). At the stage when flower bud starts opening (the last 2 weeks) over head
irrigation should be stopped and watering should be done by hose pipes. Drip irrigation
with 4 litre per hour emitters can be run for 30 minutes at three days interval except
rainy days
Drainage
Good soil drainage is desirable for a number of reasons. The most important of these
are:
a. To neutralize errors in watering
b. A constant ground – water level can be maintained
c. Maintenance of soil structure
Manuring and Fertilization
Chrysanthemum is a heavy feeder and requires large amounts of both Nitrogen
and Potassium. Nitrogen is required at early stage and the plants need P throughout
the growth period. As the buds appear, the proportion of K should be increased
and be reduced. Sujatha and Mohandas (2004) concluded that Glomus moschata+
Azotobactor + 75% N + 75% P2O5 promoted yield of flower, Glomus fascialuatum
+ PSB (phosphorus solubilising bacteria ) + 75% P2O5 promoted growth yield and
which can save 25 percent application of phosphate fertilizer in chrysanthemum cv.
Chandrika.
Chawla et al.(2007) reported that 300 kg nitrogen and 150 kg per ha phosphorus
in chrysanthemum cv. Neelima resulted in higher yield of flower with the full dose
of phosphorus and half dose of nitrogen should be applied as basal application and
remaining half dose of nitrogen 30 days after transplanting under Udaipur . A basic
fertilization of 4 kg NPK 10-10-10 and 5 kg triple phosphate per 100 square meter can
be applied. In chrysanthemum , application of 25 kg N in the form of sheep manure
and 75 kg N as urea per hectare should be given.
A fertilizer dose of 200 kg N, P, K/ha along with 50 t of FYM is optimum for increased
flowering and yield (open field condition). Fertigation has to practiced for green house
cultivation.
Nutrient requirement of chrysanthemum crop (ppm)
Plant age in N P K Ca Mg B
weeks
0-3 120 30 220 78 20 0.33
4-7 130 30 230 78 20 0.33
8-12 150 30 250 78 20 0.33
At early stages establishment of overhead sprinklers are recommended. After 30 days
drip/overhead fertigation starts. Five cubic meters of water with 60:60:60 ppm of N: P:
K should be applied. At the vigorous growth stages 5-6 litre water/m2 with 100:10:100
of NPK should be given.
Weeding and hoeings are generally done manually as and when needed, normally 2-3
times. Besides control of weeds, the soil is made loose porous to provide aeration.
Treatment with trifluralin , EPTC , nitrofen , DCPA, diphenamid, Oxyflourfen @0.75
kg a.i., Pendimethalin 0.75kg active ingradient per ha three days prior planting on
moist soil or the day after transplanting of rooted cuttings markedly reduce the weed
population. Reflective film and black film mulch can be effectively used to control
weeds and conservation of moisture.
Cultural Practices
Special practices like staking, pinching and disbudding are important for proper
growth and flower yield
Staking
Staking is a necessary operation to provide proper support and to maintain flower
quality with straight stalk. There are only a few flowering varieties which neither
require pinching nor staking and hence known as ‘no stake no pinch’ varieties. For
standard varieties, the number of stakes will depend upon the number of main branches
which have been allowed to produce the bloom. In spray types, 3-4 stakes are inserted
on the bank of the pot and are tied with a string from the bottom to the top which gives
good support to the developing branches.
Chrysanthemum 223
Pinching
The objective of pinching is to encourage the side branches and it should be repeated
to encourage more number of branches depending upon the number of blooms to be
retained.
i. Soft pinching involves removal of the tip of shoot along with 2-3 open leaves.
It is most commonly practiced because buds remaining on the stem break
rapidly.
ii. Hard pinching: Hard pinch is generally used to reduce plant size especially in
pots. Here buds do not break as rapidly as soft pinch.
iii. Roll out pinching is used only on short plants.It refers to simply pinching of
buds just by rolling them with a gentle twist.
Standard Chrysanthemum: In this case only single bloom on a branch is usually
allowed to produce. The pinching is not done, if only one central bloom is desired on
the main branch. Single pinching is done, if two flowers are desired, whereas double
pinching is done for four flowers.
Spray chrysanthemum: These types produce numerous small to medium sized
flowers. In such types two pinching are required to encourage lateral growth. First
pinching is done at 4 weeks after planting and second after 7 Weeks of planting. As a
general rule, rooted cutting are pinched 2 weeks after planting.
Disbudding
Disbudding is done to remove the side branches which arises from axillary buds, so
that the number of flowers is limited and blooms of better size obtained. In standard
chrysanthemum regular disbudding is done to produce single flowers on single stems.
Plant Growth Regulators
Crop growth regulation and flowering can be modified or controlled by use of growth
regulators. Flower quality is also obtained by use of regulators. Spray of GA3 at 50
ppm at 30, 45 and 60 days after planting is effective to increase flower yield. Spray of
B-nine (5000 ppm) is beneficial to obtain the increased number of flowers per plant.
Sidhu and Singh (2002) tried NAA and IBA at 250, 500 and 1000 ppm as quick dip
treatment of chrysanthemum cuttings before inserting into river sand for rooting and
found 250 ppm in both the cases as optimum for inducing rooting. Cuttings taken
from young stock plants produce better rooting. Growth retardants, especially IBA and
SADH promote rooting though CCC inhibits it (Arumugam et al., 2006).
Micronutrient Disorders in Chrysanthemum
Iron Deficiency: Iron deficiency results into young leaves showing interveinal
chiorosis in the early stages and are yellow in colour the severe stage with stunted
growth and aeration. The use of undecomposed FYM is very important to prevent the
Fe deficiency. Composts of pH 6 to 6.5 only to be used to avoid chlorosis. Foliar spray
of 0.5 % Ferrous sulphate at pH 4.5 or Fe EDTA at 0.1% twice once at 30 days and
another at 45 days after planting can be adopted correct this Fe deficiency.
Copper Deficiency: Copper deficiency is more widely reported in Chrysanthemums.

It causes few flower buds opening, petals curving upwards. Also, flower bud initiation
is retarded, terminal leaf base becomes chlorotic initially. Even veins are chlorotic in
later stage. Copper suplhate application at 10kg/ha can correct copper deficiency.
Boron Deficiency: Boron deficiency causes peripherals flowers to lose turgidity
before opening of the central flowers. Severe deficiency causes petal to twist and cup
shaped. Soil application of Boron at 2kg/ha (15 – 20 kg borax/ha) and foliar spray of
0.2% Boric acid after 3 weeks of planting and again at 25% flower bud emergence can
correct the disorder.
Boron toxicity: Excess boron application inadvertently or use of irrigation water
high in boron creates boron toxicity (>125ppm) with reduced flower diameter and
shortened plant height.
Harvesting
The correct stage of harvesting depends on the cultivars, marketing and other facilities
available to a grower. Single cultivars are harvested when the maximum number
of flowers opens before shading of pollens from the outer row of the disc florets.
Anemone cultivars are harvested before the central cushion in the topmost flower is
fully developed, whereas decorative types are harvested when the petals in the centre
of the topmost flower is almost fully developed. In standards, harvesting is generally
done when outer ray florets ceases to further develop. Pot-mums are sent to the market
with half to fully opened flowers.
Standard chrysanthemums are harvested at unopened stage when only a few outer
ray florets unfurl and the cut flower store equally well in dry condition to be handled
conveniently with the least damage and equal or superior post-storage quality. Bud
opening solution of 200 ppm 8–HQC +2 per cent sucrose can be used for stored
flowers.
Post harvest
Depending on the variety plant start yielding flowers after 3-4 months of transplanting.
For cut flower purpose stem is cut about 10 cm above the soil to avoid cutting into
woody tissues. The lower 1/3 rd of stems are stripped of leaves at harvest and as soon
as possible
After harvested the stem have to be cut at equal length (90 cm is the standard),
bunched in five putting a rubber band at the base and sliding them into a plastic sleeve
and putting the bunches in plastic buckets filled with 20cm of water. On the day of
shipment the bunches can be packed in boxes.
Grading
Chrysanthemums are graded based on the stem length, flower appearance, number of
flowers, stem straightness, colour and freshness of flowers. Standard chrysanthemum
are graded into Blue, Red, Green and Yellow, whereas spray types are graded into
Gold, Silver, Bronze and Make Up based on the quality parameters. In Dutch market,
Chrysanthemum 225
spray chrysanthemums are graded into extra grade and shorter grade. The lower leaves
are stripped off upto 15-20 cm and bundled in units of 5 stems and secured with a
rubber band.
Export Standards for Chrysanthemum
Parameters Standard Spray Dwarf
Stem length 88-100cm. 77-88cm. 25-38cm.
Weight 30g/stem of 90cm. 30g/stem of 85 cm. 30g/stem of 30cm.
No. of flowers Only 1flower with 5 buds. 10 flowers. 10-12 flowers.
Diameter 60-80mm. 35mm for half bloom. 30mm.
45 mm for full bloom.
Packaging
Most of the Standard chrysanthemums are placed in sleeves and packed in card board
display boxes measuring 91 x 43 x 15cm. They are placed in the boxes according to
the grades. For bulk packing of the spray chrysanthemums, 10, 15 or 20 stems are
placed in sleeves according to the grades. Six sleeves, three at each end, are generally
packed in each box, measuring 80 x 50 x 23cm.
Cold Storage
The stems in the buckets (after grading) are given a cut using sharp blade and precooled
at 1°C minimum of 2 hours before packing. Chrysanthemum can be stored for 3-6
weeks period at 0-3°C.
Yield
The Yield of flowers in chrysanthemum varies depending on the types and the cultivars,
the growing region and the environment, plant density, pinching, disbudding and other
management practices. The average yield of loose flowers suitable for making garland
and veni ranged from 7.5 to 15 t/ha while about 1,00,000 good quality sprays can be
obtained from one hectare. Small flowered types of chrysanthemum produced 28.6 to
41.4 lakh cut flowers per hectare depending on the plant density.
Diseases and pests
Diseases
Root rot, (Pythium, Phytophthora) Phoma root rot, Foot rot, (Rhizoctonia solanai)
Stem rot and wilt, (Fusarium oxysporium) Grey mould, (Botrytis cineraria) Ascochyta
blight, (A.chrysanthemii) Septoria leaf spot, (Septoria chrysanthemii) Powdery
mildew, (Septoria chrysanthemii) White rust, Verticillium wilt, Ray speck, Bacterial
blight, Bacterial leaf spot, etc. are the disease infestations observed in chrysanthemum.
Major disease problems are due to fungal infestation which can be controlled using
carbendazim @2 g per litre of water or mancozeb @ 2 g per litre water. Root rot or wilt
can be controlled by Captan, Mancozeb or Metalaxyl-MZ and Fosetyl-Al. Powdery
mildew can be controlled using wettable suphur, Dinocap @ 1 ml/litre water or Calixin
@ 7ml/10 l water. Bacterial blight and leaf spots can be controlled by Streptocycline
or Copper Oxychloride.
Fusarium Wilt (Fusarium oxysporum pv Chrysanthemii): Symptoms vary with
the cultivar infected like yellowing of leaves, wilting and discoloration of the
vascular tissue develops up one side of the plant. Management: Purchase culture-
indexed cuttings free of the pathogen. Plant in pasteurized soil or soilless mix free
of the pathogen. Maintain soil pH between 6.5 and 7.0. Use nitrate rather than
ammonium forms of fertilizer. Apply a fungicide to protect healthy plants.
Aschochyta Blight: Flower development is retarded on one side of the bud. Petals
exhibit a brown discoloration. Browning and blackening extends down the stem,
causing the flower to droop. Brown to black irregularly shaped spots develop
on leaves. Mangement: Avoid overhead irrigation. Apply a fungicide to protect
healthy plants.
Powdery Mildew (Golovinomyces cichoracearum formerly Erysiphe): White, dry
powdery fungal growth on upper surface of leaves.
Pythium Root and Stem Rot: Stems turn dark brown to black at the soil line.
Plants are stunted, wilt, and die. Management: Plant in pasteurized soil or soilless
mix free of the pathogen.
Verticillium Wilt (Verticilllium alboatrum): The margins of lower leaves wilt and
die. Or, the entire leaf dies. Symptoms proceed up one side of the plant.
White Rust(Puccinia horiana): Small, yellow to tan spots are observed on the
upper surface of leaves. On the underside of the leaf below the spots, raised,
pinkish to white to cream-tan areas develop in which spores of the fungus are
produced.
Pests
Aphids, Hairy caterpillars, mites, Grubs, Thrips, Leaf miners, White fly,etc. These
sucking pests showing symptoms of crinkling, curling and distorted leaves and
buds can be controlled using systemic insecticides like Dimethoate @2 ml/L water
or Imidachlorpid @3-5 ml/10 L water. Thiamethoxim @3-4 ml/L water is higly
effective against mites. Hairy eating caterpillars found feeding on leaves making holes
on leaves and eating buds. These can be controlled using contact insecticides like
Monocrotophos 2ml/L water or Indoxocarb @ 3-4 ml/15 L water or Dicofol @ 2 ml/L
water.
References
Anderson, N.O. 1987. Reclassification of the genus Chrysanthemum L. Hort Sci., 22: 313.
Arumugam, T., Jawaharlal, M. and Vijayakumar, M. 2006. Chrysanthemum. In: Advances in
Ornamental Horticulture. Vol. 2. Herbaceous Perennials and Shade Loving Foliage Plants
(ed. Bhattacharjce, S.K.), pp. 81-108.
Beckett, K.A. 1983. The Concise Encyclopaedia of Garden Plants, pp. 80-82. Orbis Pub. Ltd.,
Great Britain.
Brickell, C. (Ed.-in-Chief), 1992. The Royal Horticultural Society Encyclopaedia of Gardening,
pp. 152-154. Dorling Kindersley, London.
Chrysanthemum 227
Broertjes, C. 1966. Mutation breeding of chrysanthemum. Euphytica, 15: 156-162.

Broertjes,C.,Roest, S. and Bokelmann, G.S. 1976. Mutation breeding of Chrysanthemum
morifolium using in vivo and in vitro adventitious bud techniques. Euphytica, 25:11-19.
Chawla, S.L., Mohammed, S., Mahawer, L.N. and Jain, M.C. 2007. Effect of nitrogen and
phosphorus on vegetative growth and flower yield of chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum
morifolium)cv. Neelima. Annals of Agricultural Research New Series, 28(1): 25-28.
Dole, J.M. and Wilkins, H.F. 1999. Floriculture Principles and Species, pp. 292-304. Prentice
Hall, New Jersey.
Drewlow, L.W., Asacher, P.D. and Widmer, R.E. 1973. Genetic studies of self incompatibility in
the garden chrysanthemum C. morifolium Ramat. Theor. Appl. Genet., 43: 1.
Fryxwell, P.A. 1957. Mode of reproduction in higher plant. Bot. Rev., 23: 135-233.
Gupta, M.N. 1971. Mutation breeding of chrysanthemum. I. Production of new cultivars by
gamma ray induced somatic mutations in vM1. Proc. Intern. Synip. on Use of Isotopes and
Radiation in Agriculture. New Delhi.
Hay, R. and Beckett, K.A. 1971. Readrer’s Digest Encyclopaedia of Garden Plants and Flowers,
pp. 141-149.
Kher, M.A. 1986. Chrysanthemum. In: Ornamental Horticulture in India (eds: Chadha, K.L. and
Choudhury, B.). ICAR New Delhi.
Kher, M.A.1989.Chrysanthemum.In:Commercial Flower.pp:453-486. Naya Prokash Kolkatta.-
Nazeer, M.A. and Khoshoo, T.N. 1982.Cytological evaluation of garden chrysanthemum.
Current Science, 51:583-585.
Sidhu, G.S. and Singh, P. 2002. Effect of auxins on propagation in Chrysanthemum morifolium.
In: Floriculture Research Trend in India (eds Misra, R.L. and Sanyat Misra), pp. 285-
286. Indian Society of Ornamental Horticulture, Division of Floriculture and Landscaping,
1.A.R.I., New Delhi.
Stewart, R.N. and Derman, H.1970. Somatic genetic analysis of the apical layers of chimera
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Journal of Botany, 57:1061
Sujatha, K. and Mohandas, S. 2004. Effect of biofertilizer on growth and flower production
of chrysanthemum cv.Chandrika. National Symposium on Recent Trends and Future
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Vince, D. 1960. Low temperature effects on flowering of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. I.
Hort. Sci., 35: 161-175.
Vishnu Swarup, 1967, Garden flowers. National Book Trust, India. New Delhi.
Wilkins, 1999. Floriculture Principles and Species, pp. 292-304. Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
Zagarski, J.S., Ascher, P.D. and Widmer, R.E. 1983. Self incompatibility in hexaploid
chrysanthemum. Euphytica, 32: 1-7.
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Sci., 51:583-585.
15
Cultivation of Gerbera
Tanya Thakur and K. K. Dhatt
Gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii Bolus), commonly known as Transvaal Daisy, Barberton

Daisy or African Daisy, belongs to the family Asteraceae is one of the most important
cut flowers in domestic as well as global market. It ranks sixth among the top ten cut
flowers. Gerbera can successfully be grown in the plains as well as in the hills. In India,
its cultivation is confined mostly to Kalimpong, Bangalore and Pune. The flowers are
known for long vase life (Chauhan, 2005) and good rehydration capacity suitable for
long distant transportation. It is a diploid species with somatic chromosome number
50 (n=25).
Importance and Uses
Gerbera is very fashionable and widely used as a decorative garden flower and cut
flower (Kanwar and Kumar, 2008). It is ideal for garden decoration as a bedding plant,
pot plant and suitable for growing in rock gardens. It is also used in interior decoration
in vases, flower arrangements and in bouquets.
Gerbera viridifolia is referred as ‘the herb of milk’ in the eastern Cape and is probably
used to stimulate milk production in cattle (Dold and Cocks, 2002).
Origin
Gerbera is native to tropical Asia and South Africa. The species Gerbera jamesonii
is native to Natal and Transvaal region, whereas Gerbera viridifolia is native to Cape
region of South Africa. The modern cultivars (Gerbera hybrida) are evolved by
hybridizing Gerbera jamesonii with Gerbera viridifolia (Leffring, 1973). The species
of Indian origin are Gerbera anandria, G. kunzeana, G.languinosa, G. macrophylla,
G. nivea, G. ovalifolia, G. maxima and G. piloselloides. In India, about 7 species are
distributed in the temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal at an altitude of 1300
to 3200 meters.
Taxonomy
The genus Gerbera was named by pre-Linnean botanist, Jan Gronovius in 1737 in the
honor of Traugott Gerber, a German naturalist and the species jamesonii in honor of
Captain Jameson (Das and Singh, 1989).
Gerbera plant is stemless, tender perennial herb (Barreto, 2000) with radical, lanceolate,
deeply lobed leaves sometimes leathery, narrower at the base and wider at tip and are
arranged in a rosette at the base. The inflorescence is capitulum or head with inner
disc florets (bisexual) and outer ray florets (pistillate). The daisy-like flowers grow in
a wide range of colors including yellow, orange, cream white, pink, brick red, scarlet,
maroon, terracotta and various other intermediate shades. The flower stalks are long,
thin and leafless with single, terminal flower head.
Species and cultivars
The genus Gerbera consists of about 45 species which are half hardy and perennial in
nature. Some of the species are described below-
Gerbera jamesonii (Barberton daisy) is the only cultivated species.
Gerbera asplenifolia - flower head pure white above and red beneath.
Gerbera aurantiaca - flower head orange and anther yellow
Gerbera kunzeana - flower scarcely open, chestnut brown.
Gerbera viridifolia - flower head dirty white above and red beneath, used as parent in
hybridization.
Gerbera cantabrigensis (G. hybrida)- hybrid between Gerbera jamesonii x Gerbera
viridifolia
Gerbera maxima - rediscovered from Pauri Garhwal (Uttrakhand, India)
Gerbera hintonii - endemic to Mexico
Depending on the arrangement of ray florets, the cultivars are divided into three types-
1. Single types consist of one or two rows of ray florets on the periphery of the
disc florets.
2. Semi-double types consist of 2-3 rows of ray florets.
3. Double types consist of more than three rows of ray florets having bicolored
flowers. Depending on the size and shape of the flowers, they are further
divided into standard (>8 cm flower diameter), spider and mini (< 8 cm flower
diameter).
Some of the cultivars are as follow
Dusty, Flemingo, Fradaisy, Fredeking, Fredorella, Maron Clementine, Nadja,
Terraqueen, Uranus, Valentine, Vesta, Alexis, Amber, Anke, Apple blossom, Belitis,
Caprice, Hildegard, Ibiza, Joyee, Kabada, Marleen, Pascal, Romilda, Rozamunde,
Salmorosa, Sympathic, Easter Star, Eastelle, Nena, Terra Parade, Terra Son, Aruba,
Asheley, Flora, Goldspot, Nevada. Rosabella, White Sun. Vino, Venturi, Sunset,
Sundance, Sangriana, Siby, Sissy, North Star Ornella, Tropical, Cocktail, Panorama,
Mirage, Pink Sensation, Tara, Thallasa, Diablo, Lyonella, Twiggy, etc.
Under Indian conditions, Jaffa, Sangria, Salina, Aida, Rosalina, Pink Elegance,
Aalasmeer, Starlight, Rosula and Priyadarshi are commonly grown.
Some hybrids released by IHBT, Palampur are Him Gaurav, Him Saumya, Him
Apoorva, Him Peace, Him Glow, Him Abha and Him Keerti.
Cultivation of Gerbera 231
Cultivar released by IIHR, Bangalore is Arka Krishika.

Depending on stem length-
Tall cultivars (>50 cm) are Funda, Sunanda, Dark Red.
Medium cultivars (40-50 cm) are Sunset, Ornella, Kolika, Pink Elegance, Ruby Red
Dwarf cultivars (30-40 cm) are JS Lal, Yellow Queen, Indu Kumari, Sangria, Red
Monarch depending on flower shape and size-
Standard cultivars Spider cultivars Mini cultivars
Cabana, Blue Boy, California, Chili, Punky, Spanky, Goldy, Red Hawaii, Jimmy,
Golden Gate, Jaska, Gloria, Spiky, Vicky Lily, Nikky, Siby, Snoopy,
Zembla, Dalma, Shirley, Stardust, Tiffany, Victory, Tweety,
Ruby Red, Rosalin, Fantine Winny
Climate
Gerbera can not tolerate extreme of weather conditions. It is grown under open as well
as polyhouse condition in tropical and subtropical areas, whereas under greenhouse
in temperate areas. The mild weather available in Bangalore and Pune allows its
cultivation under open conditions but under extremes of North India, it is cultivated
under polyhouses. The flower production under polyhouse is twice in 2nd and 3rd year
that of 1st year. For good quality flowers, grow gerbera in polyhouse with ventilation,
evaporative cooling and shading facilities. During summer, lowering of temperature
is achieved by shading (green shade nets, aluminum coated nets) and evaporative
cooling system. During winters, temperature is raised by heating or covering with
single or double polythene layer. The height of the greenhouse/shade house should be
minimum 5-6.5 m; so, there is proper air circulation. The two polyhouses should be
atleast 4-5 m apart with polythene thickness of 200 micron or 800 gauge. To protect
the plants in the monsoons provision for covering the top with polythene or plastic
sheet is advised. The site should be 30 m away from buildings or windbreaks.
The optimum day and night temperature requirement are 27oC (16-20oC) and 12-14oC,
respectively. The temperature requirement for flower initiation is 23oC and for leaf
unfolding is 25 - 27oC. The flowering is harmed at below 12oC and above 35oC. The
highest yield of flowers was obtained when plants were grown at 21 0C (Pettersen and
Gislerod, 2003). The period of October-November and February-April appeared to be
highly favorable for the production of flowers in Punjab region when minimum and
maximum temperatures were around 10oC and 26oC, respectively (Kaur, et al 1996).
Sunny or semi-shady locations are good for gerbera cultivation. Gerbera is short day
plant with approximately 400w/m2 light intensity affects crop production, thus artificial
requirement. Plant requires sunshine in cool weather and shade during summers. For
quality flower production 25% shade is required (Kaur et al., 1996), thus, white shade
net (50-70%) are used. In temperate areas, poor light conditions in winter affects crop
and artificial lightening is done. Hence both light and temperature markedly influence
the growth and flower production (Cockshull, 1985). The optimum CO2 requirement
inside polyhouse should be 1000-1500 ppm, whereas relative humidity should be 70-
75%.
Soil
A well-drained, rich, light, highly porous soil with pH of 5.5 to 6.5 is most suitable
for gerbera production. The salinity level of soil should not be more than 1 ms/cm.
Gerbera are deep rooted plants and the roots go as deep as 50 to 70cm. The soil should
be, light and well drained to have better root growth and better penetration of roots.
Adjusting pH and better drainage are must for better crop production.
Propagation
Gerbera is propagated by seeds, vegetatively and micro-propagation (Kanwar and
Kumar, 2008).
The seeds are set only if the crop is cross-pollinated. The seeds are sown immediately
after harvest in any season showing 90% germination otherwise will lose viability. The
seeds germinate at 15-20oC within two weeks; otherwise it may take up to 30 days and
are ready for transplanting in 5-6 weeks. The plants produced from seeds will bloom
in the second year and produce good flowers from the third year onwards.
Gerbera is propagated vegetatively through cuttings, side shoots, division of clumps
and suckers. The side shoots do not emerge easily, thus, the production is enhanced by
application of liquid manure.
The division of large clumps into smaller units is commercial and easiest method of
propagation in gerbera. It is practiced in early September when the plants are to be
set out in the field. The division of mother plant at the end of February produces an
average of six plants and these starts flowering at the end of May. Before transplanting,
the roots and leaves are trimmed keeping the central shoot intact. While planting, care
must be taken that soil does not cover the central growing point. The division should
be practiced after 2-3 years of planting.
Micropropagation has been successful for rapid and large-scale multiplication
of disease-free plantlets in gerbera (Aswath and Choudhary, 2002). Direct shoot
regeneration using shoot tips as explant is most convenient method of mass propagation
(Huang and Chu, 1985); however, indirect shoot regeneration has been achieved from
calli from explant like leaves, petal and flower buds (Posada et al, 1999). Murashige
and Skoog (MS) media with modification is successfully used as culture media.
Planting
Before plantation of Gerbera, soil disinfection is absolutely necessary. In particular,
the fungus Phytophthora is a menace to Gerbera. The solar soil sterilization is done
by covering the soil with plastic sheet for 6-8 weeks during summers. The chemical
sterilization is done by spraying or drenching the beds with formalin @ 7.5-10 lit/100
m2 and covering the beds with plastic sheets for 7 days. Then flush the soil with water
to drain the traces of formalin (Mukherjee, 2008). The other chemicals that can be
used are Methyl Bromide @ 25 – 30g/m2 and Basamid (Dazomet) @ 30 – 40g/ m2.
Plough the field twice or thrice before planting. Gerbera is grown on raised beds to
assist in easier movement and better drainage. The dimensions of the bed are height
of 1.5 ft (45cm), width of 2 ft (60 cm) and pathways between beds of 1 ft (30 cm).
Gravel/sand can be added at the bottom for better drainage. While bed preparation, add
20 tones FYM, 100 kg Single Super Phosphate and 60 kg Muriate of Potash per m2 as
basal dose for better root establishment. Apply Magnesium Sulphate @ 0.5 kg per 100
ft2 and FeSO4 @ 10g/m2 to avoid deficiency of magnesium and iron.
While planting, the crown of plants should be 1-2 cm above soil level. As the root
system establishes the plants are pulled down. Therefore, the crown must be above
the ground level at planting and also throughout the life cycle. The planting is done
during spring and early rainy season. The best planting time in the plains is September-
October and February-March. Early rainy season planting is suitable for 1, 1.5 and 2
year culture and spring season for 1.5 year culture.
Generally, two- four rows may be planted on one bed at row to row distance of 37.5-
40 cm and plant to plant distance of 30.0 cm. This would generally accommodate 6
to 7 plants per m2 and for large flowered varieties, 8-10 plants per m2. After planting,
rake the soil surrounding the plant every fortnight for proper aeration and maintain the
humidity at 80 – 90% for 4 -6 weeks to avoid desiccation of plants.
Gerbera can also be cultivated in pots as bench system of planting.
Manure and Fertilizers

Always analyze the soil once in 2-3 months to decide specific nutrient schedule.
Add 20 tonnes well-rotten Farm yard manure along with Single Super Phosphate 100
kg and Muriate of Potash 60 kg per m2 as basal dose at the time of preparation of
beds. After 4-weeks of planting i.e. when the plants are well set, CAN (88 kg per
acre) should be applied at monthly interval during active growth period of the plants.
After three weeks of planting apply NPK @ 1:1:1 @ 0.4g/plant/day for 3 months.
Once flowering commences apply N:P:K @ 2:1:4 at the rate of 0.4 g/plant/alternate
day (Bhattacharjee, 2006). Micronutrients should be given weekly or fortnightly as
per the deficiency symptoms. Under high pH, deficiency of Fe and Mn is common.
Boron deficiency causes base of young leaves to turn black coloured. Zinc deficiency
symptoms can be identified with the C-shaped leaf structure caused by chlorosis on
one half of the leaf blade which ceases to expand, while the other half of the leaf is
normal.
Irrigation
Gerbera is moisture loving plant. The irrigation water should have pH of 6.5-7.0
and electrical conductivity of 0.5-1 ms/cm. To lower the pH of water, add acids in
the water tank and then irrigate the plants. Immediately after plantation, irrigate the
plant with overhead irrigation for four weeks to enable uniform root development.
Thereafter, gradually change to drip irrigation. Drip irrigation is mainly for correct
doses and fertilizer application. Generally, one dripper per plant is required. The aim is
to provide sufficient irrigation in the 2nd year for extra foliage. The water requirement
of gerbera plant may be approximately 300-700 ml per plant per day. Always water
the plants before 12 noon. The relative humidity of air should not exceed 90-92%, as
it will lead to deformity of flowers.
Gerbera is perennial and remains in field for 2-3 years. The weeds appear only in the
early stage of growth and 2-3 manual weeding are optimum.
The dis-budding is the removal of inferior quality flower buds at the initial stage after
plantation to increase terminal flower size and maintain health of the plant.
The de-leafing is the removal of extra leaves for bud initiation and sanitation.
Due to daily irrigation, surface of beds become hard hence raking of soil around the
plants is done to lose the top soil for proper aeration. This should be done twice in a
month.
The removal of old, dry and infested leaves from the plant helps to main sanitation and
keeping pest infestation away.
The quality blooms in gerbera are produced from November to December and February
to March when the beds are provided overhead cover of plastic from November to
March. The scorching heat of May-June is harmful for growth and adversely influences
flower production. To reduce light intensity the plants should be covered with shading
nets from April to September. The flower yield would increase two-to-three-fold by
following these practices.
Harvesting and Yield
Gerbera is perennial crop with duration of 2-3 years, producing its first flower after 6-8
weeks of planting when 14-16 leaves appear on the plant.
The flowers are harvested when the outer two rows of the disc florets are fully
expanded and perpendicular to the stalk. Harvesting id done by plucking the flowers in
the morning or late in the evening or during the day when temperature is low. Cut the
heel of the stem by giving an angular cut. Immediately after harvesting, put the flowers
in water and keep for four hours at 7 to 8oC. The frequent re-cutting of stem ends is
suggested to avoid bacterial clogging of stem. The flowers are relatively insensitive
to ethylene.
Under greenhouse conditions, plant yield around 200- 240 flowers per sqm/ year and
85% flowers are Grade I, whereas under open conditions, 120-150 flowers per sqm/
year and only 15-20% flowers are Grade I.
Postharvest Management
The individual flower head is provided with plastic cup (4.5x4.5 inches) which protects
it during transport and bunched together. The large bloomed cultivars are bunched as
10 stem per bunch and mini cultivars as 20 stems per bunch (Pedapati, 2017). These
bunches are packed in corrugated boxes of 90x40x12 cm size which accommodate
250 flowers per box.
The cut flowers can be stored dry at 4oC for two days and wet at 2 oC for 4-7 days
(Singh et al, 2013). Gerbera flowers has maximum vase life of 7 to 8 days.
Gerbera are graded according to stem length, flower diameter and maturity. A good
flower has stalk length of 45 – 55cm (not <40 cm) and flower diameter of 10 – 12cm
(not <7 cm). Gerbera are the only cut flowers that are not damaged by chlorine added
to vase water.
Grading standards in the world market requirements
Grade No. Stem length Flower diameter Flower colour Preferences
(cm) (cm) (%)
1 >60 >12 Pink 40
2 50-60 10-11 Reddish orange 20
3 40-50 9-10 Orange 20
4 30-40 8-9 Red 15
5 <30 7-8 Yellow 5
Insect-pests and diseases
Insect-pests
The insects like aphids, leaf-miners, thrips and white flies commonly infest the gerbera
crop.
Aphids suck the cell sap from leaves causing leaf curl, yellowing and distortion. They
also secrete sticky substance honeydew that host the development of sooty mould and
attract ants. These can be controlled by spraying Rogor 30 EC or Metasystox 25 EC
each @ 0.1% at fortnightly intervals.
Leaf- miners larvae feed on leaf surface making white tunnels, while adult puncture the
leaves and petals. These can be controlled by removing infested leaves and spraying
Dimethoate @ 0.1%.
Thrips suck the cell sap from leaves and ray floret causing papery leaves and deformed
flower head. These can be controlled by spraying Rogor 30 EC @ 0.1% at fortnightly
intervals.
Whiteflies appear in cluster on underside of leaves feeding the sap, thus causing leaf
yellowing and drop. These can be controlled by use of yellow sticky traps or spraying
Metasystox 25 EC @ 0.1% at fortnightly intervals.
Root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) make nodules in roots and causes
yellowing of leaves. It may be controlled by immersing bare-root plants in hot water
(Arora, 2010).
Diseases
Among diseases, foot or crown rot, root rot, powdery mildew, blight and leaf spot
are common in gerbera. Foot rot or crown rot (Phytophthora cryptogea, Sclerotlinia
sclerotiorum, Sclerotium rolfsii, Rhizoctonia solani) is a very serious fungal disease of
gerbera. It affects the basal parts of the plant causing root rotting, crown becomes black
and ultimately plant wilt. It is favored by high humidity and waterlogged conditions
and can be controlled by drenching of soil with Thiram (0.3%), Ridomil MZ (0.2%)
or Dexon (0.2%).
Root rot (Pythium irregularae and Rhizoctonia solani) fungi causes rotting of roots
and ultimately wilting and drying of plant. It can be controlled by soil sterilization or
soil drenching with Ridomil MZ (0.2%) or Thiram (0.3%).
Powdery mildew (Oidium erysiphoides fspp. gerbera) appears as white floury patches
on the leaves and tender shoots. It can be controlled very effectively by spraying
Benlate (0.1%), Sulfex (0.2%) or Karathane (0.05%).
Gray mould/ Blight (Botrytis cineraria) appears as gray spots on flower petals and
causes rotting in the heart of flower. The relative humidity of more than 92% for two
hours is favorable. It can be controlled by spraying Bavistin 0.1%.
Alternaria leaf spot (Alternaria spp.) appears as light brown spots at first and later
turns dark reddish-brown, causes speckling of ray florets. It can be controlled fairly
effectively by Indofil M-45 (0.2%) or Bordeaux mixture (1.0%) sprays.
Cercospora leaf spot appear as olivaceous in the beginning but turn black ultimately. It
can be controlled by spraying with Benlate (0.1%) or Indofil M-45 (0.2%) at suitable
intervals.
Physiological disorders
Flower bent at the neck region is due to loss of cell turgidity and lack of calcium.
Pre-harvest stem break is due to high root pressure due to water stress followed
by watering and high humidity in the air. The blockage of stem base with bacteria
decreases water uptake.
Premature wilting of flower is due to cloudy weather followed by bright sun causing
carbohydrate depletion.
Double-faced flower is caused by imbalance of nutrients, too much growth and less
flower buds.
Non-uniform blooming is due to physical injury to flower stem or pest damage or
phytotoxicity.
Short stem length is due to high salinity level, moisture stress, and low soil temperature.
Iron deficiency causes interveinal chlorosis in leaves. It can be corrected by spraying
FeSO4 @0.5%.
Excess nitrogen and ammonia cause more foliage growth and flowers are too short and
hidden in foliage.
References
Arora J S (2010) Introductory Ornamental Horticulture. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi, pp.
90-99.
Aswath C R and Choudhary M L (2002) Rapid plant regeneration from Gerbera jamesonii Bolus
callus cultures. Acta Bot. Croat. 61:125-134.
Barreto M S (2000) Studies on the effect of different substrate media on growth, flower quality
and vase life of Gerbera under polyhouse conditions. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, MPKV, Rahuri.
Bhattacharjee S K (2006) Advances in Ornamental Horticulture. Pointer Publisher, Jaipur. Vol.
6: 201-211.
Cockshull K E (1985) Gerbera. In: CRC Handbook of Flowering, Halevy A H, Florida, USA,
pp. 43-47.
Das P and Singh S P K (1989) Gerbera: Textbook of Commercial Flowers, pp. 601-622.
Dold A P and Cocks M L (2002) The trade in medicinal plants in the eastern Cape province,
South Africa. South African J Sci. 98:589-597.
Huang M C and Chu C Y (1985) A scheme for commercial multiplication of gerbera (Gerbera
hybrida Hort.) through shoot tip culture. Jpn. Soc. Horti. Sci. 54: 94-100.
Kanwar J and Kumar S (2008) In vitro propagation of Gerbera- A review. Hort. Sci. (Prague)
35:35-44.
Kaur K, Gill A P S and Kumar R (1996) Effect of modified environment on plant growth and
flower a production of Gerbera. Madras Agric. J. 83 (11): 681-683.
Leffring L (1973) Flower production in gerbera; correlation between shoot, leaf and flower
formation in seedlings. Scientia Horti. 1:221-229.
Mukherjee D (2008) Gerbera. In: Speciality Cut Flowers Production Technologies. Naya
Udyog, Kolkata. pp.321-374.
Pedapati A (2017) Grading and Packaging of quality grade cut flowers for export. Biotech
Articles (online).
Pettersen R I and Gislerod H R (2003) Effect of lightening period and temperature on growth,
yield and keeping quality of Gerbera jamesonii Bolus. European J
Posada M, Ballesteros N, Obando W and Angarita A (1999) Micropropagation of gerbera from
floral buds. Acta Hort. 482:329-332.
Singh Kushal, Kumar G, Saha T N and Kumar R (2013) Post Harvest Technology of Cut
Flowers. Venus Printers and Publishers, New Delhi. pp. 26-28.
16
rchids
N.K. Meena and Ram Pal
Orchid is a valuable flowering plant belongs to family Orchidaceae. It is considered

that the family recognise for maximum number species ranged between17,000 and
35,000 worldwide (Garay 1960; Willis 1973). The word orchid is derived from a
Greek word orchis for testicle because of the shape of the root tubers in some species
of genus Orchis. India is a reservoir of 1300 orchid species from 184 genera, accounts
for nearly 7 per cent of worlds orchids genetic diversity (Arora, 1983; Rampal and
Nagrare, 2006) and 1150 species belonging to 164 genera (Satish Kumar and Manilal,
1994) of which about 800 species are found in the North Eastern region of the country
(Nagaraju et al., 2006). Apart from species, more than one lakh hybrids developed
in orchids. It is found all over the world from tropical to temperate and even alpine
region. People always think that orchids are epiphytic only but it is not. It can grow in
soil as terrestrial, on tree trunk (epiphytic) and on dead organic matter (saprophytes)
and on rocks (lithophytes). Orchids produce unique flowers, affluent for their
uniqueness in shape, size and colour, exquisitely attractive; remain fresh condition
for long period of time in comparison to other flowers. Vase life of its flowers varied
among species and hybrids ranged up to 40-45 days. Orchids are cultivated for trade
of orchid species, cut-flowers, potted plants, flower basket, bouquet, stage decoration
in high profile meets and functions and also used in many other value-added products
(Kuehnle 2007). Many orchid species are used as food like Cymbidium hookerianum,
Dendrobium chrysotoxum, D. kingianum, D. cathenatum and many more (Singh et al.,
2016), spices (Vanilla planifolia and V. pompona) and medicinal uses (Dactylorhiza
hatagirea, Flickingeria macraei, Vanda tessellata and Dendrobium macraei as reported
by Ram Pal et al., 2020). The most popular and commercially cultivated genera are:
Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Oncidium, Phalaenopsis, Vanda, Paphiopedilum, Mokara,
Arundina, Paphiopedilum, Ascocenda and Cattleya in the country and even in the
world.
Origin and Distribution
The Orchidaceae are a diverse and widespread family of flowering plants currently
accepted 28000 species distributed under 763 genera (Christenhusz and Byng 2016
and WCSP, 2010). Its origin is confined to particular region or continent even than it
varied species to species. There is a general belief that the orchids are mostly found
in the tropics. But it is not correct, they are found in all over the world from frozen
areas of Alaska to, the snow-covered areas of the Himalayas and the sandy deserts
of Australia and Africa. The majority of world’s temperate orchids are produced in
Netherlands, New Zealand and Australia, whereas South East Asian Countries like
Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, Cambodia, Singapore and Burma are the
reservoir of tropical orchids. New Guinea has more orchids, native to the island, than
any other part of the world. In India the majority of orchids are available in the eastern
Himalayas, northeastern hills, the western India and the south Indian hills. Cymbidium
orchids are found Sikkim, Darjeeling district of West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, and
few in nilgiri hills. Aerides is found in southern and northern India, Burma, Malaya and
Indonesia, Vanda spp are common in India, South East Asia, Indonesia and Ceylon.
Calanthe spp are mostly available in the wide forest range of Australia, Vietnam,
China, Japan and South India. Cdelogyne and Bulbophyllum are more common in
northeast India including Sikkim. Netherlands is world’s largest producer and exporter
of temperate orchids while Thailand leads in production and export of tropical orchids.
Taxonomy
The taxonomy of the Orchidaceae (orchid family) has evolved slowly during the last
250 years, starting with Carl Linnaeus recognized eight genera in 1753. De Jussieu
recognized the Orchidaceae as a separate family in his genera Plantarum in 1789.
The Orchidaceae is currently placed in the order Asparagales by the APG system III
(APG 2009). APG system III described the Orchidaceae under five subfamilies i.e.
Apostasioideae (2 genera and 16 species), Cypripedioideae (5 genera and 130 species),
Vanilloideae (15 genera and 180 specie), Epidendroideae (more than 500 genera and
more or less 20,000 species) and Orchidoideae (208 genera and 3,630 species).
Species and hybrid
Orchids are the most potential group of plant in floriculture industry. They are
considered among top ten ornamentals for cut-flower and potted plants. The most
valuable orchids for national and international market are Cymbidium, Dendrobium,
Phalaenopsis, Cattleya, Vanda, Paphiopedilum, Oncidium and Zygopetalum on
breeding is undertaking for hybridization. The first man made orchid hybrid is
Calanthe dominiyi which developed by Mr. John Dominy through crossing between
Calanthe masuca and Calanthe furcata. This hybrid flowered in the year 1856 for first
time. Cattleya is one of the genera in which artificial hybridization is practiced since
early days of orchid breeding. The first and foremost thing in any breeding programme
is to decide what to breed and what for breed. Bose et al. (1999) discussed the breeding
objectives and steps in orchids. The species and hybrids of few important orchid
genera are giving below.
Orchids 241
Table 1: Important species and hybrid of orchids in India

Sl.No. Genus Species Hybrids
1. Cymbidium Cymbidium lowianum (Rchb.f.) Cymbidium ‘Winter Beach
Rchb.f., Cymbidium lancifoliumSea Green’, Cym. ‘H C
Hook., Cymbidium devonianum Aurora’, Cym. ‘Pine Clash
Pazt., Cymbidium dayanum Moon Venus’. Cym. ‘Mint Ice
Rchb.f., Cymbidium tigrinum Glacier’, Cym.‘Red Star’, Cym.
Parish ex. Hook F., Cymbidium ‘Show Girl’, Cym. ‘Sleeping
elegans Lindl., Cymbidium Nymph’ Cym. ‘Bob Marlin
tracyanum Rolfe., Cymbidium Lucky’, Cym. ‘Fire Storm
whiteae King & Pantl., Blade’, Cym. ‘Fire Storm
Cymbidium mastersii Griff ex. Ruby’ Cym. ‘White’, Cym.
Lindl. ‘Un green’, Cym. ‘Margaret
Threcher’ Cym. ‘Burgandian
Sydney, Cym. ‘Cecil Park’,
Cym. ‘W.W. Wounders’ Cym.
‘Levis Duke Bella Vista’ Cym.
‘Silver Kivi’, Cym. ‘Sparkle
Late green’ Cym. ‘Hotescences’
2. Dendrobium Dendrobium nobile Lindl., Dendrobium ‘Thongchai Gold’,
Dendrobium moschatum Sw., Dendrobium ‘Bangkok Blue’,
Dendrobium densiflorum Dendrobium ‘A. Abraham’,
Lindl., Dendrobium fimbriatum Dendrobium ‘Erika’ Dend.
Hook., Dendrobium ‘Triple Pink’, Dend. ‘Madam
chrysotoxum Lindl., Pink’, Dend. ‘Snow White’,
Dendrobium chrysanthum Dend ‘Sonia-16’, Dend.
Lindl., Dendrobium aduncum ‘Sonia-17’, Dend. ‘Emma
Wall. ex Lindl., Dendrobium White’, Dend. ‘Diamond Star’,
hookerianum Lindl.,Dendrobium Dend. ‘Big White’, Dend. ‘Fire
primulinum Lindl., Dendrobium Wall’, Dend. ‘Green Wonder’,
lituiflorum Lindl., Dendrobium Dend. ‘Winter Frost’, Dend.
aphyllum (Roxb.), Dendrobium ‘Ice Storm’, Dend. ‘Miss
falconeri Hook., Dendrobium Singapore’, Dend. ‘Australian
lindleyi Steud., Dendrobium Lemon Paper’, Dend. ‘Little
herbaceum Lindl., etc. Lolita’ Dend. ‘Medam
Pempador’
3. Phalaenopsis Phalaenopsis mannii Rchb.f., Phalaenopsis ‘White Dream’,
Phalaenopsis lobbi (Rchb.f.) ‘Florida Snow’, ‘Brother &
Aver., Sister’, ‘Harman Sweet’,
Phalaenopsis amabilis, ‘Yellow Queen’, ‘Sogo
Phalaenopsis formosana, Smith’, ‘Sogo Zebra’, ‘Minho
Phalaenopsis Aphrodite, Valentine’, ‘Minho King Buty’,
Phalaenopsis antennifera, ‘Brother Lowrance’, ‘Leopard
Phalaenopsis deliciosa, Prince’, ‘Golden Sun’, ‘Golden
Phalaenopsis mysorensis Amboin’,
Sl.No. Genus Species Hybrids

4. Vanda Ascocentrum ampullaceum Vanda ‘Pine River Blue’,
(Roxb.) Schltr., Acampe Vanda ‘Pakchong Blue’, Vanda
rigida (Buch.-Ham.) Hunt, ‘Dokter Anek’, Vanda ‘John
Renanthera imschootiana Rolfe, Club’, Vanda ‘S.D. Black’,
Rhynchostylis retusa (Linn.) Bl.,
Vanda ‘Robert’s Delight
Arachnis rubra Rolfe, Vanda Blue’, Vanda ‘Sunsai Blue
coerulea Griff. ex Lindl., Vanda
Kaufan’, Vanda ‘Pat Delight’,
pumila Hook.f., Vanda tessellata
Vanda ‘Kultana Voilet’, Vanda
(Roxb.) Hook.ex G.Don, ‘R.B.S.D. Pink’, Vanda ‘Motes
Indigo’
5. Cattleya Cattleya dowiana, Cattleya Cattelya ‘Bobi’, ‘Snow
maxima, Cattleya tigrina, Tiger’, ‘Leopard’, ‘Berlin
Cattleya hardyana, Cattelya beauty’, ‘Snow Field’, ‘Berlin
kerrii, Cattleya lawrenceana, Moon’, ‘Summer Pink’,
Cattleya sincorana, Cattleya ‘Berlin Star’, ‘Amazon Blue’,
pumila ‘Brazilian Ruby’, ‘Brazilian
Star’, ‘Brazilian Fire’, ‘Black
Wonder’, ‘July Sun’, ‘Spring
Breake’, ‘Moonlight Glitter’,
‘Summer Bouquet’, ‘Blue
Bird’, ‘Yellow Sky’
6. Paphiopedilum Paphiopedilum rothschildianum, Paphiopedilum ‘Double Moon’,
Paphiopedilum bellatulum, ‘Winter Vacation’, ‘California
Paphiopedilum insigne, Sprit’, ‘Red Delight’, ‘Big
Paphiopedilum venustum, Tiger’, ‘Black Paper’, ‘Asian
Paphiopedilum hirsutisimum, Sunsine’, ‘Red Glorry’, ‘Night
Paphiopedilu vellosum Leopard’, ‘Black Bim’, ‘World
Record’, ‘Elizabeth March’,
‘Prince Edward of York’,
‘Michel Koopwitz’, ‘Saint
Swithin’, ‘Mount Toro’, ‘David
Hensun’
Orchid species from Rajasthan: Orchid species i.e. Aerides crispum, A. multiflora,
A. maculosum, Epipactice veratrifolia, Eulophia ochreata, Habenaria marginata,
H.digitata, H. longicorniculata, Nervilia aragoana, Vanda tessellata, V. testacea and
Zeuxine strateumatica reported from Mount Abu, Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary and
Wildlife Sanctuary located in Aravalli hill range of Rajasthan (Shetty and Singh, 1991;
Sharma, 2001 & 2002).
Climate
Orchid is a vast group of a number of orchidaceous plants grown from tropical to
temperate region and even alpine zone. So that it is very difficult to describe by
common climate requirement needs for their growth and flowering. However the
optimistic climate requisite for growing of important orchids can be described.
Cymbidium survives in good health and bear regularly in the places where the summers
are moderately warm and bright, however, autumn and winter nights are sufficiently
Orchids 243
cool. They are most suited in temperature regime of 100C and 250C. A temperature
difference of about 100C between day and night is desirable. Although they can
withstand low temperature, it would be advisable to maintain a night temperature of
11-130C during winter to avoid the risk of injury. Adequate light is the most important
factor to grow and flower well. The plants grow best with 3000 to 4500 foot candles
of light intensity. Commercial Cymbidiums grow best under partial shade-partial
sun conditions. Shading of plant is an important component to regulate growth and
flowering. The extent of shade requirement may vary from location to location or
altitude and seasonal variation of light and temperature. In the hot summer particularly
April to June, the intensity of light is very high. Higher light intensity coupled with
higher temperature also prevails in rainy season. Usually 50% UV stabilized shade
net is sufficient to protect the plant from scorching heat under mid hill situation (5000
ft. msl) of northeast region of the country. Adequate humidity is essential to protect
the Cymbidium plant from the dehydration and stress, especially in summer months.
Overhead misting can be used in protected as well as open house to lower the leaf
temperature, at the same time, raise humidity levels. In general, 70-80% humidity
needs to be maintained during the period of active growth. However, during winter the
humidity requirement is less (40-50%). Dendrobium can be grown successfully under
effective temperature range 24-300C during vegetative growth period while 10-130C
temperature required during flowering. The growing season of Dendrobium is rainy
season from July to September needs 50-70 per cent relative humidity and abundant
light. Phalaenopsis orchids require summer daytime higher temperature of 27-300C
and low temperature 220C with 60-70 per cent relative humidity.
Table 2: Climatic requirement of important orchid genera
Genus Vegetative stage Flowering stage RH (%)
Temperature Light ( C)
o
Photoperiod
(oC) (μ mole m-2s-1)
Dendrobium 24-30 300-600 10-13 Short day 50-70
Cymbidium 10- 25 2000-3000 f.c. 10-12 Short day in spring 70-80
and autumn
Cattleya 23-32 300-600 12-16 Short day 50-80
Phalaenopsis 20-23 150-300 10-25 No response 60-70
Zygopetalum 22-26 300-500 10-14 Short day 50-60
Growing structure
Orchid plants should be protected from all sorts of weather damages for production
of market worthy spikes. In commercial farming for export purposes, it is preferable
to cultivate Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Phalaenopsis, Cattleya, Mokara, Vanda
and Zygopetalum in pots placed on benches under the controlled environmental
conditions of the modern greenhouse to achieve perfection though it is cost intensive.
Nevertheless, greenhouse with all sides open is also suitable. In mid hill situation,
bamboo/ wooden structure with UV stabilized polythene on the top is generally used
with success. However, structure with steel pipe and top covered with double layered
polycarbonate and encircled with 11gauge iron net is added advantage in durability of
polyhouse.
Propagation
Propagation in orchids is an important process for multiplication. It can be propagated
through seed, vegetative method of propagation, and tissue culture technique.
Seeds: Majority of the orchids are propagated from seeds but this technique is very
difficult to produce orchids by the farmers as it has minute seeds require the presence
of a suitable mycobiont and supporting organic carbon source (substrate). Several
other biotic and abiotic factors also contribute to the germination niche for orchids.
Vegetative propagation: Vegetative propagation is an easier method to grow and
multiplication of orchids, but it is a very slow process as a few plants can be multiplied
from one plant in a year. But it is essential to maintain the uniformity in a particular
type of orchid, as plants raised from seeds will not be similar to the mother plant.
The seedlings may show variations by combining the characters of both the parents.
It is moreover difficult for a common grower to raise plants from seeds. In vegetative
method of propagation, the following technique can be used.
Division: Division method technique is most suitable for the propagation of sympodial
orchids that produce multiple shoot growth from single rhizome. In this technique, full
grown old plants (5-6 years) should be used for division through uproot the plants
from pots and separates the shoots with pseudobulb in three to four parts depend on the
growth of plant used for division. The separated shoots should be repotted in new pot
and media and apply the water and nutrient as per recommended package for particular
species or hybrid. The orchids Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Epidendrum, Cattleya and
Zygopetallum can be propagated through this technique.
Off shoots and Kaikis: This technique is more suitable for propagation of monopodial
orchids like Ascocenda, Phalaenopsis, Vanda and Angreacum orchids some sympodial
orchids like Dendrobium nobile in which new shoots or kaikis produce from upper
portion of backbulbs and internodes of stems naturally. However, it can be produced
by breaking or cutting of top portion of monopodial orchids. When kaikis produce
3-4 roots, it can be separated from mother plant and put in new pot and after suitable
growth it should transfer in a suitable media and pots.
Cutting: Cutting method of propagation is suitable for making new plants of
monopodial orchids like Vanda and Aranda. These orchids grown up to more height
due to indeterminate habit, hence it can be managed by cutting and pruning. Due to
cutting of apical portion of stem, new aerial roots produce. The sprouted roots with
stems separate from main plants and potted in new pots and suitable media to produces
new plants but it is slow process of plant multiplication. Through this method untrained
person or farmers can produce new plants.
Backbulb technique: In this method of propagation, leaves or shoots less pseudobulb
which separate from mother plants during repotting are used for preparation of new
orchid plants. It is more suitable for Cymbidium, Cattleya, Dendrobium, Coelogyne,
Zygopetalum, bulbophyllum and many more orchids produce psuedobulbs. In the
process of this method, carefully clean the psuedobulbs by removal of scales and
leaf layers after separation of psuedobulbs from the mother plants. Later on, these
pseudobulbs socked in normal ware for some time to clean all dirt and then treat
Orchids 245
pseudobulbs with nutrients and hormones for rapid new sprouting. Apply IBA
1000-2000 ppm for Dendrobium aggregatum, NAA 60-120 ppm and IBA 250g/litre
in Cattleya hybrid and Cymbidium, respectively are found effective. The prepared
pseudobulbs put straight in the raised beds containing media (wooden dust, sand,
FYM and leaf mold) and then watering regularly to maintain moisture in the bed.
Similarly the pseudobulbs can also be put in the jute bags filled with wooden dust or
complete media (wooden dust, sand, FYM and leaf mold). After one or two months,
lateral sprouting come out from pseudobulbs and when roots developed completely in
news shoots, should separates from main pseudobulbs and separated shoots transplant
in new beds or in a new pots. After removal of lateral shoots from pseudobulbs, they
can be put in sawdust or media and repeat entire process again to get new plants. This
is very effective method of multiplication of new orchid plants, can be utilized by
farmers or orchid growers.
Tissue Culture: Tissue culture technique is more prominent in orchids for large scale
multiplication of planting material in India and abroad. In this technique of propagation,
people are generally using seed culture by which Cymbidium, Dendrobium,
Epidendrum, Zygopetalum, Oncidium and many other orchids are commercially
multiplied in the country. The second most important method of propagation is
meristem culture, wherein apical tips of young leaf of matured plants are cultured
either in Heller’s medium or other suitable media. Phalaenopsis, a monopodial orchid,
was the first orchid genus to be propagated in vitro while Cymbidium was the first to
be propagated by shoot-tip, and a comprehensive analysis of conditions required for
the tissue culture and micropropagation of various orchids has been reviewed (Arditti
and Ernst 1993). The orchid planting materials produced through meristem culture
are free from any kind of viral diseases.
Growing media
The main purpose of growing media is to hold the plant in place and supply sufficient
amount of nutrients and water. Cymbidium prefers fairly open compost. While
selecting potting media, one should be cautious to see whether the media is keeping
the roots moist but not wet, even drying of the mix, keeping the roots cool and avoiding
large air pockets in the mix. A mixture of peat and perlite is recommended for use in
controlled green house condition. An even more open mix would be preferable for
growing cymbidium in shade house. Whatever may be the mix, the thumb rule for any
potting media is that it should be free from water logging. A healthy growth growing
media containing Leaf mould, FYM, Charcoal, Coconut husk, Rotten logs (2:1:1:1:1)
is found to be beneficial. The pH of the media should be acidic and it ranges from
5.5 to 6.5. Sterilization of media is an integral part as most of the diseases get entry
through media itself. Potting media requires sterilization and mixing homogeneously
before filling in the pots. The commonly used methods for sterilization are heating
and chemical treatment. The media needs to be cut smaller sized pieces and mixed
thoroughly before sterilization. Some media require soaking over night e.g. Coconut
husk to leached out undesirable chemicals. If heat treatment is used all the media
components should be sterilized separately as they require different period of heating.
In case of chemical treatment, the media components need to be stirred thoroughly,

wet with formaldehyde @ 20ml/L and kept covered with polythene sheet for at least 72
hours. After opening, sun drying is required for few hours to evaporate the obnoxious
gasses. Phalaenopsis and Vanda are epiphytic orchids and their roots are aerial type,
hence it need thick pieces of stone chip or brick pieces, coco-chip, Charcoal, leaf
mould in specified ratio. Cattleya and Dendrobium need potting mixture of tree bark,
fibres of tree ferns, coco-chip, coco-pit and perlite. After proper sterilization and
drying of growing media, potting should be done to avoid fungal disease infection.
Pots and potting
Type and size of pots depend on the growth and size of orchid planting material used
for potting. The most commonly used are earthen or plastic pots. The pots should have
sufficient number of holes for aeration to root zone and drainage. The plastic pots are
economic, long lasting, and convenient and above all require less frequent watering.
A year old plant (6 inches size) should be planted in 4 inches size pot. Thereafter, it
needs to be transferred in to 6 inches size pot. Smaller plants of less than 6 inches size
must be planted in the community pots to check the mortality. Pots should be sterilized
in boiling water or Tri-sodium phosphate. The potting should be done during active
growth phase i.e. during April to June. Crocks or bricks chips should be placed at
the bottom of the pot. The plant then placed centrally and sterilized media need to be
placed all around the plant. Care should be taken to avoid any large unfilled cavities
while potting. It is always wise to keep the pots on the benches to provide proper
aeration and check the soil borne diseases. The density of plant depends on the size of
plant as well as pot. At initial stage of growth (1.5 yr old), around 30 plants (4”) can
accommodate in a square meter area. The spacing will be wider as a plant grows and
nine plants of 4-5 year old can be accommodated (6” size pot) in a square meter area.
However, fully grown plants (7-8 year old) need more space for sufficient aeration and
hardly three plants can be spaced in a square meter area.
Watering
Immediate watering of newly potted or planted plant should be avoided, possibly
up to two or even three weeks, which will encourage the new root to grow in the
fresh compost. Only plain water is advocated for irrigation until new root grow in
evident. The amount of water depends on the potting mixture. Since orchids all their
vegetative growth during spring and summer months require more water and it should
be reduced during winters. During hot days plants should watered through overhead
misting or sprinkling to lower the temperature and increase the humidity level in the
growing areas. Always irrigation should be done in the morning to wet down the media
thoroughly which will supply water vapour for a long period.
Fertilizers
Fertilizer requirements vary to species and hybrid of orchids as well as age of plants.
In Cymbidium, water-soluble fertilizer (NPK 19:19:19) at 1g/l should be sprayed
weekly only after being assured of new root growth. Very strong feed also should
be avoided to protect the immature root from burning. Once the new roots establish
Orchids 247
themselves a regular watering and feeding programme can be adopted depending on

the growing condition and the potting mixture used. Generally fertilizer with higher
nitrogen percentage is recommended during growing season, while higher potassium
is lead to favour blooming. Dendrobium is an evergreen orchid is heavy feeder than
that of deciduous type. A dilute solution of balanced fertilizer twice a month should
be sprayed. Fertilizer mixture in 10:10:10 nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium is
generally recommended. Fertilizer dosage needs to be sprayed in 19:19:19 or 20:20:20
NPK should be applied with each watering during summer in Phalaenopsis orchid.
However keeping mix strength same, during winter the frequency of fertilization in
adjusted every other watering. The mixture of NPK in the ratio of 10:14:12 once a
week during growing season promotes growth and flowering of plants in Vanda.
Training of spike
Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Phalaenopsis, Vanda and Zygopetalum spikes need to be
trained as soon as they appear. A cane or bamboo split should be inserted behind the
spike. Care should be taken to avoid any root injury. Once the spike has reached about
20 to 30 cm in length as orchid species, a tie should be applied. Tying of the spike
should be secure and firm with the cane. Great care must be taken, as the growing
spikes are brittle and a jolt or rough handling will break them. When the buds have
begun to form, a second tie should be given just below the first bud. An extra tie also
will be needed below the tip to keep the spike straight.
Pest and Diseases
Orchids are more vulnerable to a number of insect-pests and diseases. They attain pests
and diseases incidence from hardening to flowering of plants at different level of damage.
Orchids particularly Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Phalaenopsis, Oncidium, Arundina,
Mokra and Cattleya get infested with aphids (Macrosiphum luteum and Toxoptera
aurantii), two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae, thrips, Dichromothrips
nakahari), few scale species (Pinnaspis buxi and Coccus hesperidum) and slug and
snails. These insects attack on foliage, flower buds and full bloom flowers are need to
be controlled appropriately at right time to escape the qualitative and quantitative loss.
Maintaining clean cultivation, proper air circulation, correct watering, weeding time to
time and balanced compost would keep the pests and diseases away. However, with the
sudden change in the temperature and increase in humidity with alternate rain and sun,
encourage incidence of pest and disease. In such situation, depending upon symptoms
application of recommended chemical will helpful to contain and control the same.
Regular pest monitoring and cleanliness are two important practices to keep the orchid
pests under check. Aphids can be managed by using azadirachtin 0.03%EC @ 3ml/
litre of water as foliar spray followed by acephate 75%SP @ 0.05%. Two-spotted
spider mite can be managed through cleanliness and proper planting distance with
ventilation under controlled conditions. Enhancing the activity of anthocorid bugs,
Blaptostethus pallescens is good for keeping mite infestation under check. Spray the
plants with Econeem 1500 ppm @ 3.5ml/litre followed by spiromesifen 22.9% SC @
1ml/litre or propergite 57EC@ 1.5 ml/litre (if required). Thrips can be controlled using
aqueous Artemisia leaf extract @ 10ml/litre or neem oil 5ml/litre of water followed by
acetamiprid 20 SP @ 0.3 g/litre of water. Scales insects can be managed by keeping

cleanliness and regular care of plants, manual removing of infested plant parts and
destruction them. One spray of acephate 75% SP @ 0.05% or carbaryl 50 WP@ 1g/
litre of water are advisable, if needed repeat the spray at 10 days interval.
In orchids, black rot, crown rot, orchid wilt, blossom blight, anthracnose, leaf spot,
bacterial soft rot, bacterial brown rot and some viral infection like Cymbidium Mosaic
Virus and Odontoglossum Ring Spot Virus are the important diseases. These diseases
are species specific and cause severe loss in particular part of the year. The peculiar
symptoms appear on particular plant parts are the best source of disease identification.
Fungal diseases can be managed by making clean cultivation inside polyhouses.
Procure disease free planting material from accredited nursery while set-up new
orchid farm. Avoid unsterilized potting media and pots. Separate infested plants from
healthy plants and remove and destroy infested parts to check the further spread of the
diseases. For effective control, Matco MZ or metalaxyl@ 1g/lit. or mancozeb @2g/lit
can be used as spray or soil drenching. Bacterial diseases can be manage by reducing
prolonged wetness by increasing air circulation and also avoid overhead irrigation.
Infected plants should be drenched or sprayed with 8 hydroxyquinoline a dilution of 1:
2000 in water. Viral disease can be prevent by sterilization of tools used for handling
plants, procure virus free planting material and avoid overcrowding of plants in the
polyhouses. If possible, utilize the plants produce through meristem culture.
Yield and harvesting
An understanding of the correct stage of harvesting becomes more important because
it influences the keeping quality, appeal of the harvested spike and yield for the next
year. The spikes should be harvested when all the flowers are open. While harvesting
utmost care should be taken to see that pollen caps of the flowers remain intact. The
plant will produce only one spike at the first harvest, which gradually increases up to
three or more in the subsequent harvest. Number of flower per spike will vary from
10-15 depending upon the hybrid and variety. One flower spike 10 to 25 individual
flowers depends hybrid categorized as miniature, intermediate and standard type. The
spikes need to cut at the base of the stalk. The cut surface should be smooth and
never be crushed. A sharp knife or secateur is required to sterilize time to time with
antibiotic-fungicide solution to avoid transmission of viral diseases. The harvested
spikes need to dip immediately in a bucket of water till they are packed. In order to
improve the quality of flower spike and vase-life pulsing with sugar (2 - 4%) are given
to the cut spike. A well-grown Cymbidium will have a vase life of 4 to 6 weeks at the
consumer ends, provided proper handling was maintained after harvest. A number of
floral preservatives are also in use to prolong the shelf-life of the flower. A combination
of biocide, sugar and hormone remarkably enhance the post harvest life. “Purafil” a
commercial product, HQC, HQS and several other can also increase the vase life.
Dendrobium hybrids (‘Thongchai Gold’, ‘Bangkok Blue’, ‘Erika’, ‘Triple Pink’ and
‘Madam Pink’) produce 10 to 25 flower spike/plant/season.
Orchids 249
Packaging and transportation

Flower should not be packed in green house to avoid risk of contamination. Usually
the ambient temperature of packing sheds should be 12 to 150C as such cool stores
are not necessary. However, if cool store is available then temperature should not
be below 100C, otherwise flower injury may occur. The flowers should be checked
before they sleeved. Cushioning material should be put in the back of the sleeve to
avoid any injury during transport. The ideal export box would be a two-piece box.
Each stem in the box should be put in the tube containing water, thus stem has water
supply during transport. Instead of small water tube, cotton wrapping also served the
purpose. In this case, a piece of cotton needs to soak in water. After squeezing the
cotton is to be wrapped all around the spike. Then a piece of polythene is tied with
rubber band. Before the lid is placed box are spread with an aerosol insecticide. This
would ensure final precaution against any possible insects in the box. In order to check
movement of spike within the box during transit, the base of the spikes may be tied
to the base of cartoon by adhesive tape. The spikes are usually packed in cartons or
box with sufficient number of hole for aeration. The size of cartoon depends on the
length of flower spike. The standard size of boxes for this purpose are 76cm L x 29cm
B x10cm H, 98cm L x 48cm B x 20cm H and 98cm L x 40cm B x 30cm H. Normally,
the cut flower boxes are transported in air conditioned vans from the farms to the
nearest airport. From these airports, the orchid’s cut flowers are sent by air to various
destinations in India and abroad.
References
Arditti, J. And Ernst, R. 1993. Micropropagation of orchids. John Wilay and Sons, Inc. New
York, pp 696.
Arora, Y. K. 1983. Indian Horticulture. 28: 11-12, 16.
Bose, T.K., Bhattachacharjee, S.K., Das, P. and Basak, U.C. 1999. Orchids of India. Naya
Prokash, Calcutta.
Carolus Linnaeus. 1753. Species Plantarum, 1st edition, vol. 2, pages 939-954. Holmiae:
Impensis Laurentii Salvii (Lars Salvius). (A facsimile with an introduction by William T.
Stearn was published by the Ray Society in 1957).
Christenhusz, M. J. M. and Byng, J. W. 2016. The number of known plants species in the world
and its annual increase. Phytotaxa. 261 (3): 201–217.
Garay, L. A. (1960). On the origin of Orchidaceae. I. Botanical Museum Leaflets, 19, 57–96.
Kuehnle, A. R. (2007). Orchids, Dendrobium. In N. O. Anderson (Ed.), Flower breeding and
genetics. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Springer., pp. 539–560.
Nagaraju, V., Upadhyaya, R.C., Barman, D., Nagrare, V.S., Bag, T. K. and Sarkar, J. 2006.
Orchids in northern eastern states, A Technical Bulletin. pp. 2-3.
Ram Pal, Meena, N. K., Dayamma, M. and Singh, D. R. 2020. Ethnobotany and recent
advances in Indian medicinal orchids. J.M. Mérillon, H. Kodja (eds.), Springer Nature
Switzerland AG. Orchids Phytochemistry, Biology and Horticulture, Reference Series in
Phytochemistry, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11257-8_26-1.
Rampal and Nagrare, V. S. 2006. Orchid diversity of India, its conservation and sustainable
Satish Kumar C. and Manilal, K. S. 1994. A cataloge of Indian Orchids. Bishen Singh and
Mahendra Pal Singh, Deharadun, India
Sharma, S.K. 2001. New record of Nervilia aragoana in Rajasthan. Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society, 98 (3): 493.
Sharma, S.K. 2002. Occurrence of Habenaria longicorniculata Grah. Family Orchidaceae in

Mount Abu Wildlife Sanctuary, Rajasthan. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society,
99 (1): 156.
Shetty, B.V. and Singh, V. 1991. Flora of Rajasthan. Vol. II. Botanical Survey of India.
Pp. 453-860.
WCSP World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. Retrieved 2 April 2010. http://data.kew.org/
cgi-bin/vpfg1992/genlist.pl
Willis, J. C. 1973. A dictionary of the flowering plants and ferns. 8th edn., revised by Airy-Shaw,
H. K. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
17
Anthurium
Sanchita Ghosh, Ajit Kumar, Tripti Tewari and Syed Khudus
Anthurium is commonly known as anthurium/tail flower/oilcloth flower (Anthurium

andraeanum) and flamingo flower/flame plant (Anthurium scherzerianum). The word
anthurium is derived from two Greek words viz., anthos meaning flower and aura
meaning tail, referring to the spadix. Anthurium plants were growing undisturbed
for hundreds of centuries in the rainforests of South America. Samuel Damon, a
businessman and politician in the Kingdom of Hawaii brought one species out of
hundreds of species of anthurium to Hawaii in 1889 for cultivation in his garden.
The plants were introduced by various people in their gardens from Samuel Damon’s
garden. It is a tropical ornamental plant valued for its flowers and unusually attractive
foliage. In India, it is grown commercially in Assam, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,
Sikkim, West Bengal, Meghalaya and Maharashtra. In India, total anthurium flower
production is 3230 tonnes with Assam producing highest anthurium production of
2050 tonnes followed by Meghalaya 740 tonnes (Seemanthini and Chandrashekar,
2018). Major markets in the world for per capita consumption of anthurium flowers
are Europe (47.80%), United States of America (21.80%) and Japan (16.80%) (Misra
and Misra, 2017). In anthurium, various ploidy levels exist like diploid (Anthurium
andraeanum and A. hookeri), triploid (A. scandens) and tetraploid (A. digitatum and
A. wallisii). Basic chromosome number varies in different species of Anthurium. Most
of the Anthurium species have 2n = 30 chromosomes while in some polyploids, it is
2n = 60. However, a few species have 2n = 20 to 124 chromosomes (Petersen, 1989).
In Anthurium andraeanum, somatic chromosome number has been found as 2n = 30
+ 2B and this species has high percentage of meiotic abnormalities and karyotype
differences suggesting its hybrid origin. Anthurium plants need medium care and
reach up to a height of 45-50 cm bearing pale white to yellow coloured flowers with
orange to red coloured bracts.
Importance and Uses
Anthuriums belonging to family Araceae are one of the most important cut flowers
grown throughout the world for their showy cut flowers and attractive foliage.
Anthuriums are tropical, evergreen perennial but herbaceous aroids having creeping,
climbing or arborescent stems. Anthurium andraeanum is commercially cultivated
for cut flower production owing to its unusually attractive heart shaped, waxy red,
reddish orange, scarlet or white spathes and yellow and white straight spadix while;
A. scherzerianum is a smaller plant easier to grow and sold as potted plant. Among
cut flowers, anthurium ranks eleventh position in the international flower tarde.
They are easy enough to grow and very popular because of showy flowers, which
consist of colourful leathery, shiny spathes and has huge export potential if they are
given the right greenhouse conditions. Anthurium flowers have a long vase life of
about 13-15 days, so widely used in flower arrangements, bouquet preparation and
indoor decoration. Meanwhile, anthurium as a potted plant has a colossal demand
for interioscaping (Seemanthini and Chandrashekar, 2018). They have medicinal
values too as steam of foliage of anthurium can be used to alleviate joint pain during
rheumatism and arthritis.
Origin
Anthuriums are native to Central America, Columbia, Brazil, Guatemala, Peru and
Venezuela and were introduced into Great Britain during early 19th century.
Taxonomy
Genus Anthurium comprises of about 825 species of arum family (Araceae) but only
50 species are in cultivation out of which only 10-15 species are in trade. They are
grown either for their very showy flowers i.e. spathes and spadices or for their very
showy velvety leaves. Hence, they can be categorized under two natural groups viz.
i) Flowering such as Anthurium andraeanum, A. bakeri, A. brownii, A. x ferrierense,
A. ornatum, A. regale, A. regnellianum, A. robustum and A. scherzerianum
ii) Foliage such as A. clarinervium, A. corrugatum, A.crystallinum, A. holtonianum,
A. leuconerum, A. magnificum, A. panduratum, A. papilionensis, A. splendidum,
A. veitchii and A. waroqueacum. Though all anthuriums flower but those having
showy and large flowers (spathe and spadices) are the flowering anthuriums
such as A. andraeanum, A. brownie, A. regnellianum, A.spathiphyllum, A.
scherzerianum. Anthuriums where flowers are insignificant and the foliage is
large, handsome and velvety are foliage anthuriums such as A. crystallinum, A.
magnificum, A. regale, A. veitchii, A. warocqueanum.
Apart from the 11 anthuriums (flowering and foliage anthuriums), A. aemulum,
A. digitatum, A. x ferrierense, A. pentaphyllum, A. radicans, A. scandens, A.
subsignatum, A.undatum, etc. are creeping or climbing anthuriums. A. acutangulum is
an epiphytic while A. acutifolium is terrestrial, A. amnicola is epiphytic, A. andicola
is either epiphytic or epilithic, A. bakeri is an epiphyte, A. bogotense is an epiphyte
and terrestrial. A. clarinervium and A. corrugatum are terrestrial in nature. Recently,
three new species recorded in Anthurium are A. thompsonii (Arias-Granda, 1996),
A. minarum (Sakuragui and Mayo, 1999) and A. faustomirandae (Perez-Farrera and
Croat, 2001). The species cross easily among themselves. The present day anthurium
cultivars are mostly hybrids resulted through hybridization involving various species
of Anthurium andraeanum and A. scherzerianum. The dwarf type cultivars are suitable
as pot plant, large types suitable for flower arrangements and foliage types as pot plant
for indoor decoration.
Anthurium 253
Varieties
Red colour
Hawaiian: Ozaki, Kozohara, Aumana, Tyam, Ayashii, Asahi and Mickey Mouse.
Holland: Cancan, Avo Rosette, Avo Serge, Avo Nette, Tropical, Scarlette, Avo Red,
Avo Claudia, Fla Success, Fla Red, Fla King, Mirjam, Pronto, Ingrid, Inka, Rio,
Violetta and Jacqueline.
Others: Mauritius Red, Tanaka, Nova-Aurora, Red Elf, Calypso, Madame Butterfly
and Splish-Splash.
Orange colour
Hawaiian: Nitta, Sunburst Orange and Diamond Jubilee.
Holland: Fla Orange and Avo Gino.
Others: Mauritius Orange, Horning Orange and Horning Rubin.
White colour
Hawaiian: Manoa Mist, Uniwai, Chameleon, Trinidad, Hidden Treasure, De Weese,
Mauna Kea, Suchiro, Jamaica and Myron Myron Moori.
Holland: Acropolis, Fla Exotic, Uranus, Ave Avo Margarette, Avo Jose, Cuba, Geisha
and Lima.
Others: Mauritius White, Lima White and Haga White.
Pink colour
Hawaiian: Abe Pink, Blush, Marian Seefurth and Candy Stripe.
Holland: Avo Anneke, Hoenette, Surprise, Bettine, Lunette and Sarina.
Others: Agnihotri, Lady Jane (Miniature pink), Paradise Pink and Passion (salmon
pink).
Obake Types
Fantasia (cream with pink veins), Madonna (cream obake), Medori (green), Fla Rose
(peach), Anuenue (green), Rico (rose), Lambada (white-green), Farao (bright orange
with green ears) and Caroline Simmon (purple).
Climate
Anthuriums are found in a wide range of climates varying from sea level to 3000 m
from sea level. Anthurium being a tropical plant thrives best at a temperature between
18-28ºC. Temperature influences the period of growth as well as flower development.
The range of light intensity for plant growth is between 2000-6000 lux. Anthurium
grows well in warm greenhouse with shading direct sunshine and a humid condition.
A shade level of 75% is ideal for its growth. However, degree of shade varies with
the cultivar, age and climate. Insufficient shading damages the leaves and eventually
causes death of plants. Anthurium plants can be shaded with Saran or UV stabilized
agro-shadenets for uniform shading and more flowers per unit area. Anthurium
plants require RH of 80%. Commercial cultivation of anthurium can be done
either in open field conditions under favourable climatic conditions or in protected
structures like polyhouse/greenhouse. However, the quality of flowers is superior
in protected structures as they give protection to the crop against adverse weather
conditions especially temperature and rainfall and microclimate (light, temperature,
CO2, humidity, etc.) of the crop growing area can be manipulated to a greater extent.
The protected structures should be equipped with fan and pad system/air conditioners
(for cooling), drip system (for irrigation and fertigation) and foggers/humidifiers (for
humidity control). Now-a-days, high-tech polyhouses in export oriented units (EOUs)
are equipped with climate control computers with sensors to regulate microclimate i.e.
light, temperature, CO2, ventilation and humidity.
Media
Different media are in vogue among anthurium growers. One of the most important
components of anthurium cultivation is the choice of growing substrate or
medium. It is known to grow best in a well aerated medium with good water
retention capacity and drainage. A good medium needs to be able to anchor
the roots and stems so that the plant will not topple over as it grows larger, yet
it should provide sufficient moisture, nutrient and aeration to the plant (Singh
et al., 2019). In Mauritius, sugarcane bagasse and in the Netherlands, polyphenol
foam, mineral wool and peat are commonly used. In general, highly organic, well
aerated media with good water retention capacity and drainage are used for growing
anthurium. Media should anchor the roots firmly. Presence of salts in the media is
harmful to the plants. The media generally used in India contain wood shavings, leaf
mould, course sand, small brick pieces, neem cake, cow dung, coir pith compost,
charcoal and coconut husk pieces having ideal pH of 6.0. Mineral deficiencies can
arise as a result of high or low pH. Addition of organic matter maintains a desirable
pH. Proper growth depends upon optimum temperature (25-28ºC), relative humidity
(80 per cent), light and shade regulation (70 per cent shade though varying with species
and cultivars, age and climate), rainfall and water management, wind management and
CO2 concentration (900 ml/m3) if planted in greenhouse environment. The media for its
growing may be anything from coco-husk to oasis via coco-peat, rice husk, tree bark,
fern root, sphagnum moss, bagasse, wood shavings, rock wool, lava, charcoal, sand,
gravels, etc. with certain amendments. Medium should have qualities like offering
sufficient support to the plants, should be highly porous for adequate root aeration,
should be able to hold required water, fertilizers and other necessary nutrients and
drain out easily. It should have pH range of 5.2-6.2 with EC 0.7-1.3 dS/m and capable
to degenerate quite slowly (Misra and Misra, 2017). Rapid degenerating medium is
not desired as it will become messy soon causing water-logging thereby resulting in
poor aeration in the medium. This condition will not only impede the roots to function
properly and hinder their growth and nutrients absorbing capacity from the media but
will also make the plants susceptible to various pathogens. A. andraeanum thrives best
in gravel than in peat or in a mixture of sphagnum moss and coniferous forest soil.
However, 1:1 mixture of soil and wood shavings and cow manure + tree fern fibre,
Anthurium 255
sugarcane bagasse, coffee leaf mould, tree bark, powdered bark, black cinder, chicken
manure, pumice, peat moss are equally good for production of anthurium cut flowers.
Singh et al. (2011) found that medium consisting of saw dust + brick pieces + wooden
charcoal + soil + sand + FYM (2:1:1:1:1:1) was found best for leaf area (229.11 cm2),
petiole length (21.31 cm), minimum days to flowering (260.47 days), stalk length
(36.16 cm), spathe length and width (8.50 and 8.08 cm, respectively) and number of
flowers per plant for anthurium cv. Flame under protected conditions.
Propagation
Seed Propagation
Anthurium can be propagated by seeds. To grow anthurium plants from seeds is an
extremely simple but lengthy process. The seeds germinate within 10 days and can
be transplanted within 4-6 months. It may take 2 years for a plant to bloom. About
20-30% seed derived plants are discarded because of low seedling vigour and poor
vegetative growth.
Anthuriums can be propagated through various means like stem cuttings, rootstock
division, suckers and through leaf axillary buds. After heading back, the rootstock
is removed from the containers in February-March and the adhering compost is
cleaned off. The fibrous roots are then divided in such a way that each piece should
contain a growing point i.e. node. They are dipped in captan (0.2%) and planted in
fresh compost or organic matter and sand medium (1:3) and kept in humid conditions
until they are fully established. However, the most common method of propagation is
through stem cuttings. Terminal cuttings from older plants having 1, 2 or 3 nodes or
leaves and treated with IBA or seradix 1 (500 ppm), provide good rooting if kept under
intermittent mist which helps to accelerate rooting and more survival of the cuttings. It
has been seen that cuttings taken with 2 or 3 nodes perform better than 1 node cutting
during multiplication. Presence of intact aerial roots leads to 100% survival of cuttings
under intermittent mist. Anthurium can also be propagated through axillary buds. A
mature leaf along with the axillary bud and the root at its base is separated out, planted
in moist sand and kept in a mist chamber till the bud develops into a new plant.
Tissue Culture
Methods have been standardized for quick multiplication of anthurium hybrids through
tissue culture. Leaf segments, spadix segments, vegetative buds and stem sections
have been successfully used as explants to get callus on MS medium. Formation of
callus from leaf segments is highly dependent on genotype, leaf age and size. Just
unfolding leaves show highest callus as compared to older leaves. The total duration
of tissue culture cycle from leaf explant to complete plantlet is 11 months: 2 months
for callus induction, 3 months for callus multiplication, 4 months for sprout induction
and leaf development and 2 months for root formation. When apical meristem or the
axillary bud meristems are used as explant, the resulting plantlets are uniform and true
to type. When any other tissue is used, the plants are produced through callus and some
amount of variability is inevitable. Deflasked rooted plants can be planted out in net
pots held in egg trays. Washed fine sand or mixture of course sand and leaf mould can
be used as medium. There is better establishment when a fertilizer mix consisting of
urea, magnesium sulphate and super phosphate is used and sprayed with 1% Indofil
M 45. Larger plants perform better than smaller plants. Plantlets grown in the medium
soilrite exhibit had maximum growth rate. The plants treated with fungicide solution
can also be planted in community pots. 10-12 plants can be planted in an earthen
pot having a diameter of 4-5”. Bhavana et al. (2018) developed highly efficient,
reproducible and cost effective protocol for multiplication of anthurium lines from in
vitro shoots, through suspension culture (using liquid MS media supplemented with
BAP). The complete plants along with roots were obtained in large quantity within 45
days of suspension culture. Shoot proliferation was obtained with agar-solidified MS
medium as well as liquid MS medium, at various concentration of BAP. After 45 days
of incubation at 80 rpm, both the media gave best results at 8.8 µM BAP, whereas
higher number (29.333±0.342) of shoots were obtained with liquid medium compared
to solid medium (7.667±0.342).
Planting
Planting is done either in the beds or in the pots. In the bed, 10 plants/m2 are optimum.
In small scale planting, anthuriums are generally planted in earthen pots. A pot size of
22-30 cm having two holes is usually preferred. Initially the potting mixture is filled to
about one-fourth. Subsequently, with the growth of the plant, fresh medium is added,
which not only encourages the growth of the plant but also good anchorage. Young
plants require repotting every year while adult ones, in every 2-3 years. The new pots
should not be larger than the previous ones. Anthuriums can be grown as ground plants
too. For a large scale production, land having gentle slope is more ideal. Planting
should be done on raised beds with the same potting media which has been used for
pots. The width of bed is generally kept at 1.5 m to facilitate various intercultural
operations while length can be kept up to 5.0 m depending upon the choice of the
grower and length of the polyhouse. Deep planting should be avoided. The planting
distance of 45 cm x 45 cm can accommodate 29,640 plants per ha. However, a closer
planting distance of 30 cm x 30 cm can accommodate 61,750 plants per ha.
Manures and Fertilizers
It is better to apply the fertilizers in smaller doses and at frequent intervals than
giving larger doses at longer intervals. Application of manures in soil is done at every
alternate month. A combination of FYM with about 2 g of 17:17:17:2 of NPK and
Mg per plant once or twice a month should be given. For plants growing in pots, 5 g
complex fertilizer dissolved in 500 ml water per pot should be given in the medium
once in two months. Foliar sprays of 0.5-1.0% of 17:17:17 complex fertilizer could
also be given to the plants at bi weekly intervals. Plants should be watered shortly after
application of the fertilizers. The N, K and Ca are the important nutrients required in
anthurium nutrition. A deficiency of Ca can cause fading of the spathe colour. Apply
Ca @5 g/plant/month to recover deficiency of Ca. Reduce the dose of N when plants
Anthurium 257
switch over from vegetative to flowering phase. An overdose of fertilizers, applied

shortly before the harvest of spikes reduces vase life of flowers.
Irrigation
The plants should be watered at least twice daily during summer. Mist or sprinkler
irrigation is the best for anthurium. The last watering in a day should be timed in such
a way so as to leave sufficient time for the water to evaporate so that the plants are
not damp during the night hours. The quality of water is also important. It should be
preferably free from dissolved salts. The optimum pH of irrigation water is between
5.5-6.0.
Special Horticultural Practices
Plant growth regulators like GA3 (100 ppm) can be used in anthurium to increase
growth, sucker production, flower yield, quality and also to reduce juvenile phase.
Pruning of leaves is done as the old leaves of anthurium grow at the expense of the
flowers. Too many leaves even do harm to the flowers. An anthurium plant has to be
thus pruned to retain adequate number of leaves without any adverse effects on the
flower production and quality. This also improves the health of the plants in view of
better air circulation. Pruned leaves that are healthy can also be sold as cut foliage. On
an averages 3-5 leaves are sufficient on a plant. Most anthuriums naturally produce
small suckers at the base of the plant to rejuvenate themselves. However, this is
highly undesirable for the quality of the flowers as sucker formation also leads to
overcrowding which results in crooked stem and decrease in flower size. Moreover,
young suckers grow at the expense of main plants and withdraw energy from the
parent plant, which does not benefit flower production. It is a good idea to remove
suckers at an early stage.
Harvesting and Post-harvest Management
The flowers are harvested after the unfolding of the spathe is complete. Flowers are
ready for harvesting after 8-10 months of planting. They are harvested in the morning
with 50-60 cm long stalks. Most anthurium blooms are harvested at about three-
quarters maturity because at this time they have the longest shelf life as cut flowers.
The basal portion of the stalk of the flowers should be kept in water immediately after
harvesting to prevent wilting. If the flowers are taken to long distance markets, a piece
of cotton soaked in water is kept at the end of the stem to prevent desiccation. The
spathe along with the spadix is then inserted into a polythene cover of appropriate size.
This prevents bruises on the spathe due to pressing of spadices of adjacent stems. The
open ends of the polythene cover are stapled to prevent movement of spathe inside
the cover. Salvi (1997) recommended right stage of flower harvesting when 1/3 of
flowers open on the spadix. After harvesting, the cut ends of the flowers are placed in
lukewarm water (38ºC) overnight and then graded as per the colour, length of stems,
and size of the spathe and spadices. The flowers are graded as per Mauritius system
or as per Dutch system. Mauritius system is based on average length and width of the
spathe while Dutch system is based as per diameter of the bract and stalk length as
furnished in Table 1.
Table 1: Grading of anthurium flowers*

Mauritius system of grading Dutch system of grading
Grade Average Length and Grade Flower Minimum Number
length and width (cm) width (cm) stalk length per box
width (cm) (cm)
Extra super >15 35.6 Peewee <6.25 25 21
Super 15 30.4-35.6 Mini 6.25-7.5 25 18
Large 12.5-15 25.4-30.4 Small 7.5-10.0 30 15
Medium 10-12.5 20.4-25.4 Medium 10.0-12.5 35 11
Small 7.5-10 15.2-20.4 Large 12.5-13.75 40 16
Mini 7.5 14.6-15.2 Extra 13.75-15.0 45 12
large
Peewee <7.5 14.6 Premium >15 50 10
*Misra and Misra, 2017
The flowers of anthurium can be stored successfully at 13-17ºC for up to two weeks
which may last for 2-4 more weeks in an arrangement. The storage temperature below
13ºC may cause blueing of flowers, especially the red coloured varieties though some
varieties can tolerate even as low as 5ºC. These can also be stored at 2-10% O2 and
at ambient temperature of 24-25ºC where cool chamber is not available. The most
commonly used corrugated box sizes for packing anthurium flowers are 21.6 x 50.8 x
91.4 cm3 or 27.9 x 43.2 x 101.6 cm3 which can accommodate 120 flowers (Salunkhe
et al., 1990). A box with 60 x 30 x 22.5 cm3 dimension will accommodate 70-100
flowers. Cartoons should be lined with polythene sheets and insulated with moist
paper to maintain proper humidity during transport. The flowers having blemishes,
black spots, short stalks, deformity and discolouration are discarded while grading.
Anthurium cut flowers after grading are packed with cut ends inserted either in water
filled rubber balloon or in water filled plastic tubes being securely tied to the stem
above the cut ends so that there may not be water leakage. Cotton swabs or pads
saturated with water and enclosed in wax paper are placed above cut ends and securely
tied around the cut portion to prevent desiccation and then the flowers are placed into
a polythene cover of proper size after putting some soft protective material in between
the spathe and spadix to prevent bruishing. The open end of the polythene should be
stapled so that flower inside it remains in a position. In the Netherlands, the flower
stems are placed in flasks containing water and pack them in moist boxes after putting
a soft protective material between the spathe and spadix to save the flowers from
bruishing during transportation.
Effective post harvest management ensures longer post harvest life of cut flowers.
Pulsing in 2.5% 7-Up (a carbonated beverage), 500 ppm benzoic acid, 7.3 ppm of
sodium hypochlorite, BA at 50 ppm for 12 h, triadimefon at 25 ppm for 8 h or silver
nitrate at 4Mm for 10-60 minutes dip (within 12 h of harvesting) before storage or
shipping improves the life of cut flowers significantly but to these treatments varieties
differ in their response. Holding solution results in delayed spadix necrosis, spathe
bluing and increase vase life up to 27 days as per findings of Kerala Agricultural
Vellanikkara, Kerala.
Anthurium 259
Yield: The anthurium plant produces flowers throughout the year. On an average, 6-8
flowers are obtained per plant per year from the axil of every leaf for initial two years
and 10-12 flowers per plant per year from 3rd year onwards. Leaves of anthurium are
also sold at a reasonable price in the market. Seemanthini and Chandrashekar (2018)
reported production of 25,865 flowers and 11,655 suckers/500 m2/year in Anthurium
andraeanum var. Tropical under naturally ventilated polyhouse.
Flower abortion, flower deformation and rosette formation: Flowers on spadix
abort, growth of the spathe is stunted and stem of flower is short. This disorder is
mainly genetic in nature but can be prevented by restricting root activity or pressure
promoting plant activity, reduction in temperature, rapid ventilation, use of gibberellins
cooling and humidification systems.
Cracks: This disorder often occurs at the margin of the spathe during active growth
period with temporarily high relative humidity. Lower humidity during night is the
best possible remedy to reduce cracks.
Folder ears: The basal lobe of the flowers is not fully unfolded during the early stage.
This disorder is variety dependent. There is no known remedy.
Sticking: In this case, flower does not open because the spathe is stuck. Sticking is
variety dependent and occurs especially during rapid growth period. Lower relative
humidity is the best possible remedy to reduce sticking. Loosening of flowers by hand
at early stage can minimize this disorder.
Jamming: Jamming is strong variety dependent characteristic that more frequently
occurs under arid conditions. The flowers jam in the sheath, since the leaves are wound
too tightly around the flower. Such disorder occurs more frequently in cultivars with
long sheaths. Keeping the growing media relatively moist is the best remedy.
Diseases and Pests
There are three major diseases in anthurium viz., bacterial blight, root rot and
anthracnose.
Bacterial Blight
Bacterial blight is caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis (campestris) pv. dieffenbachiae.
Initially it causes small and angular water soaked spots on the leaf margins where
after killing the tissue, bright yellow halo around the spot will be formed and spadix
starts rotting from tip to downwards. This disease has been found recording heavy loss
to anthurium plantings to the growers of Kerala (Dhanya, 2000). Strict sanitization
of the growing medium, removal of affected parts of the plants and spraying with
streptomycin sulphate or oxytetracycline will keep the bacterial disease under check.
Anthracnose (black nose/spadix rot): It is caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides.
It is highly prevalent in high rainfall areas initially with tiny dark spots on the individual
flowers of the spadix which afterwards spread in angular or triangular shapes even on
leaves and flower stalks and spikes and it can be effectively controlled through 0.2
percent maneb application.
Root rot: Root rot is caused by complex of causal organisms like Phytophthora
sp., Rhizoctonia sp. and Fusarium sp. The symptoms appear as plant stunting, size
reduction of leaves and flowers yellowing, hanging of leaves at the edges and the
browning of roots and stems. It can be controlled by drenching the plants with 0.1%
furalaxyl, mancozeb 0.25% or thiram 0.25% at 10 days interval.
Viral diseases: Mosaic and malformation of leaves and spathes occur mostly in
white cultivars. They are transmitted through vectors like Bemisia tabaci (silverleaf
whitefly) and through mechanical tools also. So controlling the vectors will control
these problems and such plants should be uprooted and destroyed.
Insect-pests
Anthuriums are highly sensitive to certain pesticides, therefore, it is not an easy
task to control all the pests effectively. Green peach aphid (Myzus persicae and M.
circumflexus), Aphis gossypii, Aphis nicotiana, infest anthurium by sucking plant sap
from various parts of plants, inject toxic substances to the plants, produce honey dew
which attracts ants and certain fungal infections and transmit viruses. There should
be proper sanitation and these should be controlled through 0.2 per cent spraying of
some systemic insecticides such as dimethoate or malathion. Pyrethrum extract can
completely control the pests under greenhouse conditions. Caterpillars of tomato looper
and beet armyworm chew various parts of flowers and leaves which may be controlled
through catching and killing through lannate 0.1% sprayings. Slugs and snails chew
over the root tips, leaves, buds as well as flowers, especially during night and batter
the leaves which should be effectively controlled through spray of metaldehyde baits.
Nematodes (Meloidogyne incognita, Cadet et al., 1993, Aphelenchoides fragariae,
Pratylenchus infestans, Radopholus citrophilus (Goo and Sipes, 1997), and R. similis
(Bala and Hosein, 1996) infest on anthurium. Meloidogyne produces galls on the
roots which show brown lesions. Aphelenchoides feed in leaves causing necrotic
areas between leaf veins. Pratylenchus attacks only the roots by which leaves become
yellow and plants may die. These pests can be controlled by planting comparatively
more tolerant species or varieties such as Anthurium pittieri and A. ravenii instead of
A. andraeanum cv. Midori, by planting healthy stock in disinfected media through
steam or methyl bromide, or by treating the cuttings for 10 min. at 50ºC temperature,
by separating, planting media from natural soil of bed and through precautionary
measures.
References
Arias-Granda, I. 1996. A new species of Anthurium Schott (Araceae) from Cuba. Revista Jard.
Bot. Nac., No. 17-18, pp. 5-7.
Bala, G. and F. Hosein, 1996. Plant parasitic nematodes associated with anthuriums and other
tropical anthuriums and other tropical ornamentals. Nematropica, 26(1): 9-14.
Bhavana G.P., B.S. Kumudini and C. Aswath, 2018. Micropropagation of anthurium through
suspension culture using in vitro shoots. J. Appl. Hortic., 20(3): 196-201.
Cadet, P. E. van den Berg, L. Nema and E. van den Berg. 1993. Parasitic nematodes of flower
crops in Martinique. PHM, Rev., Hortic. No. 341, pp, 53-58.
Anthurium 261
Dhanya, M.K. 2000. Etiology and management of bacterial blight of anthurium (Anthurium and
raeanum Linden.). M.Sc. Thesis submitted to College of Agriculture (KAU), Vellayani,
Kerala.
Gao, M.Y.C. and B.S. Sipes, 1997. Host preference of Radopholus citrophilus from Hawaiian
anthurium among selected tropical ornamentals. HortSci., 32(7): 1237-1238.
Misra, R.L. and S. Misra, 2017. Anthurium. In: Commercial Ornamental Crops: Cut Flowers.
R.L. Misra and Sanyat Misra (Eds.). Kruger Brentt Publishers, Ltd., U.K., pp. 47-61.
Perez-Farrera, M.A. and T.B. Croat, 2001. A new species of Anthurium (Araceae) from Chiapas,
Mexico. Novon., 11 (1): 88-91.
Petersen, G. 1989. Cytology and systematics of Araceae. Nord. J. Bot. 9: 119-158.
Sakuragui, C.M. and S.J. Mayo, 1999. A new species of Anthurium (Araceae) from south-
eastern Brazil. Feddes Report, 110(7-8): 535-539.
Salunkhe, D.K., N.R. Bhatt and B.B. Desai, 1990. Minor cut flower crops Anthurium. In: Post
Harvest Biotechnology of Flowers and Ornamental Plants. Salunkhe, D.K. (Ed.). Naya
Prokash, Kolkata. pp. 242-252.
Salvi, B.R. 1997. Optimization of shades, nutrients and growth regulators for cut flower
production in anthurium (Ph.D Thesis). KAU, Vellanikkara, Thrissur.
Seemanthini, N.S. and S.Y. Chandrashekar, 2018. A study on yield and economics of growth
regulators application in Anthurium andraeanum var. Tropical under naturally ventilated
polyhouse. Int. J. Pure App. Biosci. 6(5): 314-318.
Singh, P., A. Arha and A. Bhardwaj 2019. Role of growing medium in yield and quality of
anthurium : A review. Agric. Rev., 40: 229-233.
Singh, P., B.K. Dhaduk and S.L. Chawla 2011. Standardization of growing medium for
anthurium cv. Flame under protected conditions. Indian J. Hort., 68(1): 86-90.
18
Gladiolus
L.N. Mahawer, Saddam Hussain, A.L. Regar
Gladiolus, commonly known as ‘Sword lily’ which derives its name from latin word
Gladius meaning sword shape foliage. The name gladiolus was originally given by
Pliny the Elder (A.D.23-79). It is an important florist crop, cut flower in the domestic
and international flower trade. It is relatively easy to grow, suitable for cut flower,
pots, hanging basket, bedding and exhibition. An engrossing cut spikes bear a large
number of florets on rachis, which exhibit various sizes, forms, with smooth, ruffled,
deeply crinkled or laciniated tepals. As a genus it was first proposed by Tournefort
and which was accepted in botanical litreture by Linnaeus through his description
“Species Plantarum” in 1753 and “Genera Planterum” in 1754. The gladioli are said
to be cultivated since the days of ancient Greece. The genus Gladiolus, at present
comprises with 255 species (Mishra et al.,1995; Goldblatt and Manning,1998) with
wide distribution occurs in Central Europe, Mediterranean region, Central and South
Africa are primary centre of origin. Campbell and Bower (2003) mentions about one
more species Gladiolus scabridus- a new species 1978 from the mountains of northern
Kwa Zulu- Natal and southern Swaziland, restricted to well- drained rocky habitat
and where it is endemic. This species has enormous commercial potential have large
number of pink flowers. So now number of recorded gladiolus species are more than
260. The gladiolus was brought into cultivation first during Greek period. Gladiolus
has been documented in literature since 1578, as evidenced from the record Lyte’s
Nievve herbal. This was first time introduced in France and soon after spread to
England, Germany, Holland and North America. In India, its cultivation dates back to
19th century as mentioned in the ‘Firminger’s Manual of Gardening in India (1863)’
that Mr. Charles Gray of Conoor grew some gladioli from corms and seeds at his
garden. The European Union gladiolus importing countries are Germany, Belgium,
Luxembourg, Denmark, Spain, France, United Kingdom, The Netherlands, Italy and
Portugal.
The improvement of gladiolus began uniquely toward the start of eighteenth century
when Willium Herbert (1806) in England delivered interspecific hybrids, however
completely end up being sterile and were rarely marketed. Afterward, in 1837, Hermann
Josef Bedinghaus created Gladiolus gandavensis cross breeds in Belgium which
demonstrated accommodating for creation of current gladioli. In 1596 John Gerard,
plant specialist to Loard Burleigh had two European species: Gladiolus communis L.
from Mediterranean area and G. segetum Ker from South Europe, it is proved by his
list of the plant he developed around 1030 types. ‘General Historie of Plantes’(1597),
the acclaimed home grown by Gerard has notice of these two species. By 1862, John
Parkinson presented G. byzantinus Mill in to Europe, from Mediterranean locale and
distributed in his ‘Paradisi in sole Paradisus Terrestris.’ G. byzantinus Mill was reared
in 1893 with G.cardinalis Curt by Dammann and Cowwrorkers, Gladiolus tristis
(fragrant) was presented from cape locale in Chelsea Physic garden in 1745. Gladiolus
grandis’ Thumb was naturalized in Spain from South Africa. By 1816 French, Dutch
and Belgium began raising hybrids, the first being Gladiolus gandavensis Van
Houtte by intersection Gladiolus cardinalis and Gladiolus psittacinus in 1838 by M.
Beddinghaus. Gladiolus primulinus with its hooded quality of its focal petals was
gathered from bank of Zambesi River and has been widely utilized plant breeders.
In 1956 Mrs. John Wright in New Zealand endeavored the second bigeneric cross
utilizing cv. ‘Filigree’ x Acidenthera bicolor and built up the well known fragrant
cultivar “Lucky Star”. Around 23 types of gladiolus appear to be contributed for the
advancement of present day gladiolus (Mishra and Kaicker, 1986), the most recent one
being Gladiolus callianthus murielae (once in the past known as Acidanthera bicolor
murielae). Practically gladioli have all hues with exception of genuine green, blue and
dark black, however close by hues are accessible. These are not appropriate for rock
garden or for naturalizing impact as the corms require to be lifted each year.
Uses
Cut spikes are used in flower arrangements, bouquets, vase and for indoor decoration.
The corms are roasted and used for culinary purposes, since they contain large amount
of carbohydrates (68-70%). Spikes of gladiolus have good keeping quality and can be
transported to long distances by air flight and ship cargo. Gladioli are rich in starch
(65.4 to 78.61%) with 12.6 to 18.5% protein. Gladiolus flower and bulbs were part of
the regular diet of the ancient Romans. Gladiolus, a bulbous ornamental, is gaining
popularity due to unsurpassed beauty, good economic value, it has become important
commercial cut flower in India.
In India around 11660 ha of area occupied under gladiolus cultivation with production
of 106.0 crore (Agricoop.nic.in accessed on 21.06.2020) Gladiolus is major growing
state are West Bengal, MadhyPradesh Maharastra, Chattisgarh, Assam, Uttarakhand,
Karnataka, Haryana and HP in India. The gladiolus is commercially cultivated in
various pockets like Lucknow, Meerut, Bulandsahar, Ghaziabad, Kullu, Shimla , Solan
in H.P and Haldwani, Nainital in Uttaranchal for supply the cut spike to Delhi market.
Origin and Taxonomy
Gladiolus (Gladiolus X grandiflorus) is native to Tropical and South Africa, the genus
consist from approximately one hundred and fifty known species belongs to family
Iridaceae. It had basic chromosome number n=15. Most of the species under the genus
are heteroploid, which have very small chromosome ranging from 2n=30 to 120
(Diploid, triploid, tetraploid, pentaploid, hexaploid, octoploid and hyperaneauploid).
De Vilmorin and Simonet (1927) reported the chromosome number in Gladiolus
primulinus (hooded central petal) var. ‘La Meurthe’ as n=15, which was native from
Gladiolus 265
banks of Zambesi river near Victoria Falls in the Mediterranean regions and South
Africa. It is a herbaceous plant bearing underground storage stems known as corms
from which arise sword shaped foliage bearing terminal inflorescences of flowers
known as spikes. These attractive, perennial herbs are semi-hardy in temperate climate
and grow from rounded, symmetrical corms that are enveloped in several layers of
brownish, fibrous tunics. Their stems are generally unbranched, producing 1 to 9
narrow, sword-shaped, longitudinal grooved leaves, enclosed in a sheath. The lowest
leaf is shortened to a cataphyll. The leaf blades can be plane or cruciform in cross
section. The inflorescence of gladiolus is a one- sided spike where widely funnel-
shaped individual florets are directly attached on rachis in alternate arrangement,
progressing from base to tip. Each floret bud is encased separately within its own
spathe, which consists of two green bracts. Bloom has a short curving tube and 6
petal-like lobes, 3 upper ones usually larger, 3 lower ones often blotched and these are
collectively known as perianth or segments. The perianth is funnel-shaped, with the
stamens attached to its base.
The fragrant flower spikes are large and one-sided, with bisexual flowers, each
subtended by two leathery, green bracts. The sepals and the petals are almost identical
in appearance, and are termed tepals. They are united at their base into a tube-
shaped structure. The dorsal tepal is the largest, arching over the three stamens. The
inner three petals are narrower. The flower structure and positional barrier between
anthers and stigma suggest that gladiolus is essentially an out breeder means cross
pollinated (Ohri and Khoshoo, 1983). The style has three filiform, spoon-shaped
branches, each expanding towards the apex. The ovary is trilocular with oblong or
globose capsules, contains many winged brown colour and longitudinally dehiscent
seeds. An ovary is inferior and tri-locular, axile placentation and the fruit will be a
capsule. Self incompatibility was found in diploid species G. tristis (2n=30) and two
other tetraploid cultivars. In this situation no seeds are set when stigma is fertilized
with pollen of the same parent or of a different plant of the same clone (Singh and
Singh, 1985). These flowers are variously colored, pink to reddish, light purple with
white, contrast marking, white to cream and orange to red. The process of flower
differentiation is complete within in 7-10 days. Flower bud takes 16 days to reach
the full bloom stage (Roychoudhary, 1980). The unfurling of the petal starts early
in the morning and complete opening of florets takes 22 to 24 hours. The anthers
dehiscence occurs between 8.00 am to 9.30 am followed by anthesis. Mahawer and
Misra (1993a) reported that floret starts opening from 9.00 am to 2.00 pm of previous
day and complete flower opening on next day at 9.00 am to 2.00 pm , along with
anther dehiscence starts from 9.05 am to 2.43 pm in gladiolus under Delhi. As per
anthocynin pattern , it was divided into 18 groups and from which it was malvidin
glycosides together with petunidin 3,5-di-O-glucoside as a minor compound but
delphinidin glycosides were not detectable, red colour of flowers was found due to
pelargonidin glycosides, pink flowers due to various anthocyanins, pelargonidin,
cyanidin, peonidin, petunidin and malvidin glycosides though were completely scares
compared with those of purple and red flowers, however, in many of the yellow and
white cultivars no anthocyanins were found but a few which had coloured spot or
streak on perianth contained extremely small amount of anthocyanins (Takemura et
al.,2005) Gladioli were originally pollinated by long-tongued anthrophorine bees,

sunbirds, noctuid and sphingid moths, long-tongued flies and several others. The new
corm continues to develop and old corms below it gradually degenerated. At the base
of the new corm arise the stolons, the tip of which swells and develop into the cormels.
There are some 226 recorded species scattered in Republic of South Africa. Main
species includes Gladiolus natalensis, G. cardinalis, G. communis, G. callianthus,
G. arneus, G. recurvus, G.tristis. Its flowers open in acropetal succession, one by one
and spike lasts for 1-3 weeks in ordinary vase water, depending upon the season and
variety.
On the basis of their geographical origin Gladiolus sp. can be divided in to four grouped
1. Eurasian group
2. East African group
3. Natalensis group
4. South African Cape species
Classification
Modern types of gladioli are classified into 6 types on the basis of plant height, flower
size and arrangement on the spike.
1. Grandiflorus or Large flowered hybrids: This gladiolus group belongs large
and exhibition type, vigorous plant structure with large size florets. Florets
diameter ranges from 10 –20 cm and spikes length varies from 90 – 150 cm.
2. Primulinus hybrids: Plant structure are less vigorous than the large flowered
type, plant height ranges from 75.0-105 cm, upper most inner petal form hooded
over anther / stigma, floret diameter varies from 5.0-9.0 cm along with spike
length ranges from 40-45 cm.
3. Butterfly hybrids: Plants height from 75.0-120 cm, floret diameter varies
from 7.5-10.0 cm with attractive throat blotches, florets arranged closely and
symmetrically on shorter spikes length than 45.0 cm.
4. Miniature hybrids: These type hybrid are recent origin with plant height ranges
from 75-105 cm, floret diameter ranges from 2.5-5.0 cm, florets arranged on
40.0 cm spike length with ruffled petals. These type hybrids are slow multiplier
with small size corms.
5. Face ups: The face ups are charming, upward and pleasant. The dwarf nature
plant height ranges up to 60-90 cm and floret diameter up to nearly 5.0-6.0 cm.
6. Colvillei hybrids: These hybrids are developed by a Chelsean Nurserymen,
Colvillei by crossing Gladiolus tristis (pale yellow) x Gladilous cardinalis(red),
early flowering hybrid, highly suitable for green house, , star shaped floret with
5.0-6.0cm in diameter and plant height hardly grows up to 60 cm.
7. Orchideola hybrids: It is new group under gladiolus developed by Israel. The
spikes in this group are light in weight with smaller florets on shortest stem.
Gladiolus 267
North American Gladiolus Council has recommended modern system of classification

and which has been adopted all over the world. This was based on a three digit number.
The first digit indicates floret size, second digit -basic colour and third the depth of
colour.
On the basis of floret size, gladiolus has been classified into 5 classes,
Class Designation Floret Size (cm)
1 Miniature < 6.4
2 Small ≥6.4 to <8.9
3 Medium ≥8.9 to <11.4
4 Large ≥11.4 to <14.0
5 Giant >14.0

There are 30000 modern gladioli cultivars developed at world level through the
hybridization by utilizing various species like Gladiolus arneus, G. callianthus
murielae, G. cardinalis, G. communis, G. natalensis, G. recurvus, G. tristis. The
cultivars which have more number of florest are in demand and colour liking in
domestic /international market are – Red, Pink, Yellow and White cultivars. Spikes
with good demand in the market should be robust, tapering and thick with green leaves
and sheaths, > 18 florets / spike and disease free.
Colour Variety
Pink America, Applause, Dawn Pink, Deciso, Friendship, My love
Orange Autumn Gold, Coral Seas, Fiesta, Petar Pears,Setting Sun
Red Black Prince, Hunting Song, Oscar, Red Beauty, Victoria
Yellow Anglia, Aurora, Folk Song, Green Willow, Golden Peach
White Amsterdam, Classic, White Prosperity, White Friendship
Purple, Violets Blue Moon, Her Majesty, High Style, Mayur, Pusa Sarang, Pusa
Shingarika
Climate
Gladiolus require full sunlight for better crop, otherwise blasting may occur or plants
may remain blind. The long day conditions from 12 to 14 hours photoperiod increase
number of florets, spike length and percentage of flowering. Low light intensity results
failure in flowering. Whereas high light intensity without proper temperature control
also affects growth adversely.
Gladiolus thrives best from temperate zone to subtropical climate zone. It is a summer
crop in the temperate regions, while a winter crop in the subtropical conditions,
However in tropical climate it can be grown throughout the year. But, at all, there is no
comparison of the quality of the spike as well as of the corms and cormels, their health
and multiplication of the hill-grown crop under temperate region because there is soil
is normally acidic and sandy-loam and the summer temperature is normally 18-300C
which is quite congenial for its growing. Solar radiation is the most important factor
for growth and development, flowering and yield of corms, particularly in winter
flowering gladiolus under sub-tropical parts.
Thermal fluctuations and illumination are found to be necessary for induction of

contractile roots. The light stimulus is perceived by the leaves and not the corms.
Under low light intensity in winter, exposure of 1-40C at low temperature increases the
occurrence of flower blasting and frost injury. The light requirement of the gladiolus is
usually too high for good vegetative growth of the plants under winter conditions and
the plant fail to flower because of flower-bud blasting.
However number of days to flowering is highly dependent on temperature. High
temperature persist at flowering time i.e 20-30 0C accelerate early flowering up to 55
days. Corm storage at 4 to 70C is good for better growth and flower production. The
dormancy in gladiolus corms can be easily broken by low temperature storage for 90
day treatment of corms at 4 -7 0C lower down abscissic acid, improve gibbrellins and
cytokinenin hormonal level helps in sprouting .
Soil
Gladiolus can be grown in a various types of soils but soil should not contains more
clay content or waterlogged properties, otherwise which results in corm rot. The soil
should have proper drainage facilities. It should also contain sufficient organic matter.
The soil should be sandy-loam and slightly acidic in nature. It can be grown effectively
at soil pH 5.0 to 7.0, if the pH of the soil is higher than brought it lower sides by
addition of organic matter and gypsum is recommended. The land must be brought
to fine tilth by deep ploughing and cross harrowing and the beds must be raised to a
height of 20cm from ground level to allow proper drainage, working path 60 cm and
bed width 1.20 meter for drip irrigation system . Well decomposed FYM @ 5 kg/m2
should be incorporated in the soil.
Description of Internationally popular cultivars
1. Friendship: Cut spikes are ready for harvest at 86-90 days after planting. Spike
length is ranges from 90-100 cm,18-20 florets per spike and floret diameter
ranges from 9.5-10.5 cm. Florets are carmine rose(Red Group 52C) with yellow
throat. Cormel multiplication ranges from 15-20 per corm.
2. Peter pears: It is a mid-season cultivar with spike length of 85-90 cm, 16-17
orange red floret (Greyed Orange Group 170 D) and the florets diameter of 10
– 10.5 cm. Produce 40-50 cormels per corm.
3. Priscilla: It is a mid-season cultivar, spike length ranges from 60-70 cm, with
14-15 florets/spike. The florets are Lilac purple in colour with 9.5 – 10 cm
diameter.
4. Jacksonville Gold : Cut spikes ready for harvest at 110 days. Spike length
ranges from 80.0-95.0 cm with 16-18 floret on spike. Florets are light yellow in
colour belongs to RHS colour chart yellow group:10A with bright yellow throat
and 9.5 to 10.0 cm diameter. Cormel production ranges from 15 to 20 per corm.
5. Rose Supreme: Cut spikes ready for harvest at 100- 110 days. Spike length
is ranges from 90-100 cm with 17-18 florets on spike. Florets are light pink
in colour belongs to RHS colour chart red group: 52D with dark pink lines
Gladiolus 269
creamish throat and 10.5 to 11.0 cm floret diameter. Cormel production capacity
ranges from 30 to 40 corm-1.
6. Trader Horn: Late group takes 120-130 days for flowering. Spike length is
ranges from 90-100 cm with 18-20 florets on spike. Florets are bright red in
colour belongs to RHS colour chart red group: 44B with prominent streaks and
10 to 10.5 cm in diameter. Cormel multiplication capacity ranges from 25 to 30
corm-1.
7. White Prosperity: Late group takes 120-125 days for flowering. Spike length
is ranges from 85-90 cm with 18-20 florets on spike. Florets are white in colour
belongs to RHS colour chart white group: 155B and 10 to 10.5 cm in floret
diameter. Cormel multiplication capacity ranges from 70 to 80 corm-1.
8. Suchitra: Early group takes 90-95 days for flowering .Spike length is ranges
from 85-90 cm with 16-18 florets per spike. Florets are light pink colour belongs
to RHS colour chart red group:49A with dark pink stripes and florets 9 to 10 cm
in diameter. Cormel multiplication capacity ranges from 85 to 90 corm-1.
9. Nova Lux: Spike length is ranges from 90-100 cm with 16-18 florets per spike.
Florets are ruffled and yellow colour belongs to RHS colour yellow group:12B
with deep yellow throat and 9 to 10 cm in floret diameter. Cormel multiplication
capacity ranges from 35 to 40 corm-1.
10. Sancerre: It is ready for flower at 80-85 days after planting belongs to mid
season. Spike length is ranges from 85-90 cm with 16-17 florets per spike.
Florets are snow white colour belongs to RHS colour white group:155B and
floret diameter ranges from 10.0-11.0 cm . Cormel multiplication capacity
ranges from 50 to 60 corm-1.
Varieties developed by research institutes in India
1. IARI, New Delhi : The cultivar Agnirekha, Mayur, Pusa Suhagin are developed
from Sylvia seedling, Pusa Bindiya from Ratna Butterfly Seedling, Pusa Sukanya
from Salmon Queen Seedling, Pusa Swapnil from Viola Seedling, Mayur(Sylvia
Seedling), Pusa Sarang(White Oak Seedling) by selection methods, Pusa
Swarnima by spontaneous mutant from Dhanvantari and various hybrids like
Anjali (Sancerre x Rose Spire), Pusa Archana(Creamy Green x American
Beauty), Chandni (Green Woodpecker x White Butterfly),Pusa Chirag(Cygnet
x Little Fawn), Pusa Dhanvantari(Jr. Prom x Lucky Star),Pusa Gunjan(White
Oak xOscar), Pusa Kamini and Pusa Mohini (Ave x Chritian Jane), Pusa
Lohit(Cremy Green x American Beauty), Neelam ( Sylvia x Patricia), Pusa
Rangmahal(Red Bantam x Flaura Belli), Pusa Shweta(Wind Song x Pink Forst
Seedling), Suchitra (Sylvia x Jo Wagenaar), Pusa Sunayana(George Mazure x
Melody), Pusa Urmil (Tinker Belle x Break O Dawn),Vandana (George Mazure
x Eurovision),PusaKiran, Pusa Shubham,Pusa Sinduri, Pusa Valentine, Pusa
Vidusi, Pusa Unnanti are developed by hybridization methods.
2. IIHR,Bangalore: Hybrids like Aarti (Shriley x Melody), Apsara(Black

Jack x Friendship), Darshan(Watermelon Pink x Shriley), Kum Kum(Water
Melon Pink x Lady John), Meera(G.P.1x Friendship), Nazarana(Black Jack x
Friendship), Poonam(Gelliber Herald x R.N.121), Sagar(Melody x Wild Rose),
Sapna(Green Wood Packer x Friendship) are developed by hybridization and
selection methods, where as Shakti, Shoba by induced mutation, Sindur,Tilak
(Watermelon Pink x Lady John), new promising hybrids Arka Aayush, Arka
Amer(Watermelon Pink x Aarti), Arka Gold (Greenbay x Gold Medal-412),
Arka Kesar (Winks Glory x Sagar), Arka Pratham, Arka Naveen(Hybrid74-39-
1xTropic Seas),
3. NBRI, Lucknow: Through hybridization method various hybrids are developed
like Archana (Sylvia x Friendship), Arun( Sylvia x Fancy), Dhiraj (Beauty
Spot x Psittacinus hybrid), Kohra(Sylvia x King Lear), Hans, Indrani, Manhar,
Manmohan, Manohar, Manisha, Mohini, Mridula,Mukta, Pitamber,Sanyukta
and Triloki (Friendship x G.tristis). Some the cultivars developed by selection
methods viz Basant Bahar (Unias challenge seedling), Gazel (White Friendship
seedling), Jwala(Psittacinus seedling),Kalima (Sylvia seedling), Priyadarshini
and Smita (Lavensque seedling), Sada Bahar (Sylvia seedlings)
4. PAU, Ludhiana: Hybrids like Punjab Dawn( Suchitra x Melody), Punjab
Morning(Sancerre x White Prosperity), Shan-e-Punjab(Suchitra x Melody),
Punjab Glance developed PAU-Ludhiana
5. Horticulture Experiment and Training Centre, Chaubattia(Almora): These
hybrids viz,Chaubattia Ankur(Oscar x Friendship), Chaubattia Arunima(Oscar
x Motherfisher), Chaubattia Shobhit(Meria Goretii xTropic Sea) and Chaubattia
Tripiti(Sunny Boy x Oscar) are developed by HETC, Chaubattia.
6. MPKV Pune: Gladiolus hybrids like Phule Ganesh, Phule Prena and Phule
Neel Rekha by NARP, Ganesh Khind, MPKV Pune
Propagation: This is propagated by various methods like corms, cormels, seeds and
tissue culture.
(i) Corms
Gladiolus is a commercially propagated through corms. A single corm produces an
average of 1 to 3 flower-grade daughter corms in a season depending upon its size
and the variety. Single corm can produced 10-50 cormels during crop growth and
development period. This is a slow process and is also disease prone.
Selection of corms: In gladiolus healthy, disease free, large and medium sized corms
with at least 2.5 to 3.8 cm diameter are utilized for better cut spike production. The
North American Gladiolus Council (NAGC) has categorized the corms into three
groups based on their corm diameter:1. Large sized -Jumbo ( > 5.1 cm), No.1( > 3.8
to <5.1 cm) for production of cut spike, 2.Medium sized: No.2( >3 .2 to < 3.8 cm),
No.3( >2.5 to < 3.2cm) 3. Small sized corms commonly known as cormels group have
three sub-groups viz No.4( >1.9 to <2.5 cm), No.5 (>1.3 to <1.9 cm) and No.6(>1.0
to <1.3 cm), which is used as planting stocks for multiplication of flower grade corms
in forthcoming seasons.
Gladiolus 271
The cultivars which are slow multipliers can be propagated by division of large size
corms in to 7-10 small pieces and smaller corm in 3-4 pieces. Corms must be divided
in to smaller parts depends on the number of buds present on corm surface. Every split
corm division should contain visible bud, portion of basal plate root zone and treated
with systemic fungicides Dithane M45(0.2%), Carbendazim or Saff for 30 minutes
and dried under shade for 6 days to healing the wounds and seven days before planting.
(ii) Through Cormels
Cormels are healthier planting material than corms. The multiplication of gladiolus
through cormels is an in-expensive and rapid method which enables build up of large
stocks with minimum cost. The cormels also have tendency to escape virus diseases
even if the parental corm is infected that virus-free corms were slightly late in sprouting
but were more vigorous for better developmental and floral growth parameters than
the commercial method of propagation by corm. Lopez Oliveras et al.(1984) reported
that corm of cultivar Petar Pears divided into 4 or 8 splits and planted in 50 per cent
peat and 50 per cent perlite substrate results in large number of grade I corms(4.8 cm)
while soaking of corms for 24 hours in 900 ppm GA3 solution results in increased
cormel production.
Flat bed planting system can be utilized for sandy soils and raised bed system can be
adopted for poor drained heavy and clay type soils. The cormels are planted closely
3-5 cm apart in rows or ridges about 15-20 cm apart and 2.5 – 3.5 cm deep. Before
planting, dehusking of cormels followed by soaked in cold water (15-20ºC) for at least
24 hours to helps in uniform germination.
Diseased cormels are float on water surface and hence, these discarded. Ramachandrudu
& Thangam (2006) reported that Jumbo size corms cut into three pieces and planted
along with various grade of whole corms in gladiolus. They concluded that whole
corm results in more vegetative growth than cut corms. Whereas, cut corms of Jumbo
grade (>5.1 cm) results in improve daughter corm diameter and weight than corms of
Jumbo and No.1 grades.
(iii) Seeds
This method is utilized for development of the novel genotype by open pollinated,
hybridization and to create variability among population by the breeders. Mahawer
and Misra (1993b) suggested that pollen used from just dehisced anther is proved
better over undehisced anther, however the pollination at bud stage or just anthesis of
florets proved better over other stages. Mature capsules are collected, after few days
when the capsule is completely dry, the seeds are extracted and stored in dessicator
till forthcoming season. Seeds should be sown very closely in pots, troughs containing
potting media, (3-5 cm apart) on flat and raised bed, in rows 15 cm apart and covered
by leaf mould layer from 2-3 cm thickness in rainy season in plains. The bed should
be kept moist by frequent irrigation to facilitate seed germination. After germination
single seed produce single leaf above soil level, a small cormel at its base in side soil
and thus produced cormels are harvested at maturity. This method normally takes three
years to produce flower grade corms from seeds.
Cultivation
Planting time of corms: The planting time of corms varies with the geographical
location. In North Indian plains, the best time for planting the corms is from September
to November, optimum being first fortnight of October (Bagde et al., 2009) and for
hilly areas from February to April when of risk of frost is over (Suneetha,1994).
Staggered planting can, however, be done at 10-15 day intervals from mid-August to
mid-December to get continued supply of spikes over a longer period and to match the
market demand.
The effects of planting date on yield and quality of gladiolus corms and cormels have
significant effect delay in planting date reduce the number of daughter corms per
mother corm, number of cormels per mother corm (Zubair et al., 2006). In temperate
climates, the corms are planted after the winter, i.e. in March and April when frosts
are over and climate becomes warm. In Bangalore, the planting season is June and
October-November.
Method of Planting of Corms
Only the non-dormant corms should be used for planting. The emergence of root
buds at the base of the corms shows that the corms are ready for planting. The corms
should be treated with fungicides like tabecunazole, carbenazim or saff (0.2%) for
30 minutes and treated corm should be dry in shade before planting. When planting,
the lower portion of the corm should be placed on the soil such that the bud at the
top lies straight above. It is done to make sure that the stem grows erect and does not
show crooked growth. At planting time, the soil should contain sufficient moisture to
facilitate uniform sprouting of corms.
Planting of bigger size corms (4.6 – 5.0 cm dia.) at 20 X 20 cm apart and at 8 cm depth
gives better production of spikes as well as corms and cormels. Very close planting
must be avoided to reduce the competition. Flat bed planting in sandy soils and raised
beds in heavy soils is suitable. Widest spacing (30x30 cm) resulted in the greatest
plant height, leaves per plant, spikes per plant, spike length, florets per spike, floret
diameter, corms per plant and diameter of daughter corm and lowest days to first spike
emergence and days to first floret opening (Anwer and Maurya, 2005). The optimum
spacing has been standardized as 25 x 30 cm for gladiolus cultivation in bay Islands at
Andmans (Nair and Singh, 2004).
Field preparation
Gladiolus is a shallow rooted crop therefore deep ploughing is not necessary for
normal soils. Soil cultivated to 25 cm depth is sufficient the bed size should be 6 x 2
meters. Raised beds with double row planting is followed to protect from excess water.
Planting
Planting depth is depends on soil type, soil temperature, corm size and planting
season. Medium size corms are planted at 10-15 cm deep. A planting depth of 10cm
produced the highest plant height, number of leaves per plant, length of leaves and
corm production in gladiolus cv. Candyman (Rana et al., 2005). The spacing adopted
Gladiolus 273
double row system of planting is 40 X 20 cm . The requirement of the corms per

hectare is roughly 1-1.5lacs. .
Irrigation
At planting time sufficient moisture in the soil is necessary so that the crop does not
require water till sprouting. Gladiolus requires water in plenty but does not grow well
under water-logged conditions. Frequency of irrigation depends upon the soil type,
weather conditions and rainfall. Normally in sandy soils, the crop should be irrigated at
7-10 day intervals, whereas in heavy soils, at less frequent intervals. Irrigation should
be withheld at least 4-6 weeks before lifting of corms. Two litre per hour emitter
inline lateral must be utilized for 30 minute duration through drip irrigation system
and raised bed width can be kept 1.20 meter.
Intercultural operation
Mulching
Mulching helps to conserve moisture and reduce the weeds which in turn will save the
nutrients to help improving plant growth. Organic mulches and plastic sheets can be
used as mulches. Organic mulches such as hay, dried grass, saw dust, peat, clippings
and coconut fiber are cheaper. Mulching with organic materials further improves the
chemical properties of soil (Barman et al., 2005)
Weed control
The field is irrigated before planting and the weeds are allowed to germinate. Hand
weeding is done along with 4-5 hoeing before planting. Pre-emergence herbicides
reported for gladiolus are pendimethalin(0.75 kg/ ha active ingredient) + hand weeding
at 60 days after planting, diuron @ 0.9 kg, linuron @ 3.0 kg active ingredient / ha
found effective. Post-emergence herbicides, 2, 4-D @ 1.5-3.0 kg active ingredient / ha
has been found to reduce weed population.
Staking
Large-flowered varieties of gladioli grown outdoors are susceptible to lodging, hence
need staking. The stems should be tied with strings to thin but strong supports. Plants
tied loosely around the stem to allow further growth. Stems should be secured in
position with bamboo twig supports. Salix twigs make good supports if these are 75-
100 cm in length . Butterfly and miniature types not required staking and which are
suitable for garden decoration.
Nutrition management
Fertilizer requirement of gladiolus is vary with climatic conditions, irrigation methods
and soil types. In sandy soils it is necessary to provide fertilizers frequently mainly
during rainy season. In heavy loam soil light or no fertilizer is required for flower
production four applications of fertilizers are recommended:
1. Preplant incorporation
2. Side dressing at 2nd and 3rd leaf stage
3. Side dressing at slipping stage when the inflorescence emerges from leaves
4. Side dressing about two weeks after flowering to develop new corms and
cormels.
Nitrogen promotes vegetative growth of gladiolus due to the fact that N application
increases more metabolic transport for growth and delays flowering (Chanda et al.,
2000). Out of phosphorus and potassium, potassium shows marked effect on flowering.
Application of N40 P20 K20/m2 significantly increased length of spike, florets per spike,
diameter of first floret, life of spike including durability of the whole spike under field
conditions in gladiolus (Sharma and Singh, 2007).
Biofertilizers improve vegetative and floral characters of gladiolus (Srivastava and
Govil, 2007). Vegetative growth was enhanced most effectively by Azotobacter
treatment. However, for quality spike production, PSB was found more effective. It
was found that treatment of corms with biofertilizers increased the total rhizospheric
bacterial population. This indicates that the improvement in various characters
of gladiolus is due to the activity of rhizospheric bacteria, which is enhanced by
biofertilizer inoculation suggested by Dongardive et al.,(2007).
Application of 500:200:200 kg/ha NPK is optimum for growth and flowering of
gladiolus cv. White Prosperity. Commonly a 12:12:18 N:P:K compound fertilizer is
applied prior to planting at 1 ton per hectare. Gladiolus can be damaged by fluorine
and phosphatic fertilizers containing fluorine should not be used.The crop can be
top dressed as required with calcium nitrate at an application rate of 200-300 kg per
hectare. In calcareous soils it should be avoided. Regar et al. (2015) reported 250
Kg nitrogen dose found better for spike quality parameter gladiolus under Junagadh-
Gujarat.
Flowering harvesting of spikes
Gladiolus takes 100-120 days to produce spikes. It depends on the cultivar, temperature
and corm size. In India year round production is possible because of climatic diversity.
The spikes of gladiolus generally exhibit vase life of about 7-15 days.
The spikes should be harvested at 1-2florets starts opened for local market and 3- 4 floret
bud show colour on spike for distant market, kept for pre-cooling in water to remove
field heat at morning or evening hours of the day when temperatures are mild. Increase
in temperature causes a depletion of stored food. Spike should be harvested just above
second nodes. Spikes should preferably be cut with sharp knives or secateurs. Care
should be taken not to crush the stem as it releases exudates that promote microbial
growth. While harvesting, at least four basal leaves should be retained on the plant
to ensure proper development of corms and cormels. The stage at which the spike is
to be cut should depend upon the transportation distance, consumer requirement and
prevailing temperature conditions.
Gladiolus 275
Yield
The flower spike yield in gladiolus is vary according to the cultivar, corm size, planting
density and management practices etc. Gladiolus cut spike yield would be around 1.5
– 1.8 lakhs and corm yield 1.5 – 1.60 lakhs per ha.
Post harvest management
Grading and packing

Grading is done chiefly on the basis of the spike length and number of florets present
on spikes. Essential characters considered for grading are spikes should be straight and
strong, florets not showing excess opening, florets symmetrically arranged and well
spaced on the spike, spikes should free from pest and diseases.
North American Gladiolus Council Specifications:
Grade Spike length (cm) Florets/spike
Fancy >107 16
Special 96 – 107 14
Standard 81 – 96 12
Utility <81 10
*In India, these grades are mentioned as A, B, C and D.
Packing
The spikes are packed in bunches of 10/12 spikes per bunch. The bunches are tied
loosely with a rubber band and tightly packed in card board boxes. PAU, Ludhiana
standardized a box size of 127x22x22 cm (empty tube light boxes) which can hold
250-300 spikes for packing for domestic markets. For export, the spikes are to be pre-
cooled. Pre-cooling at 4-5 0C for 72 hours results in good keeping quality. These packed
boxes should be transported vertically to avoid geotropic bending transportation and
handling of cut spikes.
Rehydration and conditioning of spikes
Spikes may losses fresh weight during transit and sometimes show signs of wilting.
If so, the spikes should be immediately be put in warm water. This process is referred
to as rehydration or conditioning, which helps improve the turgidity and facilitate
opening of florets.
During transport of uncooled boxes, vents covering an area of 4% is made in side walls
to ensure free circulation of air and avoid heating of spikes due to respiration.
Storage of spikes
Spikes do not store well for longer duration under refrigerated conditions. Under wet
storage condition – spikes are put in a bucket of water and placed in cool chambers at
4-5oC by which they store up to 7-10 days. Under dry storage conditions – the spikes
should be sealed in polyethene /polypropylene 25 micron thickness and stored in cold
rooms at 4-5oC and they store for 6 days. Pre-storage pulsing with 20% sucrose +300
ppm Alumunium sulphate for 24 hours at 20 – 25˚C enhanced vase life. Bairwa et al.
(2014) concluded that 4 % sucrose + 300 ppm Al2(SO4)3 is better holding solution with
harvest stage 4-5 floret show colour. Mahawar et al (2015) suggested 7 days storage
duration with 4-5 florets show colour on spike (S2) and packed in polypropylene
-100 guage sleeves were found most suitable for post-harvest life under modified
atmosphere storage to avoid glut cut spikes of gladiolus.
Geotrophic bending of spikes
Gladiolus spikes exhibit negative geotropism. This means that if the floral spikes
are kept flat or horizontal position in storage or transport, the tip points will curve
upward. This is an Important cause of quality loss in gladiolus and this is a response
of the plant to a change in the distribution of auxin within the stem. This is primarily
due to the lateral downward movement of auxin, IAA and its accumulation on the
lower portion of the spike. IAA causes asymmetrical elongation of cells in this region,
thereby causing the upward bending of the spikes. To prevent bending of tips, the
spikes should be held vertically in storage as well as during transportation.
Care of spikes in vase
Spikes are pulsed with 20% sucrose + 8 -hydroxy quinoline citrate @ 300 ppm,
alumunium sulphate @ 300 ppm and sodium hypochlorite 50 ppm. Holding solution:
Sucrose 4% + 8 - hydroxy quinoline citrate @ 200 ppm, Al2(SO4)3 @300 ppm and
sodium hypochlorite @ 50 ppm utilized for gladiolus. The basal 2-3 cm portion of
the spikes should be re-cut on alternate days to expose xylem vessels to improve
absorption of water. The vase water must be changed on alternate days and the faded
florets must be removed.
Lifting and storage of corms: Harvesting of corms is done when the leaves turn
yellow and dry fully. It generally takes 6-8 weeks after harvesting of spikes for the
corms development to become mature and ready for lifting. Plant growth development
stops at this phase. Irrigations should normally be withheld at least for 3-4 weeks
before lifting of corms. In India, lifting of corms is carried out manually with small
garden forks or ‘khurpi’. After lifting the corms from the soil, the upper leafy portions
should be removed by twisting and breaking the stalk. The old withering mother corms
attached to the bottom of the newly-formed corms should also be removed similarly
with the thumb.
The cormels should also be separated simultaneously and handled separately. The corms
usually get damaged or bruised during harvesting and cleaning operations. Therefore,
lifted corms and cormels should be treated with fungicides like azoxystrobin (0.1 %)
and bavistin (0.2%) dry under shade condition. The corms or cormels of different
cultivars must be handled separately and labeling properly so that they do not get
mixed up.
Storage of corms: Storage of corms at low temperature (4-7oC) for three months is
an established commercial practice. Corms are stored in perforated wooden boxes,
bamboo baskets or nylon mesh bags with free air movement. It serves three main
purposes like
Gladiolus 277
i) To break dormancy of corms raised under warmer climates; corm dormancy is

mainly due to the accumulation of Abscissic acid, palmatic and lineolic acid.
Cormels exhibit a longer dormancy period than corms.
ii) To overcome unfavorable warm and dry conditions during summer season that
intervene between lifting of corms and their planting in the subsequent season.
iii) To overcome premature sprouting of corms under unfavorable summer season.
Plant protection
Diseases: Botrytis Soft Rot or Spongy rot (Botrytis gladiolorum): The disease
occurs in the cold storage when the temperature stays below 13-15ºC. The disease is
characterized by the formation of white-molded, soft, spongy corms. At early stage,
the infection may be confined to surface only, but later on, it travels to the core as well.
At high temperature, corms seal off infection, escaping further rotting. In the field,
infection is characterized by circular brown leaf spots. The smallest spots are visible
only on the upper surface of leaf.
Control: Leaf infection can be controlled by spraying the plants with 0.25% Dithane
M-45, twice a week and by dusting healthy corms with Dithane M-45, during storage.
Fusarium Corm Rot (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. gladioli): The fungus is carried
in corms /cormels from the soil. Latent infection in corms may develop into active
rotting of corms / cormels during storage and also during plant growth. Extra losses
occur when plant growth is checked by poor soil aeration and drainage, flooding or
hot weather. Addition of excess nitrogen in the form of cow dung manure results
in additional casualties. The disease is characterized by rot of corms, stunted plant
growth, late blooming or blind plants, greener and smaller buds and poor opening.
The most serious loss is the reduction in number and quality of flower spikes due to
the infection.
Control: Fusarium corm rot is difficult to prevent but can be controlled to some
extent by growing disease tolerant cultivars and by various control measures. Hot
water treatment of corm /cormels at a temperature of 50˚C for 30 minutes before
planting, use of clean soil or fumigated soil and treatment of corms /cormels with
fungicide prevent / control the disease. The most effective treatment is soaking the
corms in Benlate, Bavistin 0.02% , Azoxystrobin (0.1%) solution for half an hour
before planting, after treatment corm should be dry under shade and soil application
of Furadan/ Thimet 10G @ 3g/square meter at the time of planting is very helpful in
preventing the incidence of this dreaded disease. Poonam Shree et al.(2018) suggested
that carbendazim (0.1%)+ Azadirachtin (0.2%)+Trichoderma harzianum @ 20 g / lit/
kg (c.f.u., 2.5 x 106) for 30 minutes corm dipping treatment lower down gladiolus wilt.
Penicillium Rot or Storage Rot (Penicillium gladioli): This is commonly known as
green mold. The disease occurs when the corms are stored in heaps after digging in the
cold weather. Large reddish brown lesions on the sides of the corm characterize the
disease. Sometimes lesions may be covered with bluish green masses of fungal spores.
Hot humid conditions favorable for this disease.
Control: The corms during storage should be examined periodically and disease
corms should be sorted out and discarded. Storing of the healthy corms may prevent
the occurrence of the disease. Dusting of corms with Dithane M-45 is helpful in
preventing this disease during storage.
Curvularia blight or leaf spots: (Curvularia trifolii f.sp. gladioli) this is soil- borne
disease surviving in the soil for three years or more. The disease is very serious for
the plants grown from cormels or seeds. This infects all the plant parts, viz. leaves,
stalks, flowers, corms and roots. The disease becomes very serious at 18.3-32.2˚C
temperature range and during humid weather. First appearance is noticed in the form
of leaf yellowing with browning of leaf tips, initially with circular to oval spots which
afterwards may become irregular and extend lengthwise along the leaf blades. These
pale –yellow spots turn tan or dark brown.
Control: Use of Mancozeb and Blitox (Copper Oxychloride + Zineb) each at 0.2%
fortnightly spraying will control this disease.
Insects and Pest
Thrips (Taeniothrips simplex): This is one of the most serious pests of gladiolus.
Yellow coloured nymphs and black adults damage leaves and spikes. Affected leaves
and spikes develop silver streaks, turn brown, get deformed and dry if damage is
severe. Attack on young plants reduces flower production. This pest also attacks corms
under storage. Infected corms become sticky, shrivel and produce weak plants when
planted.
Control: Spraying of methyl demeton 25EC or dimethoate 30EC @ 2ml/litre of water
at 10 days interval provides significant control of thrips. Storing of infested corms at
2ºC for 6 weeks and later treating them with hot water at 46ºC completely kills the
thrips on gladiolus corms.
Cut Worms (Agrotis segetum): The pest attacks mainly the newly planted gladiolus
plants. Female moth lays eggs near ground on plant parts. Hatched larvae feed during
nights on emerging shoots. Grown up larvae, which are clay coloured, cut the plants
at ground level. Plants are vulnerable to attack up to 3rd leaf stage. They also damage
underground corms and developing spikes.
Control: Deep ploughing during summer months exposes the pupae to predators.
Poison bait consisting of carbaryl or malathion @ 0.1%, wheat bran and molasses
scattered in the field effectively controls the larvae. Sprays of methyl parathion
@0.05% or quinalphos @0.05% provides protection to foliage from cutworms
Leaf Eating Caterpillar (Spodoptera litura): This caterpillar mainly damages foliage
of gladiolus plants. Female moth lays ash coloured eggs in groups on lower side of
leaves. The young larvae feed on lower surface of leaves by scraping while greenish-
brown mature larvae feed voraciously during nights on these leaves.
Control: Collection and destruction of egg masses and leaves infested with young
larvae reduce pest build up. Setting up of light traps attracts adult moths and helps in
monitoring pest population. Deep ploughing in summer exposes pupae to predators.
Gladiolus 279
Spraying of quinalphos @0.05% or carbaryl @0.1% or chlorpyriphos @0.05% gives

protection to foliage from the leaf-eating caterpillar.
Mites (Tetranychus equatorius): Attack by the mite begins at an early stage when
plants are young. Green coloured nymphs with lateral specks and reddish-brown
coloured adults colonize on leaves and suck the sap causing discoloration and wilting.
The affected leaves fall off.
Control: Flumite 20 EC @ 1.0 ml, spiromesifen 22.9 SC @ 1.0 ml, propargite 57 EC
@ 2.0 ml per liters of water significant control the mites.
Mealy Bug (Ferrisia virgata): Damage by mealy bug begins in the field on underground
corms during dry conditions and carries on to the storage. Nymphs and adults damage
corms by sucking the sap causing shriveling and drying of affected corms.
Control: Prompt collection and destruction of infested parts reduces spread of the pest.
Crawling of ants on plants is the sign of beginning of mealy bug infestation. Spraying
should be taken up at this stage. Sprays of Methyl Parathion 0.04% or Dimethoate
0.04% or Acephate 0.1 % at 15 days interval effectively contains mealy bug infestation
Root-knot Nematode (Meloidogyne sp): The symptoms of the attack are in the form
of stunted growth, yellowing of leaves and heavy galling on roots.
Control: Use nematode-free planting material is the best method to avoid the
nematode infestation. Hot water treatment of corms at 57.8°C for 30 minutes helps to
control the nematode population. Intercropping or crop rotation with marigold reduces
the severity of attack in the field. Application of carbofuran , phorate @ 1g active
ingredient per square metre is found effective.
Rodents: Rodents cause a considerable damage to gladiolus corms in the fields as well
as during storage, by eating them away. The damage during storage can be prevented
by dusting the corms with 5% cythion and storing them in perforated trays. Poison
bait is quite helpful in checking rodent menace in the field as well as during storage.
Fluoride injury: Leaf scorch of gladioli due to the presence of fluorine compounds
in the atmosphere which accumulated on the tips of leaves and heavy application of
super phosphate.
Tip burning: (scorching): This disease manifests itself in the form of necrosis of
the leaf tips and is due to the damage done to the roots by excessive watering or by
fluorides present in the soil at low pH or in air.
Spike topple: Spike topple or bud rot of spikes is caused due to low calcium content
in stalk tissues when spikes are kept in vase solution. In this case CaCO3 @ 0.2-0.3%
spraying is recommended.
Blindness or floral blasting: Blindness in gladiolus is due to unfavorable climatic
conditions prevailing during growing period, mainly due to low light intensity.
References
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corm production in gladiolus. Indian J. Hort., 62 (4):419-421.
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initial as par indication
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on flower quality and yield parameters of gladiolus. J. Soils and Crops, 19(2): 351-354.
Bairwa, S.K., Bairwa, H. L., Mahawer, L.N. and Meena, Ravi K.2014. Effect of stage of harvest
and holding solutions on vase life of cut spikes of gladiolus (Gladiolus x hybridus Hort.).
Journal of Ornamental Horticulture,17(3&4):97-104.
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condition. Journal of Ornamental Horticulture, 1(2):16-20.
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corm yield. Ind. J. Pl. Physiol., 38: 241-243.
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19
Aster
B. D. Bhuj and Yograj Kushwaha
Botanically aster belongs to the family Asteraceae and scientifically known as

Callistephus chinesnsis which is basically native to China aster and annual aster. It is
native to China and Japan and it is cultivated worldwide as cut flower, loose flower,
bedding plant, for flower decoration and for making floral ornaments. It can easily
cultivate in the open fields and green houses for the production of cut-flowers. The
genus Callistephus derives from two Greek words that is ‘Kalistos’ and ‘Stephos’
meaning ‘most beautiful’ and ‘a crown’, respectively. The name Aster comes from
the Ancient Greek word aστήρ (aster),, meaning "star", referring to the shape of
the flower head (Janakiram, 2006).Among various flowering annuals, China aster is
having an important position in Indian floriculture industry. It holds the position next
to chrysanthemum and marigold among the traditional flowers. In fact, it has widely
replaced an already grown annual Chrysanthemum up to greater extent in Indian
floriculture industry.
This flower is most preferred for wide cultivation by virtue of its wide variation in
attractive color and longer vase life. It is also very much used for beautification in
landscape gardening which create mass effect. In India it is cultivated in about 1,020
ha with a production of flower 800 million tonnes. It is commercially cultivated in
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Maharashtra. In Karnataka it account for 6
% of the total area and 8.8 % of the total flower production.
Importance and Uses
Among the entire garden annuals asteris one of the most popular annuals grown
throughout the world. Its cut flower last long and are used in vases and decoration.
Aster flowers are also an eye-catching addition to beds and borders. Mix colors, or
plant drifts of a single color to suit to any personal style. Some dwarf varieties are
used as pot plants but remember that containers dry out quicker than the ground, and
be vigilant about watering. In the garden aster flowers have excellent nectar source
for attracting pollinators and beneficial insects. For edging and window boxes dwarf
varieties are very much suitable. Several countries are also producing seeds in large
amount.
Taxonomy
Aster [Callistephus chinensis (L.)Nees.] is an annual type plant having unbranched
straight stem reaching upto a height of 100 centimeters. The chromosome number
of aster is 2n=18. The ovate or triangular ovate leaves are alternately arranged. The
plant shed their lower leaves before flowering.The newer leaves appeared on the top
of the plant have smooth edges type leaf blade while the older one has serrated type
of edges. The large solitary flower head grows on the main stem and its branches.
Callistephus chinensis provides showy, 3-5-inch diameter blooms. Species plants are
infrequently grown because of the huge number of superior cultivars that have arisen
over the years. Cultivar appearances vary from single daisy-like flower heads with
yellow centers to fully double flower heads with shaggy to pompom form. Cultivar
colors include shades of white to pink, red, blue, violet, purple and yellow.It is a self-
pollinated crop; approximately have 10% natural crossing. Flower head consists of
both pistillate ray florets and perfect disc florets. Normally, the stamens and pistils do
not mature simultaneously in the individual flowers (Janakiram, 2006).
Climate
Aster is extensively grown in tropical and subtropical countries during the winter
season and spring. Locations having full sun to partial shade it grows vigorously. Light
and temperature play a major role in the growth and flowering of aster. Day length has
a remarkable effect on vegetative growth and flowering of aster. Less than 14 hours
day length was found to cause resetting of leaves. For the production of year round the
aster seedlings are lighted during short days from the time of emergence to flowering.
Temperature is also another factor influencing the growth and flowering of aster. 20-
30ºC day temperature, 15-17ºC night temperature and 50-60% relative humidity are
preferred for its commercial cultivation. At higher temperatures the aster plants will
grow reasonably well but will have weaker stem and lesser number of petals. It is
also recommended that for the year round production of flowers the night temperature
should be maintained around 10°C.
Soil
Aster can be grown in a well drained soil having ample amount of organic matter.
Before adding any amendments, it is advisable that soil testing should be done.Aster
prefers a pH range of 6.0 to 7.5. The field should be well prepared by deep ploughing
with the help of plough and cultivator.Mix the well-rotted compost, if necessary, and
finally field should be saturated with water.
The species C. chinensis has a number of cultivars which are available in different
form of colour such as blue, purple, yellow, pink and red with a bright yellow centre
disc. The diameter of flower ranged from three to five inches. The whorls of petals are
found in single, semi-double, double types and they appear on a separate stem. The
species are wilt-resistant, with sturdy stems and alternating green leaves.
Aster 285
Classification of Aster
Asters are classified on the basis of their growth habits, flower shape, size and
appearance of florets. Double-flowered asters are categorized into 3 group tall,
medium-tall and dwarf (Bhattacharjee and Kumar, 2002).
A. Tall
The height ranges from 60 to 80 cm in this group. The types and colours in the
following sub-categories are mentioned below:
American branching: Stems are long and flowering coming up with wide spectrum
of colour in different cultivars- white, light blue, dark blue, pink, rosy, salmon, scarlet
and violet.
Bouquet powder-puffs: It has medium sized flowers on the stem and colour range in
different cultivars as described earlier.
Chikuma strain: It bears different shades of flower colours such as white, yellow,
purple, red, rose, red with golden yellow center and salmon-rose. The flowers are fully
double, ball-shaped, and ideal as cutflower.
Giant of California: This is a late flowering type and having large sized bloom with
wide range of colours.
Paeony-flowered: It has straight growth and produces chrysanthemum-like flowers of
various attractive colours. It is also suitable for cut-flower.
Princess and giant princess: It is famous for cut flowers due to its large sized flowers
produced on many branches. It bears blue, pink, deep yellow, cream-white, citron-
yellow, rose, carmine, deep red, white, etc. of extra large double flowers on long stems.
B. Medium-tall
The height ranges from 40 to 60 cm in this group. The types and colours in the
following sub-categories are mentioned below:
Early Burpeenna: It produces early mum-like flowers about 7 cm diameters with
semi-incurved petals in white, rose, scarlet and blue.
Giant comet: These are much-branched, hardy plants, and flowers having curled
petals.
Giant Crego: The plants are bushy and vigorous having curled petals of white, shell-
pink, light and deep blue, scarlet and deep rose.
Lilliput: The plants are erect and produces fully doubled small blooms.
Ostrich feather: It produces medium-sized flowers having curved petals with wide
range of colours.
Pompom: It has globular-shaped blooms with quilled petals, in wide range of colours
– yellow, light blue, dark blue, lilac, white, scarlet, rose, and also with white centre.
Rubens: Early-blooming type with pompom-type flowers, 7 cm across. It is also
suitable for cut-blooms.
Unicum: It produces quilled petals type large blooms.

C. Dwarf Double
The height ranges from 20 to 40 cm in this group. It also has different type with
varying growth and flowering attributes:
Colour Carpet: It is characterized by dwarf and uniform globular plants producing
chrysanthemum like blooms.
Dwarf Chrysanthemum: It has compact bushy growth and having wide range of
flower colours.
Pinocchio: These are excellent for bedding, edging and window boxes due to large
number of star-shaped flowers appear on dwarf and compact plants.
It is worth to mention here that the following important varieties are being commercially
cultivated in India under different climatic conditions:
Arka Kamini: Flowers are semi-double type, deep pink in colour; suitable for garland,
floral decoration and cut flower.
Arka Poornima: Flowers are powder puff type, pure white in colour, disc tubular;
suitable for garland, floral decoration and cut flower.
Arka Shashank: Flowers are powde rpuff with tubular ray florets, creamy white in
colour; suitable for garland, floral decoration and cut flower.
Violet Cushion: Its flowers are violet and are superior to the local violet variety. It
produces pompon type of flowers having 4-5 rows of ray florets with tubular disc
florets. It blooms are 4.5 cm in diameter and each flower weigh 2 g. It has a stalk
length of 20 cm and a vase life of 8 days.It is a higher yielding variety and produces
70 flowers/plant.
Phule Ganesh White: Crop duration 4-5 months, Productivity 16 to 18 lakh, flowers.
Characters / features Colour of flower White,: Early, Semi spreading.
Phule Ganesh Pink: Crop duration 4-5 months Productivity 16 lakh flowers.
Characters / features Colour of flower Pink,: Early, Semi spreading.
Phule Ganesh Violet: Crop duration 4-5 months Productivity 20 to 22 lakh flowers.
Characters / features Colour of flower Violet,: Early, Semi spreading.
Phule Ganesh Purple: Crop duration 4-5 months Productivity 16 to 18 lakh flowers.
Characters / features Colour of flower Purple,: Early, Semi spreading.
Varieties Developed Outside India
Pot’n Patio Blue, Pot’n Patio Pink, Bouquet Powder Puff, Bouguet White, Asure Blue,
Giants Of California, Ostrich Plume, Crego, Crego Azure, Comet, Totem Ple, Giant
Massagno, Benihanabi, Cactus Flower, Blue Wonder, White Kurenai, AriakePumpson,
Invineible, Early Bird, Giant Curved, Super Giant, Super Princess, Early Charm,
Salmon rose, Ostrich Plume Blue,
Aster 287
Wilt Resistant Varieties (Arora, 1990).

Early Wonder, Giant Comet, Queen of Market, Star Dust, Unicene Record.
Planting Season
Generally seed sowing should be done during August to October and sometimes earlier
in June or July in areas where rainfall is low. For obtaining better quality flower earlier
is useful in Northern Indian plains.But in mild climatic condition like inBengaluru,it
can be cultivated throughout the year (Rao et al.,1997).
Propagation
It is commercially propagated by seeds. Seeds of asters have no dormancy and freshly
harvested seeds must be sown. Approximately 2.5 - 3.0 kg seeds are required for
one hectare. In raised beds(10cm) of 120 x 60 cm size the seeds should be shown
either by broad casting or line sowing. It would be wise to sow the seeds at frequent
interval of 10 – 15 days, so that continuous flowers can be obtained and also avoid
glut in the market.The soil moisture should be kept ideal and a temperature of 21-
22°C should be maintained. Asters seed will germinate in a week. Aster seedlings
are usually transplanted when they have developed about three to four leaves. 30-45
days old seedlings should be transplanted in the actual plot. Planting should be done
preferably in the evening to avoid direct sunlight and the beds should be well-prepared
by adding sufficient compost. After planting, the soil around the seedlings is to be firm
and irrigated judiciously.
Alternatively in-situ, seeds can be sown in the field. Sow the seeds on top of the soil
about three inches apart. Gently press each seed into the soil to a depth of approximately
1/3 cm. It is not necessary to cover them with soil. Keep the soil evenly moist, never
letting it completely dry out, but don’t allow it to become waterlogged. In 2 to 3 weeks
seedlings will sprout. Continue to provide even moisture. Use floating row covers if
desired to protect against pest and disease issues. When the seedlings have 2-3 sets
of true leaves, start thinning them. Remove enough so that the remaining seedlings
are spaced 25-30 cm apart, depending on the variety (Randhawa and Mukhopadhyay,
1986).
A field experiment conducted at Kalyani and Pune indicated that the seedlings of china
aster spaced at 30x30 cm apart gave the best flower yield. A spacing of 30x20 cm and
planting in the first week of October for Kalyani, and November planting for Pune
regions have been recommended to obtained more flowers and seed yield in cultivar
“Ostrich Plume Blue”. Under Ludhiana condition 20x20 cm was found to be best for
obtaining highest flower yield (Bhattacharjee and Kumar, 2002).
Manures and Fertilizer: For aster cultivation manures and fertilizers should be
applied in a judicious manner. Deficiencies of nitrogen and phosphorus result in poor
growth and flowering. Stunted growth and less numbers of flowers counted due to
nitrogen deficiency. Retarded vegetative growth and late flowering were caused by
phosphorus deficiency. At the time of field preparation of 10-15 tonnes FYM/ha along
with NPK 180:60:60 kg/ha as basal should be applied. Another dose of nitrogen @
90 kg/ha should be top dressed at 40 days after transplanting for better growth.With
the application of Zn, Cu, B and Mn in spray form may leads to increment in quality
flower production.
A field trial conducted at Pune and Kalyani recommended that 400:100:200 kg/ha and
300:200:200 kg/ha NPK respectively should be beneficial for aster crop. In Punjab
a fertilizer dose of 30 g each of NPK per m2 has been recommended for higher and
quality production of aster flowers (Bhattacharjee and Kumar, 2002). An another study
conducted at IARI reported that application of 75 kg nitrogen 60 kg phosphorus and
100 kg potash per hectare combined with vesicular arbuscularmichorrhizae (VAM)
and phosphobacterium were proved to be most effective in increasing the quality and
yield of flowers(Kumar et al., 2003).
Irrigation
During vegetative growth and flowering sufficient amount of moisture should be
maintained. Moisture stress during growth and development may affect the normal
growth and flower production. Frequency and quality of water mainly depend upon
climate and soil conditions. Frequency of irrigation would be more in lighter soil and
less in heavy soil. According to soil moisture condition the irrigation should be done
once in a week. The optimum soil moisture can also be maintained by use of mulch
such as woodchip, shredded bark, or leaf mould.
Pinching: The terminal portion of shoot is removed at 30 days after transplanting to
induce lateral shoots for the production of more number of quality flowers.
Intercultural operations: Weeds are problematic in aster cultivation. After
transplanting of aster cropweed competes with aster at its full efficiency and suppress
the growth of plant. There is a need of care and attention to remove the weed from
the field otherwise weeds grow in field and reduce the growth and quality of aster
flower. Weeding is generally done manually. Three to four weeding are required for
the entire growth period. Application of oxodiazon at 1.25 kg/ha sprayed at 3 days
after planting shows best result in controlling the weeds. Control of grasses and broad
leaf weedswith napropomide and oryzalin has also been reported in this crop. For
continuous blooming it is advisable to de-head the wilted and dried flowers regularly.
Staking of plants should also be followed in tall varieties to keep them upright. In this
regard use of bamboo sticks and twine would be helpful (Bhattacharjee and Kumar,
2002).
Role of growth regulators: Growth regulators have significant role in development of
vegetative and floral characters and their responses vary with concentration, method
and frequency of applications. A field experiment was conducted at UHS, Bagalkot,
Bangaluru on different growth regulators. The study indicated that GA3 (200 ppm)
enhanced the duration of flowering and yield of flowers. It was also reported that the
highest flower yield and flower quality were influenced by the foliar application of
cycocel (1500 ppm).
In china aster different growth regulators viz., GA3, NAA, CCC, MH and Paclobutrazol
are used either for inducing or retarding growth parameters which ultimately results in
better quality, increased flower yield and also enhancing the vase life of cut flowers.
Aster 289
Spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm enhanced the duration of flowering (90.33 days), number
of flowers per plant (68.54), diameter (4.86 cm), flower weight (3.26 g), flower
yield per plant (111.2 g) and vase life (22.88 days). Among growth regulators foliar
application of CCC at 1500 ppm recorded the highest flower yield and flower quality
parameters. Soil drench of paclobutrazol at 200 ppm delayed flowering while early
flowering was observed with 25 ppm. Application of MH at 1000 ppm resulted in
minimum plant height, inter nodal length, number of leaves per plant and leaf area in
aster (Munikrishnappa and Chandrashekar, 2014).
Harvesting and Postharvest Management
For Cut Flower: Aster plants produce blooms after 70-84 days after transplanting and
it varies according to varieties, season and cultural practices. Flowers are harvested
along with stalks and sometime whole plant. Harvesting is done by hand when the
flowers developed their original colour. For distant markets they should be plucked
earlier as compared to local markets. For harvesting of loose flowers individual flowers
are harvested with short stems attached.
Flowers with stalks are immediately placed vertically in a container having clean
water. To minimize transpiration activity lower leaves should be removed. According
to stalk length and flower size,grading should be done. To improve attractiveness and
freshness of flowers, a clear plastic film should be used for its packing.
Yield
It depends on the cultivars, planting seasons and cultivation practices. On an average a
fresh flower yield of 20-22 tons/ha, 15.0 to 17.5 tons/ha and 10.0-12.0 tons/ha can be
obtained in rainy, winter and summer seasons, respectively.
Vase-life
Aster flower shows comparatively longer period of vase life than the other flowering
plants. The life of the cut flowers determines by the microbial population in vase.
To reduce the bacterial population in vase, a slow release chlorine compounds such
as sodium dichloroisocyanurate and 1, 3, dichloro 5, 5-dimethyldydantoin can be
adopted. A study conducted at IARI New Delhi observed that for extending vase life
of aster flower (15.88 days) holding solutions containing 8-HQC 200 ppm and sucrose
1% can be used(Singh et al., 2003).
In general, the following steps should be followed for increasing the vase-life of
flowers:
1. Cut the stems in slanting manner by use of clean and sharp secateurs.
2. Remove the lower leave upto 6-12 inches depending upon length of stalk.
3. Place the stalks in a vase of water and ensured that there is no leaves below the
water level.
4. Cut the stems in slanting manner and change the water daily.
With this regimen, the vase life of flowers can be extended upto two weeks.
Insect-pests and Diseases
Asters shows susceptibility to a number of diseases and pests. As for example- fusarium
wilt, aster yellows, rust, botrytis blight, etc. may cause problems in aster cultivation.
Leaf hopper, aphids, spider mite, thrips, white fly, mealy bug and caterpillar are
important among the pests.
Diseases
Wilt: It is a very common disease and severe also generally spread via fungus called
Fusarium oxysporumf. callistephi, Acrostalagmusvil morini, Verticilliumalbo-atrum
with Fusarium oxysporumf. callistephi causes this disease. Sterilization of soil and
drenched with copper-based fungicide (Carbendazim 1g/l) are quite effective for
checking the malady.
Collar or Root Rot: It is caused by Phytophthoracryptogea and showing similar
symptoms to those caused by wilt fungus plants appear water-soaked and black lesions.
This disease can be controlled by restricted irrigation and avoiding planting near the
alternative hosts. Avoid continuation of cropping in the recurrent field. For minimizing
the disease infectionthe soil should be drenched with Copper oxychloride @ 2.5g/l.
Rust: This is one of the severe diseases which reduces the respirational and
transpirational activity of the plant by covering stomata of the leaves with bright
yellowish orange spores. Causing agent is scientifically known as Coleosporium
solidaginis. Spots appear on the lower side of the leaves especially on the young
plants. During growing season or vegetative growth use of Calixin or Benlate (0.1%)
is quite effective to control the disease.
Viral Diseases: This is also a serious disease of china aster caused by
Chlorogeniccallistephus. It can be identified by its pale-yellow tinge on the bud of
leaves and a large number of adventitious shoots. Ultimately plants become dwarf.
Flowers are off-colour and ray-florets become yellowish green colour. This malady
can be managed by removing and destruction of affected plant and monitoring the
vector, leaf hopper. The leaf hopper can be controlled by suitable insecticide.
Pests
Leaf Hopper (Macrosteles fascifrons): A very serious feeding pest on aster plants
already mentioned, has the capability of transmitting virus. Use of dimecron (1 ml/l)
or rogor (2 ml/l) or any other suitable insecticide will be effective to control the pest.
Black Blister Beetle (Epicauta pennsylvanica): It is also known as aster beetle, attack
on flowers and foliage, sometimes if not monitor it can completely destroy the plants.
This pest can be controlled by periodic spray of malathion (2 ml/l) at an interval of
5-7days during peak infestation.
Semilooper: Skeletinization of leaves and the plant becomes whitish. The larvae
feed on leaf buds and flowers. It can be control by spraying Carbaryl@0.5ml/l. or
Quinalphos @ 1.0 ml/l
Aster 291
Leaf Miner: Adult female of leaf miners puncture the leaves and sometimes petals
to feed on exuding sap. Punctures turn white, giving foliage a stippled or speckled
appearance. As the larva grows the mine becomes longer and wider. Mining on leaves
usually has less impact on plant growth and rarely kills plants. Unusually heavy
damage stunts the plant growth and may cause infested leaves to drop. Spraying of
Monochrotophos @ 0.5 ml/l or Imidacloprid @ 0.5ml/l will control this pest.
Potato Aphid (Macrosiphum solanifolii): It is a sap feeding insect and attacks on the
leaves, stems and flowers. Spraying of Imidachloprid can control the aphid population.
Spider Mite (Tetranychus telarius): These are minute insets frequently disturbing
asters. Discoloured and distorted foliage indicate the infestation. Use of kelthane @ 2
ml/1 will be effective.
Nematodes: Nematodes are the serious problem in asters. Asters are highly susceptible
to root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita. The stunted growth of infested plants
and shortened leaves are observed. Another nematode Aphelenchoidesritzema-bosi
also disturb the plant growth. At 20°C the nematodes increased their populations in
seedling stage very rapidly and causessevere leaf malformation. Soil solarization,
deep ploughing or soil pelting and use of furadan or thimet can control the infestation
of nematodes.
References
Arora, J.S. 1990. Introductory Ornamental Horticulture. Kalyani Publication. New Delhi.
Bhattacharjee, S. K. and Kumar, P. N. 2002. China Aster: Agro-Techniques for Flower Crop
Production . AICRP technical bulletin no.16. New Delhi, India: pp49
Janakiram, T. 2006. China aster. In: Advances in Ornamental Horticulture (vol.- 1), pp 247-266.
Bhattacharjee, S. K. (Ed.). Pointer Publishers, Jaipur, India.
Kumar, P.;Raghava, S.P.S. and Misra, R.L. 2003. Effect of biofertilizers and yield of china aster.
Journal of Ornamental Horticulture. 6(2): 85-88
Munikrishnappa, P.M. and Chandrashekar, S.Y. 2014. Effect of growth regulators on growth
and flowering of china aster {Callistephus chinensis (L.) Nees.}. Agriculture Reviews,
35(1):57-63.
Randhawa, G. S. and Mukhopadhyay, A.1986. Floriculture in India, pp 358-359. Allied
Publishers Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.
Rao, T.M.;Negi, S. S. andRaghava, S.P.S. 1997. Kamini: A new China aster cultivar from IIHR,
Bangalore, Floriculture Today.5 (8): 40
Singh, K.P.; Kumar, V. and Suchitra. 2003. Vase life and quality of chinaaster
(Callistephuschinensis) cut flowers as influence by holding solution. Journal of Ornamental
Horticulture 6(4): 362-366
20
Tuberose
P. K. Yadav and Priyanka Kumawat
Tuberose is an important half-hardy, perennial bulbous flowering plant. It belongs to the

Amaryllidaceae family and having basic chromosome number (n=30). It is one of the
important cut flower among the top ten cut flowers due to its beauty, elegance and sweet
pleasant fragrance (Sadhu and Bose, 1973). It is cultivated for its long lasting spike as
cut flower as well as loose flower purpose.Tuberose also known as Rajanigandha in
Bengali, Gulchari and Galshabbo in Hindi, Sukandaraji and Nelasanpengi in Telegu,
Nilasompangi in Tamil and Sugandharaja in Kannada.It is suitable under protected
cultivation as well as open field condition (Brundell and Steenstra 1985). It has a
huge economic potential and more demand for cut-flower purpose (Usman, 2013) and
essential oil industry (Singh, 1995). Due to its immense export potential, cultivation
of tuberose is gaining momentum day by day in our country.
Origin and distribution
Tuberose is cultivated all over the world and it is originated from Mexico. Tuberose
is commercially producing in various countries such as India, China, Bangladesh,
Mexico, Kenya, Italy, France, Morocco, USA, Hawaii and South Africa. In India, it
is commercial growing in West Bengal, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Uttar
Pradesh and North Eastern part of India. At present scenery tuberose is cultivation in
India 7. 95 lakh hectare and cut flowers is estimated to be 27.71 '000 MT and loose
flowers1560.70 lakh (Anonymous, 2013).
Importance and uses
It can be produce in pot as well as in beds. Loose flowers are used mainly in garland
preparation. It is commercially used for aesthetic purpose, birthday ceremony, floral
arrangement such as; bouquets, rangoli, boutonnieres, Potpouri. It has some chemical
compound which is responsible for fragrance such as Geraniol, Nerol, Benzylalcohol,
Eugenol, and Methyl anthranilate. Due to its fragrance, longer shelf life and long spike
length it is used for table purpose.Its sweet fragrance able to open the heart refers
your mind and clam effect the nerves. It is extremely used in perfume and essential oil
industry (Qureshi et al., 2018). In recent time tuberose also use for beverage industry
and food industry. Its powdered bulbs used as a medicine for gonorrhoea. Powdered
bulbs are diuretic and emetic. Bulb rubbed with turmeric and butter are apply on red
pimples.
Climate
Tuberose is widely cultivated in tropical, subtropical and temperate climate conditions.
It requires warm humid, open sunny condition. Average temperature for production of
flowers ranges from 20°C to 35°C.The crop is reported to flower profusely throughout
the year, if the climate is mild and free from extremes of high and low temperature.
Flower length and quality is reduces above 40°C temperature. Low temperature less
than 10°Cadversely affect the quality of flowers and frost damage the plants and
flowers. It is not strictly photosensitive but long-day exposure promotes vegetative
growth,early spike emergence and also increases flower spike length. Humidity and
temperature is the main factors responsible for decrease or increase in yield.
Soil
Tuberose can be growing any type of soil but ideal for sandy-loam or loam soil.
Soil should be well aeration and good drainage with pH (6.5-7.5) for quality flowers
production (Sharga and Sharma, 1994). It is also grow in saline and alkaline affected
soil by using good agronomical practices. Well drained, organic matter rich soils are
better for plant growth and development. Garden soil, FYM and leaf mould in 1:1:1
ratio suitable for pot culture.
Verities
Shringar (Mexican Single × Pearl Double): This variety develop through
hybridization at Indian Institute of Horticultural Research (IIHR), Bangalore. It has
medium spike with single type, highly fragrant floret. Flower bud has pinkish tinge. A
spike has large and number of florets. It contains 0.135% concrete. It is basically use
as loose flower purpose and yield of these flower are 15,000-20,000 kg/ha.
Prajwal (Shringar × Mexican Single): It was also released from Indian Institute of
Horticultural Research (IIHR), Bangalore. Colours of flower buds are slightly pinkish
and flowers are white. It gives 20% more yield compare to the Shringar cultivar.
Flowers are use as loose as well as cut flower purpose.
RajatRekha: It is a Gamma ray mutant cultivar released from National Botanical
Research Institute (NBRI), Lucknow. It is a single type cultivar. Flowers are silvery
white streaks along the middle of the leaf blade. It contains 0.089 % concrete. It is used
for beautification.
SwarnaRekha: It is also gamma ray mutant cultivar released from National Botanical
Research Institute (NBRI), Lucknow. The flowers have golden yellow steaks along the
margins of leaf. It is a double type cultivar and content 0.062 % concrete.
Suvasini (Mexican Single × Pearl Double): It is a double type hybrid released
from Indian Institute of Horticulture Research (IIHR), Bangalore. It bears numerous,
fragrant, bold and uniform florets on spike. It gives 25% more yield thanPearl Double
cultivar. It is use as a cut flower purpose. It is nematode tolerant cultivar.
Pearl Double: It produces double type of florets with reddish tinged. It gives higher
yield with quality flowers. It is use in flower arrangement and oil extraction. Concrete
recovery has been found to be 0.06%.
Tuberose 295
Vaibhav (Mexican Single × IIHR-2): It is a semi double type cultivar. It produce

medium spike and greenish bud. It gives higher yield compare to Suvasini cultivar. It
is good cultivar for cut flower as well as pot planting.
Culcutta Single: It is a white colour, single type cultivar. It is suitable for West Bengal
condition.
Culcutta Double: It a double type cultivar. Flower bud has pinkish tinged before
opening and completely white after opening.
ArkaNirantara: It is a white colour, single type, prolong blooming, fragrant cultivar of
tuberose. It is evaluate at Indian Institute of Horticultural Research (IIHR), Bangalore.
Cultural Practices
Selection of site
Tuberose require sunny place to attain noble vegetative growth and supreme flower
production. To get higher production, site should be selected where the plants will
get adequately sunlight throughout the developing period. Moisture holding capacity
of the soil should be good for tuberose cultivation. This place should be secure from
strong wind, hot and cold waves, so that there is no damage of flower stalk. Shady
situation adversely affect the flowering and plant become tall and lanky. Plants are
highly vulnerable to water stagnation and poor drainage hence it require well drained
and aerated soil.
Land preparation
It is a very essential operation for plant growth and development. Land should be
ploughed 2-3 times to the depth of 30-45 cm. First ploughing is done in January month
and field left exposed to sun for 15 days, it help in destroying insect pest and diseases.
Second ploughing done after one month of first ploughing and at that time incorporate
well rotten FYM @ 50-60 tones/ha in soil. After that soil brought to a fine tilth by
removing the weeds and breaking the clods.
Propagation
Seed
In suitable climate conditions only single type of cultivars capable to produce seeds.
Temperature and moisture affect the sprouting of plants; 25°C soil temperature is
suitable for increase seed sprouting. Before raising seedlings bed should be prepared
by digging and incorporate 10 kg/ m2 FYM in soil. The bulb are sown in rows 10-12
cm apart and 5 cm deep in heavy soil and 2.0 cm in light soil. Seeds germinate in 10-
15 days after sowing.
Vegetative propagation
Bulb
Commercially tuberose ispropagated through bulbs. In low temperature condition bulb
goes in dormant stage in winter months. Bulb dormancy can be broken by treating the
bulbs with 4%Thiourea solution for one hour. Dormancy of bulbs can also be broke by
using ethylene chlorohydrins. Before sowing of bulbs scale should be remove from the
bulb. Size of bulb affects the quality of flowers. Spindle shaped 2.0 cm to 3.0 cmbulbs
free from diseases is suitable for planting. Smaller size bulb take 2-3 years to produce
flowering according to size of bulb. For planting in one hectare land About 1.30 - 1.60
lakh bulbs/ 10-12 tons of bulbs are required.
Division
In this method bulbnormally cut into 2-3 vertical sections, each segment must be
contain bud and a part of the basal plate. Sprouting is depends on the size of the bulbs
and only the segments from large bulbs (2 cm or more in diameter) regenerate well
(Hussain, 1999). To reduce the incidence of diseases every sections of bulb is treated
with fungicide and planted vertically in a rooting medium with their tips just showing
above the surface. Bulblets are suitable to transplant when roots develop from the
basal plate.
Micro-propagation
Micro propagation is a hi-tech method of quality planting material production. These
plants are free from the nematode and diseases.
Bulb treatment
To break the dormancy bulb dip in 4% solution of thiourea. Pre-plant storage of bulbs
at 10°C for a period of 30 days will expand the plant growth, increase number of spike
and flower yield. More number of floret, early and longer spike emergence enhance
by pre-planting treatment of bulbs with GA3, etherel or thiourea. The bulbs are first
thoroughly cleaned and treated with Bavistin (0.2%) for 30 minutes. To avoid the
disease bulb should be treated withEmisan (0.2%), Thiram (0.3%), Captan (0.2%)
or Benlate (0.2%) solution for 20-30 minutes. Bulbs should be treated with systemic
fungicide before planting and contact fungicide before storing. Drying the treated bulb
in shade before planting or storing.
Planting
Planting density effect the quality of tuberose. For fetching high economic returns,
bulbs are planted at spacing of 30 x 20 cm or 20 x 20 cm (Yadav et al., 1983) or 30 x
30 cm (Nagaraja et al., 1999) with 5.0 to 7.0 cm depth. Close spacing 20 x 10 can also
used for planting.Depth of bulb depends on the size of bulb and type of soil. Planting
is done in sandy soil deeper than the clay soil (Yadav et al., 2002). For one acre land
45,000 - 55,000 bulbs are required. It is planted in January-March in the plains and
in April-May in the hills. In southern parts of India it is planted in the month of July-
Tuberose 297
August. In West Bengal planting done in 1st week of April and in Bangalore planting
can be done throughout the year. Highest yield of spikes and flowers of cv. Single
recorded when bulbs are planted in the month of April.
Nutrient Management
Manure and fertilizers is require for fulfill the nutritional requirement of plant for their
good yield and quality production. High dose of, N and P markedly promotes leaf and
bulb formation but high dose of N make the plant soft and vulnerable to wind and the
plants become more susceptible to diseases and pests. Ideal fertilizer dose are FYM
(20 tonnes/ha), a fertilizer dose of 200 kg N, 150 kg P2O5 and 150 kg K2O per hectare
is recommended for tuberose production (Singh and Sisodia, 2017). The half dose of
N and full dose of P and K has to be applied at the time of planting and the remaining
half of N is apply in three split dose such as 30, 60, 90 days after sowing.
Water Management
Water management has vital role quality production of flowers. For enhance sprouting
irrigate the field before sowing and further irrigation should be skip till the bulb sprout.
Drainage facility must for this crop because too much moisture results in the rotting
of bulbs and similar condition during flowering adversely affects the development of
spikes and flowers. Tuberose is irrigated at one week interval in summer and 10 days
interval in winter months.
Earthling up and Staking
Earthling up should be done up to 10-15 cm high at the stage when plant height reaches
upto 20-25 cm. To prevent the plant from lodging staking is done by bamboo stick or
iron angles and string or rope may be tied in three rows along the plant.
Weed management
Weed infestation create problem in growth of plants and reduces the yield. Frequent
manual weeding is effective but it is very laborious and increases the cost of cultivation.
To pull the weeds and loosen the soil hoeing between plants is necessary practice. Pre-
emergence application of Gramaxone at 3 lit/ha or Diaron at 3kg/ha and ATP+CIPC
mixture 2.0+1.5 Kg/ha, effectively controlled weeds in tuberose field.
Plant growth regulators
Growth regulator has vital role for acceleration of vegetative and reproductive stage
(Vendrame et al., 2005). Foliar application of GA3 at 50 to 100 ppm thrice at 40, 55
and 60 days after planting is found to be beneficial. Application of both together CCC
at 5000 ppm and GA3 at 1000 ppm results in early flowering, increased flower stalk,
number of flower florets production and improves the quality of flowers (Mandal et
al., 2018).
Harvesting of flowers
Harvesting is a very important culture technique, it should be done at proper stage and
time, otherwise economical loss increases.Flowering started within 3-4 month after
planting in the month of July but peak flowering appear in August-September. It takes
25-30 days in opening of flower bud after emergence of flower.It produces flowers
throughout the year in Calcutta and Bangalore. Peak period of flowering in Northern
plains is June to December. Tuberose should be harvest when lower pair of flowers
is fully open as a local market and as distant market lower flower buds has just burst
(Prasad et al., 2016). Harvesting should done in early morning or evening by a sharp
knife above 4-6 cm from ground.
Ratoon cropping
For taking ratoon crop after harvesting the main crop,the flower stalks are cut to the
base. About 3-4 ratoon crops can be taken from a single planting. Plots should be well-
manured and irrigated for ratooning. To stimulate appropriate growth and development
of plants, fertilizer dose as given in the main crop should be applied in two equal split
doses in January-February and April. All agronomical practices should be follow as in
case of main crop. Ratoon crop gives early flowering as compared to main crop. The
ratoon crop results in more number of spikes but reduces number of florets, length of
spikes and weight of flowers. Therefore, ratoon crop should be used only for loose
flowers or oil extraction purpose.
Harvesting of bulb
Bulb takes 7-8 months for maturity and at this time flowering is over and plant growth
ceases. Old leaves become dry before digging out the bulbs. Irrigation is stop before
few days of digging the bulbs and soil is allowed to dry before uprooting. The leaves
are cut at the ground level and bulbs are taken out from the soil by digging with spade
without damage the bulb. Adhering soil should be cleaned and store them in suitable
place.
Curing and storage of bulb
After harvesting bulbs are shorted and graded depends on the size and placed on
shelves to cure. Curing process enhance by maintain temperature 27 to 35 °C. To avoid
the fungal infection position of bulbs should be change in every few days. Hanging of
the bulb on walls by tie dozen of bulb together in small cord. Storage of bulb should be
done in shady, well aerated place. Storage of the bulb at 30 °C for 6 weeks promote the
production of commercial size bulb. Longer storage duration deteriorate the quality of
the spike and also reduce number of bulbs.
Yield
Yield is always depends upon variety, bulb size, planting time and density of plants.
A well-managed crop produces 2-4 lakhs / ha spikes and 10-15 ton / ha loose flowers.
In addition, 18-30 tonnes/ha of bulbs produced by tuberose (Singh and Sisodia, 2017).
Harvesting of bulb after 3 year gives 21.3 ton bulb (Yadav et al.,1983).
The yield of tuberose single type variety is observed 100-140q/ha in the first two
years in third year yield was recorded 90q / ha. In all three years approximate yield
is observed 30q/ha. However cut flower spike are obtained 500 thousand in first year,
Tuberose 299
550 thousand in second year and 310 thousand in third year. After three years crop is
again planted. The concrete yield is obtained 27.5kg.
Post-harvest handling and packaging
Loose flowers
Loose flowers graded according to the size and packed in bamboo baskets capacity
of about 10-15 kg flowers. It is transported to the local market where they are sold by
weight. Proper humidity should be maintained by spraying of water time to time if it
is transported in distant market.
Cut flower
Field heat is remove by placing the spikes in water just after harvesting. Grading
should be done for cut flowers purpose depend upon colour, number of floret, length
of the spike, injury of the spike, weight of spikes. Length of single type spike is 90-120
cm and it contains 20-25 flowers. Double type varieties have 75-95 cm long spike and
contain 40-50 flower per spike. After that round bundles made and each having about
100 sticks. The stem portion of the bundles is wrapped in wet newspaper sheets. The
bundle of flower should be covered in soft, white tissue paper or polythene to avoid
damage. Bundle place in two parallel rows, paper waste should be place in between the
bundle to avoid bruising injury. For long distance transportation corrugated cardboard
boxes are more suitable. Size of box is very according to length of spike. Length of the
box should be about twice the width and its width about twice the height. For single
type flower size of box is 130× 60 ×30cm and for double type spike size of box is 100×
50 × 30cm.
Vase life
Shelf life increases by dipping the spike in pulsing solution before packing, it
containing 200 ppm silver nitrate (AgNO3) and 4mM silver thiosulfate STS (Bakash
et al., 1999) or solution containing sucrose 2% + 8 HQC (200 ppm) + AgNO3 (50 ppm)
(Sudagar et al., 2010) and later bundles packed in the card-board boxes and shipped
by air to reach the destination quickly.Cut spikes can be store at 7-10 ˚C temperature
for 3-5 days (Bhattacharjee and De, 2010). The solution of Benzimidazole, SADH,
Ascorbic acid and 8-HQC is very effective for opening of flower of tuberose spikes
and enhancing the vase life of flowers (Pathak,1981).
Disease
Flower bud rot (Erwinia sp.): It is a bacterial disease, it cause dry rotting of the
buds with brown necrotic discoloration of peduncles. The diseased plants should be
uprooted and destroyed. The disease can be controlled by the spray of Streptomycin
(0.01%).
Leaf blight (Botryliselliptica): This fungus seriously damages the leaves. Application
of ammoniacal copper @ 0.2% or Greeno @ 0.5% for 15 days intervals help in control
the disease.
Alternaria leaf spot (Alternariapolyanthi): It is a very common disease which

adversely affect the yield. The symptom of the disease is appearance of brown spots
with faint concentric rings on the mid-rib. The disease can be controlled by the spray
of Bordeaux mixture @ 0.4% or Zineb 0.5%. Spraying of mancozeb or iprodione @
0.2% also help in controlling this disease(Singh and Sisodia, 2017).
Stem rot (Sclerotiumrolfsii): The main symptom of the disease is prominent, coarse
and mycelia masses appear on the leaf surface or near the soil level and later this sport
enlarge and cover whole leaves. Leaves become yellow, droop and finally dried up
and fall down. Application of brassicol@ 1 % or Zineb 0.20% thiram @ 0.2% help in
controlling this fungus.
Insect pests
Grasshopper: This insects feed on young leaves and flower buds. Application of
insecticide such as 0.1 % Roger or 0.1 % Malathion for fortnightly interval reduces
the incidence of grasshopper.
Aphids: It is very small in size, soft bodied, green, deep purple or black colour insect
which is feed on the flower buds and growing points. These pests may be controlled
by spraying 0.1 % Malathion or dimethoate at 10-day interval.
Nematodes: Nematode is the very noxious pest among the others pest. Extremely
damage cause by root-knot nematodes, reniform nematode and greasy streak nematode.
It cause stunted plants growth and extensive yield losses. It reduces the leaf size,
flowers look sickly andfinally the roots rot. Application of Thimet or Furadan at 25
kg/ha or carbofuran 3-5 kg/ha, neem cake 1.5 tonne/ha controls nematode infestation.
Red Spider Mites: It is mainly appear in hot and dry condition and can be seen at
lower surface of the leaves. Mites are usually red or brown in colour and multiply very
fast. It is suck plant sap, result formation of yellow stripes and streaks on the foliage
and stunted the plant growth. Application of Kelthane @ 1.2% con. is effective to
control the mites (Singh and Sisodia, 2017).
References
Anonymous. 2013. www.nhb.com.
Bakash, A., Khan, A.M., Ayub, A., Shah, M.A. and Afzal, M. 1999.Effect of various chemicals
on the vase life and quality of cut tuberose flower. Pak. J Bot., 2:914-916.
Bhattacharjee, S.K. and De,L.C. 2010. Advanced Commercial Floriculture. Aavishkar
Publishers, Distributors, Jaipur.
Hussain S. 1999. Effect of bulb size and depth of planting on growth and flowering of tuberose
(Polianthestuberosa L.) cv. single. M.Sc. Thesis. Dept. Horticulture, Univ. Agriculture,
Faislabad, Pakistan.
Mandal, M.,Maitra, S. and Mahata, D. 2018. Production technology of tuberose
(Polianthestuberosa L.) cultivation.Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 7(6):
2360-2364.
Nagaraja, G.S., Gowda, J.V., Narayan and Farooqui, A.A. 1999. Effect of planting densities on
growth and flowering in tuberose (Polianthestuberosa L.) cultivar ‘Single’. Mysore J of
Agril. Sci., 33(2):206-209.
Pathak, S. 1981. Ph.D thesis ,University of Burdwan ,West Bengal.
Tuberose 301
Sadhu, M.K., and Bose, T.K. 1973. Tuberose for most artistic garlands. Ind. Hort. 4:159-164.
Singh, A.K. and Sisodia, A. 2017. Textbook of Floriculture and Landscaping, New India
Publishing Agency, New Delhi. p. 418.
Singh, K.P. 1995. Improved production technologies for tuberose (Polianthestuberosa L.).
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Hessargarhatta, Bangalore. Rev. Res. India.,
7:1996-1998.
Sudagar, I.P., Sankarnarayannan, R. and Aruna, P. 2010. Effect of chemicals in increasing the
vase life of tuberose cultivars. Asian J Hort., 4:421-423.
Usman 2013. Marketing of Cut-Flowers: A case study of district Kasur. M.Sc. (Hones.) Thesis
(unpublished). Inst. Agric. Res. Econ. Univ. Agri., Faisalabad.
Vendrame, A.W., Maguire, I. and Moore, K.K. 2005. Growth of selected bedding plants as
effected by different by different compost percentages. Florida State Hort. Soc., 18:368-
371.
Yadav, L.P., Bose, T.K. andMaiti, R.G. 1983. Response of tuberose (Polianthestuberosa L.) to
nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization. Indian Agric., 28(1):53-62.
Yadav, L.P.,Maiti, R.G. andBose, T.K. 2002. Tuberose. In Bose, T.K., Yadav, L.P., Pal, P., Das,
P. and Parthasarathy, V.A. (ed.) Commercial flowers Vol 1stNayaProkash, Culcutta, p. 624.
21
Bird of Paradise and Heliconia
K. Nihad
Zingiberales is an important order in Kingdom Plantae with eight families in which

most of them are important as far as commercial horticulture is concerned. The order
includes fruits (bananas and plantains), spices (ginger, turmeric, cardamom), medicinal
(arrowroot, galangal) and ornamental (Heliconias, Bird of Paradise, Marantas, Canna,
Costus, etc) plants. Among the ornamental zingiberales, plants of Strelitziaceae and
Heliconiaceae are gaining popularity for its aesthetic preferences and marketable
cut flowers. The unique colour and enhanced vase life of inflorescences makes them
as flowers of choice. The plants of other families such as Marantaceae, Cannaceae,
Costaceae, Zingiberaceae, Lowiaceae and Musaceae are also gaining momentum in
floriculture business for their cut foliages and inflorescences. Some plants such as
calathias are admired as potted plants and for indoor gardening.
Heliconia Society International (HSI), USA is the official International Cultivar
Registration Authority (ICRA) for the genera Heliconia, and related ornamental
Zingiberales. HSI sponsors students’ grant program supporting research projects
on aspects of the botany and horticulture of ornamental Zingiberales conducted by
graduate and post-doctoral students (https://www.heliconia.org/).
Phylogenic tree of order Zingiberales

Bird of Paradise
Introduction
Bird of paradise (BOP) belongs to Strelitziaceae family of Order Zingiberales. The
plant gets its name from the beautiful inflorescences resembling the head of brightly
coloured bird. The genus Sterlitzia includes around five species of monocot plants.
Among the species, S.reginae is a commercially grown ornamental plant for its cut
flower and foliage. The inflorescence resembles the head of a crane-like tropical bird
with orange wings and deep-blue beak. In India, the plant is grown in sub-temperate to
sub-tropical regions like Himachal Pradesh, Darjeeling, and Western Ghats etc.
Importance and uses
The crop is widely grown in gardens for aesthetic purpose. The cut flower and foliage
of S. reginae are much preferred items in tropical flower arrangements due to its longer
vase life and unique brilliant speck of colours.
Origin: It is a native of subtropical coasts of South Africa.
Taxonomy
Sterlitzia sp. are evergreen rhizomatous monocot perennials. It has an underground
stem (rhizomes) with clump-forming pseudo stems. Mature stumps attain 120- 150
cm height with a plant spread of 90 -150 cm. The leaves arise spirally from the base
of clump in a fan-like pattern. The leaves are thick, fleshy, concave and oblong with
bluish green midrib. The leaf lamina is about 15 cm wide and 45 cm long. The leaf
lamina are grayish green in colour with smooth waxy texture. The inflorescences are
produced above the canopy level. The flowers are enclosed in large boat-shaped spathe
which opens and emits bright coloured sepals and petals. Each inflorescence stalk has
six or more florets with orange sepals and blue petals enclosing stamen and style. The
petals of the flower are arranged in dissimilar patterns which are erect and pointed like
a bird’s beak. It has five stamens and a three-celled ovary with many seeds.
Sterlitzia reginae (Crane flower): popularly grown for cut flower purpose with bright
orange and blue flower heads.
S. reginea var. Juncea: This variety has sword-like leaves with smaller flowers
Strelitzia nicolai (Giant bird of paradise): It resembles the traveler’s palm (Ravenala
madagascariensis) but with a smaller stature. The leaves are arranged in fan-like
pattern with leaf scars on the trunk. The flowers are white in colour with blue beaks.
Other species are Sterlitzia nugusta, Sterlitzia kewensis, and Sterlitzia candida.
Studies conducted at ICAR-IIHR (ICAR-IIHR Annual Report 2008-09)
Forty-four genotypes of Bird of Paradise (Strelitzia reginae) are evaluated for growth,
yield and floral characters. The mean values were 128 cm for plant height with 140
leaves and 22 dichotomous branches. Inflorescence-length was 83.09 cm with 4.31
Bird of Paradise and Heliconia 305
cm stem diameter. Month wise inflorescence yield was recorded and the yield was
maximum during September month. Number of florets per inflorescence ranged from
6.2 to 11.8.
Climate
Bird of Paradise is a sub-tropical ornamental plant. Its flowering is directly related
to atmospheric temperature. It prefers a temperature range of 17-270C. At higher
temperature it promotes leaf production in the expense of flowering. It comes up well
under open field conditions .Flower production is adversely affected when grown
under shade. Too much exposure to sunlight, especially during summer months, may
result in leaf scorching.
Studies conducted at ICAR-CPCRI during 2014-19 showed that under tropical humid
condition it takes around three years for flower initiation. The flowering is triggered
only when the day temperature is below 300C. Flowering season in this agro climatic
condition is from July to November (Nihad et al., 2019).
Soil
It can be grown in all types of soil but the plant prefers moist organic rich soils with
good drainage. If grown in soils with low organic content, care should be taken for
supplying additional dose of organic manures. Soil temperature is one of the key
factors affecting the growth of Bird of Paradise. Being a subtropical ornamental, the
soil temperature should be kept below 30 to 35 0C. This can be maintained through
addition of coir pith compost @ 2kg/plant during October- November. Drip irrigation
can be given for ensuring the soil moisture especially during summer seasons.
Propagation
Mature rhizomes are commonly used as planting material. Seedlings take three to five
years for flowering where as plants grown from divisions will flower in one or two
years.
Planting
For commercial cultivation, Bird of Paradise can be planted at 60 cm x 60cm spacing.
Rooted rhizomes are planted in pits of size 60 cm x 60 cm x 60cm filled with top soil,
sand and organic manure (1:1:1). It can be planted throughout the year except during
heavy rains.
Manures and fertilizers
Bird of Paradise is a heavy feeder plant which require nitrogen, phosphorous and potash
in equal proportion. Commercially available complex fertilizer mixtures like 17:17:17
or 18:18:18 can be used for this purpose. The plants are supplied with NPK mixtures
@ 5g/plant in fortnightly intervals from third month after planting. Application of
slow release manures such as neem coated urea is recommended, as leaf scorching
is observed in plants supplied with excess quantity of fertilizers. Mulching the plant
basin with well rotten organic mulches like coir pith compost during January-February
is ideal. It provides essential micronutrients, conserves moisture and reduces weed

growth.
Irrigation
During summer months irrigation is applied twice a week. The soil should be moist and
free from water logging. Drip irrigation is preferred during commercial cultivation.
The dried flowers will remain in the plant for longer time. For enhanced flowering,
periodic pruning of senile flowers and leaves is recommended. In commercial
plantations, staking is done by tying with two to three strings of rope along the rows
of plants supported by GI pipes.
Harvesting and yield
Harvesting is done by gently pulling the flower stems. The inflorescences are harvested
when the florets starts opening and bends at 90o angle with the stem. For longer
transportation, harvesting can be done at tight bud stage prior to floret emergence from
the spathe. A healthy plant produces more than 10-15 marketable flowers in a year.
The harvested inflorescences are dipped in water for about an hour to remove field heat.
The flower stem is trimmed (60 -80 cm length) using a sharp knife after submerging
its bottom in water for preventing the clogging of conducting vessels. The longer the
flower stem more will be the vase life. The cut end of the stem is wrapped with moist
cotton swab, packed in paper boxes (120 x 30 cm) and stored at 8°C temperature. The
vase life can be enhanced by dipping the cut flowers in solution of 10 % sucrose + 250
ppm 8-HQC + 150 ppm citric acid for 48 hours.
Pests
The major pests of Bird of Paradise are mealybugs, scale insect, aphid and white flies.
Control: Spraying with 5% neem oil is suggested.
Diseases
Root rot (Thielaviopsis basicola, and Rhizoctonia sp.) due to water stagnation is the
major problem in Bird of Paradise.
Control: Drenching with Hexaconazol 1ml/l is recommended.
Heliconia
Introduction
Heliconias is a large genus of ornamental monocots belonging to Heliconiacea family
of Order Zingiberales. Heliconia takes its name from the Greek word helikonios
representing Mount Helicon, the home of ancient Greek gods. The genus is made up
of about 200 species including a variety of hybrids and cultivars. Flower production
in Heliconia is related to the rate of vegetative growth as well as plant density. The
marketable flower yield varies with nutrient content of the growing medium and light
intensity.
Importance and uses
Heliconia plants are grown mainly for commercial cut flower purpose. The inflorescences
have 10-12 days of vase life and can be used in stage decorations, bouquet making and
long flower arrangements etc. Among the tropical flowers, Heliconia is outstanding
for its diversity in form, colour, size and particularly, its durability (Rodrigues, 2008).
Apart from the use as cut flowers many species are suitable for landscaping as well.
The main criteria used by the farmers for Heliconia inflorescence are the number of
open bracts and the length of the inflorescence stem (Costa et al, 2006b). According to
Powell (1991), Heliconia flowers could be cut when two or three bracts are open, but
tighter flowers could also be used effectively in floral arrangements.
The harvesting stage of inflorescence is very important for fetching higher market
price as it will not open further once it is removed from the mother plant. The flower
characters of H. stricta is classified based on the stages of opening (Nihad, 2013).
Inflorescences can be marketed from the flower opening Stage I to III which will take
15 to 20 days. Hence, these flowers are lesser subjected to vagaries in market as the
harvesting can be delayed up to three weeks.
Just Emerged to Just Opened (Stage I to II)
The days taken for the inflorescence from just emerged from terminal end of pseudostem
(Stage I) to just opened stage (Stage II). The inflorescence is deep red in colour.
Just Opened to Fully Opened (Stage II to III)
The days taken for the inflorescence peduncle to emerge and elongate resulting in
complete opening of inflorescence (Stage III).
Longevity of Flower (Stage III to IV)
The days taken for fully opened flower to senescence (Distinct loss of color, with
bracts going from dark red to blackish).It is taken as the
The developmental stages of Heliconia hirstutella inflorescence has also been
documented (Ballah and Starr, 2010). The opening characters were classified into six
stages. Each of these can be further subdivided into two sub-stages, which varied in
their distinctness among the stages.
Stage 1. Emergence: Inflorescence emerged from terminal end of pseudostem.
Peduncle was not visible, bracts still closed without nectar secretion. Inflorescence
was reddish-orange.
1A. Tip of bract one was visible.
1B. Bract one fully emerged.
Stage 2. Elongation: Peduncle emerged and elongated. Inflorescence rotated relative
to axis of pseudostem. Bracts remained closed and were bright reddish-orange. Nectar
droplets appeared on cheek of basal bracts.
2A. Peduncle began to appear and elongate, elevating inflorescence away from
pseudostem. Inflorescence orientation was parallel to axis of peduncle.
2B. Inflorescence rotated to angle of 45-90° from axis of peduncle. Bract two starts
to emerge.
Stage 3. Opening of first bracts: Nectar droplets appeared on all bracts. Flowers and
fruits appeared. Inflorescence had bright reddish-orange with some yellow.
3A. Bracts began to open, bracts one and two unfurled, each with droplets of nectar.
At least one flower was present in either or both of these bracts. Immature fruit was
present in bract one only.
3B. Bracts three and four unfurled, with nectar droplets. Flowers were present in all
bracts with immature fruit. Mature fruit were seen only in bracts one and two.
Stage 4. Inflorescence opened completely: Flowers and fruits were visible in all
bracts, with dried pedicels in bracts one to four. No nectar secretion was seen on bracts
one and two. Bracts were brick red-orange.
4A. Bracts five to six unfurled. Flowers were visible in all bracts, with fruits at all
stages of maturity. Pedicels were seen only in bracts one to four. Nectar droplets were
seen in bracts three to six.
4B. All bracts fully unfurled.
Stage 5. Early senescence: New-flower production reduced, darkening of bracts and
cessation of nectar secretion occurred.
5A. Bracts darken, immature and mature fruit were present in all bracts together with
dried pedicels.
5B. Further darkening of bracts was observed which led to development of dull red to
pale orange in parts. The ratio of dried pedicels to flowers and fruits increased.
Stage 6. Full senescence: Flower production stopped entirely, with clear decay in all
parts of inflorescence. There was distinct loss of color, with bracts going from dark
red to blackish.
6A. Only mature fruit was present in some bracts.
6B. Inflorescence dried and became lifeless and its parts disintegrated
Origin
The crop is native to Central and South America and some islands of the South.
Taxonomy
Heliconia is the only genus of the family Heliconiaceae, which was formerly included
in Musaceae family. In 2003, based on the APG (Angiosperm Phylogeny Group)
system of plant classification, heliconia plants were identified as distinct from other
plant species and grouped into a separate family viz. Heliconiaceae. Heliconias
produce underground stems (rhizomes) and erect shoots. The rhizomes branch off
and produce new shoots. New branches and shoots develop from buds or eyes on
the rhizomes. The shoots are composed of overlapping leaf sheaths which make up
the above ground pseudostem and support the large leaf blades and inflorescences.
The inflorescences are modified leaves called bracts, which may be erect, pendulous
or spiraling in the shapes of bird’s beaks, lobster claws or fan shaped and colors of
reds, pinks, gold, oranges and splashes of a mixture of colours (Castro and Gonclaves,
2007). The flowers are mostly hidden by large, colourful bracts. The floral tubes are
made up of six variably fused tepals with inferior ovaries. Within the flowers are the
pollen-producing stamens and the stigma on a long style.
Berry and Kress (1991) has described a large number of heliconias with distinct floral
characters. New varieties of Helcionias are being registered as per the standards of
International Society for Horticultural Science (ISHS) and added to the gene bank
through HSI.
Heliconia is classified into different groups based on:
1. Inflorescence character
2. Growth habit
3. Phyllotaxy
Heliconia plants are categorized into two based on the inflorescence character:
a). Erect types (e.g. H. stricta ),
b). Pendent or hanging types (e.g. H. chartacea).
Based on growth habit they are classified into two:
a). Spreading types
b). Clumping types.
The spreading types fill and colonize quickly and are capable of covering a substantial
area of land in a few years. These types are mainly used for landscaping purpose. (e.g.
H. psittacorum)
The clumping types grow more slowly and new pseudo stems develop on the edge of
the clump and the centre of the clump hollows out. Most of the commercial cut flower
varieties comes under this type (e.g. H. stricta, H. chartacea).
Based on the phyllotaxy heliconias are again grouped into three:
a). Musoid: Erect leaves with long petioles like bananas
b). Zingiberoid : Horizontal leaves with short petioles resembling gingers
c). Cannoid: Intermediate with short to medium petioles supporting leaves at
about a forty degree angle, like Cannas
For cut flower industry, the species characteristics of interest are:
• Production of inflorescences during the whole year,
• Short flowering cycle,
• Light flowering stems for lower transportation costs,
• Inflorescence stems longer than 80 cm,
• Inflorescence stems with diameter thick enough for better resistance to handling
and for lighter total weight of inflorescence,
• Inflorescences with no wax and no hair; and bracts arranged in one plane for
easier handling and packing,
• Inflorescence width and length of more than one meter,
• Firmness of bract,
• Bract with few or no flowers inside,
• Post harvest durability or vase life of more than seven days.
Heliconia species of commercial interest with strong seasonal flowering periods were
noted by Criley (1999). They were H.angusta, H.bihai, H.caribaea, H.caribaea x
H.bihai, H.collinsiana, H.lingulata, H.rostrata, H.stricta, H.wagneriana whereas the
H.psittacorum cultivars and hybrids were observed as species with longer periods of
bloom. In another study by Costa et al. (2006b), the number of days between the
shoot emission and the inflorescence emission (DBSI) was observed in 10 genotypes
of Heliconia. The shortest was 105 and 45 days and the longest was 126 and 93 days
respectively.
The list of some popular commercial cutflower varieties of Heliconia in India:
Type Variety Scientific name Market value (2014-15)
(Rs. per inflorescence)
Erect type Iris** Heliconia stricta 20-30
She* H. orthotricha 20-25
Sunrise* Heliconia stricta 25-30
Jaquinii H.caribaea x H.bihai 45-50
Kawauchi* H.bihai X H.caribaea 40-50
Caribbean H.caribaea 60-70
Pendant type Sexy Pink Heliconia chartacea 50-60
Nihad et al., 2016 ,* Suitable for commercial cultivation in coconut plantations (Nihad et al.,
2018), ** Variety suitable for intercropping in highly shaded (more than 60%) plantations
(Nihad et al., 2019)
Loges et al. (2006) studied in detail the floral traits of 18 Heliconia genotypes from the
Heliconia Germplasm Collection of Federal Rural University of Pernambuco State.
The genotypes were H. psittacorum L.f. X H. spathocircinata Aristeguieta cv. Golden
Torch Adrian; H. psittacorum L.f. x H.spathocircinata Aristeguieta cv. Alan Carle; H.
psittacorum L.f. cv. Strawberries & Cream; H. psittacorum L.f. cv. Suriname Sassy;
H. psittacorum Red Opol; H.pseudoaemygdiana L. Em. & Em; H. psittacorum Red
Gold; Heliconia x nickeriensis Maas & de Rooij; H. latispatha Benth (orange); H.
latispatha Bentham cv Yellow Gyro; H. rauliniana; H. latispatha Benth cv. Distans;
H.rostrata.; H. rostrata; H. wagneriana Peters; H. bihai (L.) L. cv. Kamehameha; H.
psittacorumx H. spathocircinata Aristeguieta cv. Golden Torch and H. bihai. Number
of days from inflorescence emission to harvesting (DIH), fresh weight of stem (FWS),
number of leaves in the stem at inflorescence emission (NLI), diameter of stem at 20
cm under the inflorescence (DI), stem length (SL) and inflorescence length (IL) are
some important traits to be considered for genotype selection. The inflorescences were
harvested when they had two to four open bracts. Significant (5%) difference was
observed for all the traits among genotypes. The DIH ranged from 14 to 23 days. This
information was important to help the growers on planning the harvesting program
according to the species cultivated. The FWS varied from 40 to 360 g and the DI 18 to
34mm. The SL ranged from 56 to 125cm, and the IL from 15 to 87 cm.
According to Syvertsen et al., (1995), the amount of light absorbed by a leaf, and
the diffusion pathway of CO2 through its tissues depended, at least partially, on its
thickness. Negative relationships between leaf thickness and growth rates (Poorter,
1990) and photosynthetic rates (Enriquez et al., 1996) have been observed and thicker
leaves were associated with increased longevity (Mediavilla et al., 2001). White and
Montes (2005) reported that leaf thickness was often used as a tool to screen species
and/or cultivars for productivity.
Climate
Heliconias are well adapted to all major agro climatic zones of India. The genus is
made up of about 100 species along with a large number of hybrids and cultivars. At
optimal temperatures of 21-35°C, a flower can be harvested 8-9 weeks after emergence
of the shoot. At temperatures below 21°C, growth rate is reduced proportionally until
10°C is reached. At this temperature all growth stops and cold damage symptoms
appear, first as small black spots on the floral rachis near the point of bract attachment,
and eventually as blackening of the entire inflorescence and necrosis of the foliage.
Broschat et al., (1984a) reported that the growth and flowering of some Heliconias such
as H. psittacorum were known to be limited by light-intensity. Yet some other species
appear better adapted to slightly shaded conditions and were easily injured under full
sunlight in the tropics (Criley,1995). Heliconia stricta can be grown from open to 40%
shade (Berry and Kress, 1991). Under 50% shade, H. stricta plants produced fewer
number of flowers (Broschat and Svenson, 1994) in temperate condition where as the
variety Iris grows well under 60-65% shade under coastal humd tropical condition
(Nihad et al, 2019). Eventhough, Heliconia psittacorum plants grown under 30%
shade cloth had a lower total yield of flowers they produced longer stems, bigger
flowers of better quality and a higher marketable yield (Powell, 1991). H. angusta was
found mainly in shaded places, forming smaller shoots, about 0.70 m in height inside
the forest, while those found at the border of the forest reach about 1.75 m (Simao
and Scatena,2001). Plant height, leaf number, leaf area, number of suckers, number of
spikes, no.of flowers/ bract and vase life were the highest in 25% shade followed by
50% shade in many shade loving Heliconias (Sheela, 2008).
Flower production in Heliconia psittacorum increased as fertilizer rate increased and
was substantially greater under full sunlight than 63% shade (Broschat and Donselman,
1983b;Manarangi et al., 1988).According to Kress (1990), Heliconia species found in
open areas achieve a larger size than those species restricted to shaded areas. This fact
probably was due to the difference in the light intensity and to the degree of vegetative
competition that occured among the different species in these habitats (Stiles, 1975).
According to Broschat and Svenson (1994), plants grown in open condition had more
inflorescences than those in shaded condition, possibly due to abortion of flower buds
under suboptimal light intensity.
The mean maximum height of species growing within 15o of the equator (7.8 m) was
29 times greater than the height of species between 60 and 75 oN (27 cm), and 31 times
greater than the height of species between 45and 60 oS (25 cm). There was no evidence
that the latitudinal gradient in plant height was different in the northern hemisphere
than in the southern hemisphere (P =0.29). A 2.4 fold drop in plant height at the
edge of the tropics (P =0.006) supported the idea that there might be a switch in plant
strategy between temperate and tropical zones (Moles et al., 2009).
More shoots, however, were produced at the higher photosynthetic photon flux (PPF)
level (10.1 compared with 8.3 shoots). The duration from emergence of shoot to the
appearance of inflorescence was significantly less at 32oC day/20oC night than at 24oC
day/20oC night (140 and 146 days, respectively) and was unaffected by PPF. This
duration also was significantly affected by the interaction effects of order of shoot
appearance and the number of leaves subtending the inflorescence. The second shoot
to emerge had the shortest duration from shoot emergence to inflorescence emergence.
The number of leaves subtending the inflorescence increased at higher temperature
and decreased as rate of shoot production increased but was unaffected by PPF (Catley
and Brooking, 1996).
Soil
Heliconia, being an under storey forest crop, requires soils rich in organic matter with
good drainage. But through adequate nutrition, it can be grown commercially even
in soils low in organic matter. Studies conducted at ICAR-CPCRI, Regional Station,
Kayamkulam where the soils are sandy loam of the order Entisol with very low organic
matter (less than 0.2%), reveals that addition of organic matter through vermicompost
can enhance the growth and performance of the crop (Nihad,2013). Mulching with coir
pith compost or farm waste is recommended during summer season for maintaining
the soil moisture status. The plants cannot tolerate water logging continuously for
more than five days. Care should be taken for providing proper drainage during rainy
season. Most of the varieties prefer soils with less clay content, but according to
Heliconia growers of India, psittachorum varieties come up even in clayey type soils.
Propagation
For clumping types, rhizomes taken from seven months old healthy vegetative sucker
are used for planting. Before planting, the leaves are removed and the rhizomes are
trimmed (around 1m length) with a slanting cut using a sharp knife. For spreading
types, rooted rhizomes with two to three leaves are used for planting.
Planting
Planting can be done throughout the year except during winter and heavy monsoon
seasons. However, ideal time for planting is from August to November. The rhizomes
are planted in pits (30 cm x 30 cm x 30 cm) after filling with top soil mixed with dried
cow dung (1 kg/pit) and bone meal (250 g/pit). Mulching with dried leaves or coir pith
is done after planting. Depending on species, rhizomes start sprouting at 25 to 45 days

after planting.
At least 250 plants are needed for starting commercial cultivation. When grown as
intercrops, care should be taken for leaving the root zone of main crop so as to avoid
competition for water and nutrients. If planted in coconut gardens, rhizomes are to be
planted at 1 to 1.5 m apart, leaving a distance of two meter around the coconut basins.
It can also be planted in the interspaces of rubber plantations or as a component crop
in multi species cropping system.
Heliconia can be grown either as purely organic or integrating organic manures and
chemical fertilizers. The manures and fertilizers are applied at quarterly intervals
beginning from three months after planting. For organically grown Heliconia, 200
g vermicompost and 100 g neemcake are applied per plant at three months interval.
Half the dose of vermicompost and neemcake (100 g and 50 g per plant) along with
13:5:13 NPK (5 g/plant) can be given at three months interval for integrated method
of cultivation (Nihad et al., 2013). For soils low in organic matter, drenching diluted
cow dung slurry in the ratio of 1:10 at six monthly intervals enhances the production
of quality inflorescence.
Ferreira and Pires (2005) studied in detail about the growth and flowering of
Heliconia. Increased vegetative growth delayed flowering in Heliconia. Delay in
floral initiation resulted in the development of additional leaves. Heliconias responded
satisfactorily to application of fertilizers resulted in vigorous plants with increased
size of inflorescences. Phosphorus and potassium positively influenced increase in the
length of buds in H.psittacorum “St. Vincent Red.” According to Clemens and Morton
(1999), The number of shoots and flowers produced per rhizome were maximum at
low N to K ratio (1:1).
Nutrient deficiency symptoms: Leaf yellowing with marginal necrosis is the common
symptom noticed in Heliconia during nutrient and water stress (Nihad et al., 2018).
During initial growth phases, H. stricta is prone to K deficiency which can be managed
through one time application of MOP @ 60g/plant.
The critical nutrient level in Heliconia leaves of spreading (var. Parrot) and clumping
(var. Pink lobster claw) types was estimated from University of Hawaii (Uchida, 2000)
is listed below;
Elements N P K Ca Mg S B Fe Mn
Unit (%) (ppm)
var.Parrot 1.67- 0.27- 1.72- 0.75- 0.33- 0.36- 10-15 30-40 26 -93
1.79 0.38 2.13 0.81 0.38 0.39
var. Pink lobster 2.34 0.27 1.77 1.34 0.75 0.3 09 3.8 142
claw
Irrigation
Heliconia plants always require moist soil. It needs to be irrigated once in two days
during summer. The frequency of irrigation can be reduced to once in four days by
providing mulching with coir pith compost during February-March
Regular weeding is required till eight months after planting. Thinning of eight months
old suckers with less than 7 cm diameter should be carried out monthly for promoting
production of more number of quality inflorescences. Old and senile leaves and
inflorescences are to be removed at periodic interval for promoting more flowering.
Depending on species Heliconia starts flowering from four to eight months after
planting. The harvesting is usually done after 4 pm by cutting the rhizome at ground
level along with the inflorescence. After cutting, the outer leaves are to be stripped off
and the top most leaf blades are cut leaving the petiole.
The average harvesting interval (interval between emission of inflorescence bud and
the harvesting day) varied from 14 and 4 days (Hybrid Golden Torch) to 27 and 9
days (H. bihai cv. Nappi Yellow) (Costa et al., 2009a). The number of leaves observed
at the time of inflorescence emergence may be a useful indicator for producers to
quantify the plants expected to bloom for market planning. The number of leaves on
the pseudostem at inflorescence emergence ranged from 5.13 to 6.29 in Heliconia
psittacorum (Rocha et al., 2010) and four to five leaves per shoot in Heliconia stricta
(Cabral and Benedetto, 2010).
With proper nutrition around 40 to 45 marketable inflorescences are produced in a year
from a single clump. Inflorescences of around one meter length and nine centimeter
stem girth with two or more open bracts are selected for sale. Smaller inflorescences
can be marketed through value additions such as bouquets and table top arrangements.
After harvest, the cut end of the inflorescence stem is dipped in tap water for about
an hour to remove the field heat. These are then washed in water for removing soil
and dust. The excess water is wiped off and inflorescences are graded based on their
length. Inflorescence with fewer flowers inside the bracts is ideal for marketing.
This character will reduce time and cost of cleaning, minimise occurrence of insects,
unpleasant odours from water accumulation and organic matter deterioration.
Inflorescences are graded based on their length, stem girth and spike width.
Grades Length of Stem girth Spike width
inflorescence (cm) (cm) (cm)
Grade I >100 >9 >25
Grade II 75-100 7-9 20-25
Grade III <75 <7 <20
Nihad et al., 2016
Inflorescence can either be packed individually or in bulk. Care must be taken

to exclude ants, bees etc before packing. Bulk packing needs a minimum of 45
inflorescences. Uniform grade flowers are packed in a single box. Different materials
such as aluminum foil, butter paper and news papers or recycled papers can be used
for wrapping the inflorescence.
Pests
Leaf-Feeding Insects: Hispine beetle (Chrysomelidae), leafhopper (Cicadellidae),
stinkbug (Pentatomidae), grasshopper (Orthoptera) and white flies (Aleyrodidae)
Insects infesting Pseudostem and Rhizome: Scale insects (Coccidae), mealybugs
(Pseudococcidae), Spittlebugs (Cercopidae)
Insects infesting inflorescences: Heliconia inflorescence (bracts) are infested by
a range of flower feeding Diptera, including species of Bibionidae, Drosophilidae,
Tephritidae, Richardiidae,Simuliidae, Syrphidae, Chironomidae and Sciaridae. This is
seen in plants grown in areas where there is a large source of decaying organic matter.
Management
Increased usage of nitrogenous fertilizers may result in increased pest attack. Jet
spraying with water can wash off many of the insect pests such as hoppers and white
flies. Spraying with 0.5% neem oil can be adopted in mild infested plants.
Diseases
A. Foliage diseases
1. Causal organism (Calonectria spathiphylli): Yellowing and marginal necrosis of
leaves, sheath spots and petiole blight. Rots of the sheath and petiole interfere with
water movement to the leaf, causing water stress and producing dry leaf edges. As
rots of the sheath expand, less water moves up to the leaf blade, and leaves become
yellow. Eventually the leaves die, resulting in premature loss of older leaves. The
photosynthetic capacity of the diseased plants is reduced by multiple sheath and
petiole infections affecting flower production.
Susceptible varieties: H. angusta cv. Holiday, H. bihai cv. Kamehameha and cv.
Lobster Claw One, H. caribaea cv. Purpurea, H. indica cv. Spectabilis, H. mutisiana,
H. psittacorum cv. Parakeet, H. psittacorum x H. spathocircinata cv. Golden Torch ,
H. stricta cv. Dwarf Jamaican and cv. Fire Bird, and H. wagneriana
2. Causal organism (Bipolaris incurvata): The disease begins as small, water-soaked
flecks and spots. The fungus continues to grow in the leaf tissue, and the spots enlarge.
After two weeks, many spots coalesce to form bigger (9.5 to 35 mm in diameter) spots
with oval or irregular shape with a yellow hallow. Then it turns light brown with a
darker edge and holes are formed on the leaf as diseased tissue falls out. In advanced
stages of infection, the petiole, sheath, and floral bracts are also spotted with faint
brown to purplish-red spots. Spotting of floral bracts makes flowers unmarketable.
Susceptible varieties: Heliconia stricta cv. Dwarf Jamaican, H. orthotricha, H.
chartacea, and H. mutisiana
Other fungi causing leaf diseases are: Exserohilum rostratum, Pyriculariopsis sp.,
Cercospora and Pseudocercospora sp.
A. Rhizome and root diseases
1. Causal organism (Calonectria spathiphylli) :Severe root and rhizome rots kill
plants or cause rapid plant decline. Root and rhizome rots of field heliconia start
at the center of clumps with old diseased stalks, which are dry and collapsed,
and develop outward. Root rots prevent proper anchorage, and taller diseased
heliconia cultivars are prone to toppling.
2. Causal organism (Phytophthora nicotianae): Symptoms: Diseased stems
have brown rots at the collar with rotten roots. This is a slow spreading disease.
Healthy, vigorous plants gradually decline in one to three years affecting flower
production.
3. Causal organism (Pythium sp.): It is a soil borne fungi causing rhizome and
root rot. Moisture and poor drainage greatly favour diseases caused by Pythium.
The pathogen is transported to new locations by the movement of contaminated
soil and water or infected plants
4. Causal organism ( Rhizoctonia sp.): Root rotting is noticed in Heliconia plants
due to R. solani or other Rhizoctonia species
Colletotrichum spp., Pestalotiopsis sp., Phyllosticta sp., Phomopsis sp., Acremonium
sp., and Fusarium spp. are the other fungi recovered from diseased plant parts of
heliconia.
Disease management :Use disease free planting materials. Avoid water logging and
ensure proper drainage and adequate soil moisture. Proper weeding and harrowing
of soil for air circulation to be ensured. Field sanitation/Soil solarisation can prevent
soil borne pathogens. Supply of adequate organic manure and plant nutrients helps in
maintain the plant vigour and improved disease tolerance. Use of resistant varieties in
disease prone areas.
B. Bacterial wilt
Causal organism (Pseudomonas solanacearum): Leaf rolling, marginal necrosis,
wilting and shoot die back. Leaves curl initially due to water stress caused by vascular
plugging following infection of roots and rhizomes. As the disease advances in the
rhizome, drying and browning of leaf edges occurs, followed by formation of large
patches of necrotic tissue towards the midrib. Usually, these symptoms are more
pronounced on older leaves. Eventually, the entire leaf turns dark brown with an oily
appearance, resulting in leaf loss. Within the rhizome, a dark brown discoloration of
the vascular tissue runs longitudinally down the center. Often, milky ooze is associated
with this brown vascular discoloration.
Management: Remove and destroy the infected plants is the best method for
controlling the spread of disease. Proper weeding is necessary as Pseudomonas
solanacearum survives for long periods in soil and in many weed hosts.
Prophylactic spraying with a mixture of turmeric powder and soidum bi carbonate in
10:1 (@0.15% ,twice at weekly interval) or Streptocyclin 100 ppm spray can be done
before monsoon season.
C. Nematode infestation
Plants infected by nematodes exhibit symptoms similar to those caused by water stress
and nutrient deficiency such as yellow leaves, excessive leaf curling and wilting.
The major disease symptoms are brown, rotten and swollen roots or root knots, and
root lesions. Nematode infections of roots may occur alone or in association with
pathogenic fungi such as Calonectria spathiphylli, Rhizoctonia spp., and Pythium spp.
Management: Soil solarisation can be done for managing nematode infestation.
Photos of Different Heliconia Flowers

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22
Dahlia
Simrat Singh, R. K. Dubey and K. K. Dhatt
Dahlia (Dahlia variabilis Desf., family: Asteraceae, origin: Mexico) is regarded as a

premium specialty cut flower besides its utilization for garden decoration and growing
as a potted flowering plant. The dahlia flower symbolizes elegance, inner strength,
creativity and dignity. It is herbaceous rooted perennial valued for their majestic and
attractive display of colourful spectacular flowers. The generic name “Dahlia” was
coined by Swedish botanist “Andreas Dahl”. Dahlia was introduced in India during
1857 under the auspices of the “Agri-Horticultural Society of India”, Calcutta.
Dahlia exhibit wide range of flower from and size ranging from miniatures (less than
2.5 cm across), to giant (more than 40 cm in diameter). Dahlia flowers profusely and
its easy cultivation have made these very popular worldwide. The commercial value of
this crop has been exploited in certain countries only. The Netherlands is claimed to be
the largest producer of tuberous rooted dahlias. Other countries cultivating Dahlia as a
specialty cut flower are Japan, France, South Africa, the U. K., Italy, Germany and the
United States. The commercial cultivation of dahlia in Indian subcontinent is limited
to hills and plains of Eastern India (Misra and Misra, 2017).
Holland takes the lead in dahlia bulb production cultivation neeary 400 ha, followed
by France and Chile. There are 41 international associations concerned with the
cultivation and spreading awareness about dahlia as a potential specialty cut flower and
flowering potted perennial. Societies such as National Dahlia Society in the UK, the
American Dahlia Society (ADS), other groups of New Zealand in European countries,
France and Germany have been maintaining Dahlia germplasm for developing novel
flower colour and breeding dahlias for their uniform and profuse flowering, longer
flower duration, stem sturdiness and longer vase life.
Importance and uses
Different flower forms of Dahlia are extensively used for beautification of residential
homes, garden exhibitions, flower bed decoration and as a cut flower (Bhattacharjee et
al, 2006). Dwarf types of Dahlia are excellent for raising as single or mixed borders.
Giant or large flowered decorative dahlias are suitable for pot culture in terrace garden
or for decorating the veranda. The long, sturdy stemmed Dahlia is utilized as specialty
cut flower for flower arrangements. Pompon dahlias are also good for cut flowers and
sometimes for making garlands.
The Dahlia flowers are a potential source of flavonoids (anthocyanins, butane and
flavones) as petal pigments. Cultivars evolved from the Dahlia pinnata are believed
to possess edible tuberous roots- a rich source of carbohydrates for human diet. The
inulin found in the tubers (found in inner cortex and parenchyma tissue) is a rich
source of polysaccharides that can be converted into fructose for further utilization
in pharmaceutical industry. Other useful compounds that have been isolated from
Dahlia tubers are polyacetines, tetrahydropyrans, suberine, ferulic aci and glycerol
(Moldovan et al, 2017).
Origin
Dahlia is believed to be a native of Mexico and was discovered by the Aztecs during
1570’s who named it “Cocoxoehitl”. They used to grow it as a medicinal plant as
well as a flower for worship. The plant was first mentioned by Francisco Hemandez,
physician of Philip II in 1651 and thereafter, Vincente Cervantes, Director of the
Mexico City Botanic Garden in 1789. The readers can refer to Shewell-Cooper, (1976)
for gaining insights into the history of dahlia.
Taxonomy
(Sorensen 1969) proposed the most comprehensive document on the dahlia taxonomy.
He recognized 27 species and 4 varieties of Dahlia through extensive field collections
and observations followed by cytological studies. (Willis 1966) described about 20
species of dahlias.
The genus Dahlia comprised of 35 wild species that are endemic from Mexico,
however only four of these species namely D. coccinea (single red flowers), D.
pinnata (bluish red flowers), D. merckii (lilac and yellow flowers) and D. imperialis
(white red tinged flowers) have constituted the genetic basis for the evolution and
development of modern day Dahlia cultivars. The most widely known is D. pinnata,
which is derived from a fertile hybrid between D. coccinea and D. sorensenii likely
produced in Mexico about 500 years ago (Marina, 2015). Owing to wide variation in
flower forms of Dahlia, there was need to classify the wide morphological variants
based on flower size and form. The American Dahlia Society (ADS) has classified
Dahlia into 20 “classes” (Forms) that generally represent the inflorescence type based
on shape and arrangement of ray florets (Table 1)*.
Dahlia 323
Table 1: Classification of Dahlia based on inflorescence type

Code Description Code Description
AN Anemone-flowered BA Ball
C Straight Cactus CO Collarette
FD Formal Decorative IC Incurved Cactus
ID Informal Decorative LC Laciniate
MB Miniature Ball MS Mignon Single
N Novelty NO Novelty Open
NX Novelty Fully Double O Orchid-flowering
P Pompon PE Peony-flowering
S Single SC Semi-Cactus
ST Stellar WL Water Lily
*Adapted from Washington State University (WSU), Master gardener program
Cultivars
According to Swami Vinayananda - a pioneer Dahlia breeder, around 20,000 cultivars
of Dahlia that are recognized with International of dahlia at Royal Horticultural
Society (RHS), England. Due to heterozygous and cross-pollinated nature of Dahlia,
the development of new cultivars is in progress and the evolution of varieties with
novel colour and other desirable traits is increasing every year. Around 57 DUS
characteristics have been described under European UPOV species code of Dahlia.
Some of the outstanding cultivars of dahlia based on inflorescence form that are
prominent in trade and grown throughout the world are as follows:
Flower type Cultivar name and colour
Anemone Flowered Guinea (yellow), Scarlet Comet (bright scarlet)
Dahlia
Ball Dahlia Alltamy Cherry (bright red), Blossom (pale pink), Camano Candy
(pink), Crusader (red), Dr. John Grainger (burnt orange), Risca
Miner (purple)
Cactus Dahlia Alvas Doris (bright red), Arthur Laslie (bright red), Athalie (deep
pink)
Collerette Christmas Star (red and white), Claire De Lune (yellow), Komeet
(red and buff), Mars (red), Thais (purple and white).
Decorative
Giant Decorative: African Queen (purple to crimson), Alvas Supreme (yellow),
Barbara Marshall (red), Basudev (light purple) Bhikkus Vivek
(vermilion), Blue Monarch (bluish red), Camano Titian (pink
blends)
Medium Decorative Alloway Cottage (yellow blend), April Dawn (pink and white
bleed), Bhikkus mother (orange to tan with white tips), Chitchor
(bicolour, blackish red with white tips) King Soccer (orange blend),
Lord Buddha (bicolour, scarlet with white tips)
Flower type Cultivar name and colour

Large Decorative Alden Galaxy (red), Arthur Hambly (rosy lavender), Black Out
Sport (variegated,
with blackish red stripes over petals), Islander (deep pink), Kenora
sunburst (Yellow)
Miniature Decorative Christine Hammett (apricot), Eastwin (purplish red), Elizabeth
Hammet (lavender) Delight (white with lavender bluish), Robert
Walker (purple and white blend)
Fimbriated Dahlia Cabaret (bicolour, carmine and white), Cheyenne (flame),
Phenomenon (bocolour white and pruple), Frilly Dilly (Pink)
Pompon Dahlia Andrew Lockwood (lavender), Ezar Willo (purple), Diana Gregory
(lavender and white),
Semi Cactus Dahlia Amelisweerd (pale bronze), Bob Fitzjohn (light bronze) Carol
changing (bronze yellow) Daleko Jupiter (red and yellow),
Davenport Sunlight (yellow)
Water Lily Dahlia Christopher Taylor (red), Erin Ann (pink), Island Dawn (Pink and
yellow blend)
Miscellaneous Golden Star (yellow), Jescot Julie (orange), Pink Giraffe (pink).
Dahlias are often grouped by the size of the bloom with a letter code. The following *table
mentions the letter codes and their corresponding sizes:
Code Name Size
AA Giant over 10 inches in diameter
A Large over 8 to 10 inches in diameter
B Medium over 6 to 8 inches in diameter
BB Small over 4 to 6 inches in diameter
M Miniature up to 4 inches in diameter
BA Ball over 3.5 inches in diameter
MB Miniature Ball over 2 to 3.5 inches in diameter
P Pompon up to 2 inches in diameter
MS Mignon Single up to 2 inches in diameter
*Adapted from Romer and Nelson, (2008)
Climate
For open field cultivation of dahlia, the selection of site is important. The site should
be protected from strong winds that may lodge the tender and succulent stems laden
with big blooms. A cool atmosphere free from frost is needed for proper growth and
flowering.
Dahlia plants response to varying day and night temperatures. The day length also
influences the flowering of the shoot and tuberisation of the roots. Ideal temperature
of 25° C day and 16° C night has been found desirable for the dahlia to produce
healthy and vigorous vegetative growth with quality flowers. It has been reported
that the cooler temperatures (less than 18oC) combined with short days promote tuber
formation in Dahlia. It has also been reported that the number of ray and disc florets
increased with decreasing night temperature.
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Dahlia prefers to grow under high light intensities (4500-6000 f.c.). Dahlia roots
began to from tubers in short days, therefore, rooted cuttings of Dahlia are subjected
to long days (under protected conditions) by provising 14-hr day length through night
interruption. It is always advisable to maintain 2000 f.c. of light intensity best growth
of plants.
Soil
Dahlia plants prefer a sandy loam, well drained and fertile soil rich in organic matter
with a pH range of 6 to7. Dahlia plants can be grown successfully both in pot and in
the ground.
Propagation
Dahlia plants can either be propagated from seeds, tuberous roots and cuttings.
Multiplication by grafting is possible but this is useful for preserving rare and weak
growing types. Propagation through tissue culture utilizing apical meristems as
explants may be used for producing virus-free plants.
Seed Propagation
Seed propagation is mainly followed to raise dwarf bedding single dahlia plants and
for developing new varieties. Plants developed through seeds show segregation and
a heterogeneous population. The seeds are sown after cessation of heavy rains during
September-October in the plains, and during summer in the hills. Sowing of seeds
should be done thinly on raised nursery beds or in seed pans. The seeds are covered
with a thin layer of screened leaf mould and watered through a fine rose can. Seeds
germinate in about 10 days. A temperature of 18 to 28° C has been found favourable
for germination of dahlia seeds. High temperature and low humidity conditions are
not favourable for seed germination. Seedlings grow very fast and become ready for
transplanting within 20-25 days.
Division: The dahlia plants can be propagated by division of tuberous roots each
containing a called 'heel' with 1-2 buds. As these buds are not located on the tubers but
are found on the crown (swollen portion of stem near the ground level) to which tubers
are attached, care should be taken to contain at least one bud while dividing the tubers.
After harvesting, it is therefore suggested to allow curing of the buds by placing the
harvested and cleaned roots devoid of soil in a warm, moist place for a short period
before dividing the roots. An average tubererous root weight of 80 to 120 g is optimum
for proper bud development.
Cutting: Dahlias are commercially propagated by terminal softwood cuttings. For
this purpose, the selected tuberous roots with 1-2 buds began to sprout in August when
placed in moist and well drained medium. New shoots rise from the buds at the crown
portion. The cuttings of 7 to 8 cm length with two to four pair of leaves are taken
from the healthy shoots in September-October. These cuttings are treated with IBA
powder (2500 ppm) as a quick dip to encourage faster rooting after planting in washed
coarse sand for rooting. It has been observed that the rooting characteristics such as
percentage of rooting, root number per cutting and root quality vary with the cultivars
and the climate of region.
In areas with mild climate, the cuttings can be taken from emerging shoots periodically
from July to mid-September. Swami Vinayananda has also advocated late cutting for
preservation and propagation of dahlias. In this method, the cuttings are taken from
the flowering plants and the resultant plants are subjected to a regular pinching off of
the tips to make the plants bushy and encourage many soft branches. The cutting taken
from the emerging succulent branches make quality planting material.
Grafting: Grafting is practiced for preservation of rare and weak germplasm. The
tops of tubers are given a slanting cut and desirable portion of the scion is excised to
make it compatible union with the scion. Both the stock and the scion are placed and
tied together with raffia or polythene strips. They are then carefully planted in a pot
containing a well drained potting mix.
Miller (1982) suggested two methods (French and English method) of grafting, namely
based on the technique of excising the bud from the tubers. The English method of
grafting consisted of removing the bud from the tuberous roots and replacing it with
a bud from that of another desirable cultivar. French method involves the removing
of buds giving a wedge shaped cut on the root stock and scion. These scion buds are
then placed carefully on the rootstock tubers. However, the English method of grafting
dahlia tubers was found better.
Planting
A dahlia tuber should be planted 4 to 6 inches deep from the ground level. The tubers
are planted on a slight slant taking care of the orientation of the emerging bud toward
the surface. After planting the exposed surface of the tubers are covered with 2 inches
of soil/organic matter mix. It is advisable to insert the stakes of desirable height 6-8”
from the base of the crown to support the taller plants by tying with a suitable gunny
thread.
For commercial cultivation of dahlia, the field should be dug deeply and manured
with well rotten FYM a few weeks before planting. At the time of land preparation,
organic matter comprising FYM (5 kg per square meter) should be thoroughly mixed.
Dahlia plants are responsive to the application of organic matter. In temperate regions,
poultry manure is mostly preferred, but it may reduce the keeping quality of tubers.
It has been reported that for tuber production soil should not be too fertile but should
be well drained.
According to Swami Vinayananda (1990), beds may be prepared by digging the ground
deep to a depth of 45 cm after incorporation of 6” layer of well rotten FYM. Addition
of 60 gm SSP, 30 g MOP and 150 g bone meal per square meter should be applied.
Dahlias are also grown in pots for quality flowers for exhibition purpose. A potting
mix containing equal parts of sandy loam soil, decomposed FYM and leaf mould are
mixed thoroughly on volume basis. In addition, 100 gm of mustard oil cake, pieces of
Dahlia 327
charcoal, 50 gm of sterameal and trace amount of garden lime should be mixed as a

soil amendment to improve the physic-chemical characteristics of the growing media.
Irrigation
Dahlia plants respond to deep irrigation once tubers get sprouted. Dahlia tubers are
susceptible to rot especially in damp soils. The tubers should be planted in soil at
field capacity and soil should never get dried after the tubers are sprouted and plants
began to grow. Once plants get established, a deep irrigation 2-3 times per week in the
summer is sufficient or scheduling can be done as per the prevailing climate. The soil
should never completely dry out. Drip irrigation system is also advisable to irrigate
dahlia plants that may suitably be fertilized with water soluble fertilizers through
fertigation.
Intercultural operations
Staking: Tall dahlia varieties are prone to lodging and need to be staked. Small
varieties that only grow to heights of 24 inches or less may not need staking unless
they are able to support themselves or possess strong and sturdy branches. Stakes need
to be atleast 4 - 5 feet tall or of a desirable height, depending on the mature height of
the dahlia. It is advisable to stake the dahlia right at the time of planting the tubers.
Disbudding: Dahlia plant tend to branch profusely from the lateral buds that sometime
may cause the plant to appear bushy that may affect the flowering. To promote
the uniform growth and interception of adequate light within the dahlia plant, it is
advisable to disbud and / or disbranch the plants during their active growth prior to
bud initiation.
At the onset of crown bud that is removed to give space and divert the translocation
of nutrients to developing companion buds to make the plant appear uniform in
flowering. Contrary to the above method, Disbudding may also be done to remove the
companion side buds to enable the central crown bud grow over a long sturdy stems.
The flower that develops from the crown bud will also be larger due to diversion of
applied nutrients to the developing bud.
Disbranching: Disbranching is the practice of removing the lateral branches from
a dahlia stalk to get larger and quality blooms spaced uniformly all over the plant.
Depending upon the branching habit of a particular variety, 5-8 branches are kept to
ensure uniformity and profuse flowering on the plant. The miniature dwarf varieties
need no disbranching. The size and shape of the dahlia bush is also improved
considerably if timely and need-based disbranching is done. In addition, better air
circulation is promoted which helps development of powdery mildew and other fungal
diseases. Disbranching should be done carefully to avoid bruising injury to the rest of
the plant.
Pinching: Pinching operation is done to promote shorter, bushier plants with better
stems for taking cuttings. By pinching off the main stem, the lateral buds began to
grow from the leaf axils below the pinch or cut. When the dahlia plants attain 12 -18
inches in height, pinching above the 4th or 5th full set of leaves will create a stronger,
bushy and uniform plants with more blooms. It will also make the plant less top heavy.
Deadheading: Periodic deadheading the dahlia blooms as and when they get dried
encourages more buds that flower subsequently. Dahlias will bloom profusely and
continue to give flowers from January till last week of April if periodic deadheading
is done.
Harvesting of flowers
Dahlia Flowers are harvested early in the morning or late in the afternoon at the fully
opened stage. It is advisable to cut the bloom with as long a stem as possible. After
harvest, stems are immersed in warm water of 50° C in a bucket and are kept in a cool
and dark place for conditioning.
Vase Life: The vase life of cut dahlia flowers varies between 3-5 days at 4-5 oC.
Generally, a vase solution containing 10 % sucrose + Ag NO3 (50 ppm) is effectively
used to enhance vase life of cut dahlias. Bud opening solutions can be used for opening
of immature flower buds. For long distance transportation of flowers, the stems should
be placed in water after removing all leaves to avoid bacterial contamination in vase
water that may interfere in water uptake.
Harvesting of tubers
A single dahlia tuber planted during onset of autumn (Oct) will multiply into a number
of tubers by late summer. Generally, tubers in dahlia began to develop under short
days. The tuberization in dahlia is responsive to day length. The critical day length
for tuber formation is 11-12 hrs. Dahlia plants exposed below this critical photoperiod
began to store food in the roots for tuber formation. Plants that are grown under
natural photoperiods develop more fibrous roots with greater shoot growth and later
emergence of flowers than those that are grown under short days.
After leaves of the plant tend to dry, the tops are given clean cut close to the ground
level. The field is lightly irrigated to contain adequate soil moisture but not too damp
that may cause rotting in tubers. The dahlia tubers are dig gently in clumps, cleaned
to remove any soil. The tubers are carefully separated with a sharp cut using a knife.
Care should be taken that each of the tubers must contain an eye or viable bud attached
around the crown of the “mother” plants. If the tubers are pulled off without an eye,
they tend to rot and are rendered worthless. Separated and cleaned tubers are placed in
warm well ventilated damp-proof room to let the cuts heal-over for a day or two before
these can be packed for storage. Dahlia tubers must be labeled properly with name of
the cultivar, colour etc. to ensure safe and easy identity during and after storage.
Storage of tubers
Tubers of Dahlia can be stored in layers of dry sawdust sawdust, peat moss, or coconut
coir. Tubers should not be allowed to suffocate and be placed in well ventilated room.
Under hilly conditions susceptible to frost, the dahlia tubers can be stored in a box
covered with sand or saw dust to prevent freezing injury or loss of vigour. Ideally,
tubers should be stored in a cool environment maintaining a uniform temperature of
4-7oC.
Dahlia 329
Swami Vinayananda (1983) also reported that tubers of Dahlia can be preserved in the
ground itself ensuring presence of required soil moisture after flowering is over. The
tubers in the soil should be left undisturbed, and they may sprout during Aug-Sept.
Afterwards, the tubers may be lifted for division or for taking terminal cuttings after
sprouting. In plains areas, the potted dahlia plants are shifted to the shade under large
trees after heading back the dried branches close to ground level. The tubers are left in
the pot itself (pot tubers) are kept moist to prevent from drying.
Pot cultivation of Dahlia
The pot cultivation of Dahlia is gaining popularity due to the availability of wide range
of flower forms in different colours. Dahlia being tuberous rooted, prefers porous, well
drainage soil rich in organic matter. Selection of pots is also very important. Earthen
pots of 20-30 cm diameter filled with growing media mix comprising loamy soil:
FYM: leaf mould @ 3:3:2 is considered as ideal for optimum growth and flowering.
Dahlia being a heavy feeder requires enrichment of potting media with essential
micro-nutrients. Addition of 30 g bone meal, 20 g horn meal, 15 g SSP, 5 g of SOP
per 20-25 cm pots is advisable for healthy growth and development of Dahlia. It is
desirable to add potassium (K), as dahlia has a high intake of this element, due to its
large flowers that continue to bloom for several weeks. Dahlia is quite responsive
to the application of liquid manures. A liquid mix comprising cowdung, mustard oil
cake and rotten fish given bi-weekly by diluting in equal amount of water is beneficial
for Dahlia. Foliar spray of urea may be given once a week after the establishment of
plants, and the spray can be continued till emergence of the buds. The colours of the
dahlia blooms intensity with the application of manganese sulphate, fish bile and bone
meal at weekly intervals. Once the buds began to show colour, manuring should be
stopped. Application of dihydrogen orthophosphate (0.3%) and potassium nitrate at 7
day intervals produces large-sized dahlia blooms with bright colours.
Insect pest and diseases
1. Aphids: Aphids generally act as a vector for transmitting viral diseases such
as mosaic spotted wilt. The aphids also suck the sap and affect the general
vigour of plants. Common species of aphids observed on Dahlia are Myzus
persicae, Brachycaudus helichrysi and Aphis fabae. The aphids are controlled
by spraying with 1 % metacid.
2. European Corn Borer (Pyraussta nubilalis): The young larvae bores into
succulent shoots, flower buds and feed on leaves which get distorted and turn
brown. The affected shoot tips die completely. The borers bore down within the
stems causing wilting of plant. The pest can be controlled by spraying with 1%
Dichlorovos.
3. Leaf Hoppers (Empoasca fabae): The nymphs and adults suck the sap and the
leaves turns pale yellow initially, turning brown and brittle at later stage. Spray
1 % Malathion to control leaf hoppers.
4. Beetles (Oxycetonia albopunctata): The beetles feed on developing buds and

flowers and the blooms began to show distorting. Spray with Carbaryl (0.1 %)
is effective to control this pest.
5. Thrips: Several species of thrips (Megaleurothrips distalis, Microcephalothrips
abdominalis and Thrips hawaiiensis have been reported to infest flowers. These
thrips feed on succulent tissues and flowers at full bloom. Spraying with 1 %
Malathion has been found effective to control thrips.
6. Red Spider Mite (Tetranychus urticaev) These mites are very serious pests of
dahlia damaging the foliage by feeding on the undersides of leaves, causing a
white speckling on the leaf surface. Spray with 1 % Endosulphan is effective to
control the pest.
7. Powdery Mildew: Powdery mildew (Erysiphe chicoracearum) is one of the
most important fungal diseases of dahlia. It is characterized by the development
of white or grey powdery mass on the upper surface of the leaves. The disease
is most prevalent in the early stages of plant growth and reappears at the end of
the flowering season. The disease is mainly responsible for the rotting of seed
heads.
Control: Sprays with Bavistin, Benlate (0.1 %) or wettable sulphur (0.2 %).
1. Bud and Flower Blight: This disease is caused by the fungus Botrytis cinerea.
It occurs in cool and moist climates and produces water-soaked spots on buds
and flowers. The infected areas get covered with grey-coloured mycelium and
spore growth, which ultimately become faded and turn brown in colour. It can
control by spraying with Zineb or Captan (0.2 %).
2. Stem Rot: The fungi (Sclerotinia scleroliorum) infests the main stem and
branches near the base. The young seedlings also get infected with typical
symptoms of light brown water soaked patches covered by white mycelia
growth over the infected stems. Plants ultimately wither and die. To control
stem rot, overcrowding of plants should be avoided. The potting mix may
preferably be sun exposed to kill harmful fungi.
4. Wilt: Wilt is a serious disease caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. dahliae and
Verticillum dahlia. The plants began to wilt and die due to blockage of xylem
vessels as a result of toxins produced by the fungus. Wilted plants should be
destroyed and only disease-free planting stock should be used for propagation.
5. Leaf Spot: Leaf spot caused by Cercospora grandissima and Cercospora
dahliicola. The symptoms appear in the form of angular to irregular dark brown
spots over leaves which later on coalesce, forming large patches. The disease is
more severe in humid climates. Diseased leaves and plants should be removed
and buried. Spraying with Bavistin (0.1%) or Zineb (0.2%) is effective.
Dahlia 331
Bacterial Diseases
1. Crown Gall: Crown gall caused by Agrobacterium tumefaciens. The symptoms
are characterized by irregular growth of tissue near the crown portion. Infected
plants become stunted and began to show decline. The roots of seedlings should
be dipped in Streptomycin solution prior to transplanting. Uproot the infected
plants and bury them.
2. Bacterial Wilt: The disease is caused by the bacterium Pseudomonas
solanacearum. The infected plants began to droop and wilt suddenly. The tissue
at the crown portion began to rot and start oozing yellow slimy exudates. Dip
treatment of roots in Streptomycin solution is the only remedial measure.
Viral Diseases
1. Mosaic: This is the most serious virus disease of dahlia. The leaves show
mottling and typical vein-banding symptoms. The virus is sap transmissible and
infected plant exhibit a mosaic or pale yellow appearance. It is also transmitted
by vector Aphis gossypii and Myzus persicae
References
Bhattacharjee S.K. Vinayananda S and De L.C. (2006). Dahlia. Advances in ornamental
horticulture. Vol p: 181-198
Miller, H (1982). 'Dahlia of today'.Puget Sound Dahlia Association.
Marina LJ (2015). Cultivation of Dahlia: Review. Cultivos Tropicales. Vol 36 (1), p: 103-110.
Misra, R.L and Misra, S. (2017). Dahlia,Commercial Ornamental Crops-Traditional and Loose
Flowers. Kruger Brentt Publishers,U.K.p:45-70.
Moldovan I, szekely-Varga Z and Cabtor M (2017). Dahlia an unforgettable flower-A new
perpective for therapeutic medicine. Hop and Medicinal plants. No. 1-2. P:56-68.
Romer J and Nelson D (2008). Growing Dahlias. Iowa State University. P:1-4.
Sørensen PD (1969) Revision of genus Dahlia (Compositae, Heliantheae, Coreopsidina)
Rhodora71:309-416.
Shewell-Cooper W.E. (1976). Basic book of dahlia growing. Barrie and Jenkins, London.
Swami Vinayananda (1993). Dahlia breeding. Dahlia society of India pp:79.
Swami Vinayananda (1990). 'Dahlias'. Flower Show Souvenir. Delhi, India: Dahlia Society.
Swami Vinayananda (1983). Dahlias of Today. Puget Sound Dahlia Association, pp. 24-25.
Washington State University (WSU) Master gardener program. Dahlias. C026. http://extension.
wsu.edu/spokane/master-gardner-program/home-lawn-and-garden.
Willis, J C (1966). Flowering Plants and Ferns. U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
23
Lilium
M.R. Dhiman
Lily is one of the most beautiful and popular ornamental bulbous flowers. They belong
to the genus Lilium of the family Liliaceae, which comprises of 110 species classified
into seven taxonomic sections: Lilium, Pseudolirium, Martagon, Sinomartagon,
Archelirion, Leucolirion and Oxypetalum. All species are distributed over the
mountainous area in the Northern Hemisphere (10° to 60°), mainly in Asia, North
America and Europe. Especially, China, Nepal, Korea and Japan are the major centres
of lilium gene pool around the world. Being second amongst the bulbous flower crops
in the commercial market, Lilium has 4th position among cut flowers in Flora Holland
(Flora Holland Annual Report 2017). In the language of flowers lily is known as
symbol of purity and innocence. Majority of cultivated lilies are either hybrids or
selections. A large number of species and hybrids can be used in ornamental gardens
even though the lily requires little more attention than any other bulbs. Many species
of lily (L. leichtlinii, L. lancifolium, Lilium candidum and L. auratum) are also edible
and having medicinal value.
Importance and uses
Lilies are one of the most important bulbous ornamental plants with varies uses, grown
in border, beds, pots, landscape gardens and are excellent cut flowers of magnificent
appearance and beautiful flowers. Roman naturalist and writer, Plinius, recorded
that salves and oils were prepared from leaves and flowers of the Madonna lily, or
L. candidium. Some species are also known for medicinal and food values, which
increased its economic importance many folds. The mucilaginous substance coming
out from the bulbs while cooking is used as an ointment for tumours, ulcers and
inflammations. The plant was really more of a miniature household pharmacy. Different
compounds have been reported in this genus, such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats,
amino acids, vitamins, alkaloids, phenolics, flavonoids, carotenoids, sterols, steroidal
saponins, and steroidal glycoalkaloids. Alkaloids, steroidal saponins, flavonoids and
polysaccharides have been isolated from L. lancifolium and L. brownii var. colchesteri
bulbs. Flowers of Lilium candidium contain an alkaloid. Extract of Lilium polyphyllum
bulb has been used as refrigerant, expectorant, aphrodisiac, diuretic, antipyretic and
tonic (Warrier et al., 1997; Dhyani, 2007). In the customary system of medicine, this
species reported to restore health immediately and works as antioxidant in the body.
Lily oil is an aid in childbirth. The white lily was also renowned as a cosmetic.

Lilies are endemic to mountainous region of the Northern Hemisphere up to South
Canada and Siberia and their Southern limit is Florida and the Nilgiri hills of India.
Lilium, which is taxonomically and phylogenetically regarded as an important clade of
the core Liliales, appears to have evolved in the Himalayas approximately 12 million
years ago, despite the lack of fossil records. Approximately, 55 species occur naturally
in the Southwest and north of China, which is considered to be the global centre of
wild lily diversity. The East coast of Asia, the West Coast of North America and the
Mediterranean region are the three most richly garnished places. Far East is the home
of almost half of the world’s lilies and majority of our finest garden lilies originated
there. A few species have been found in Northeast India (Lilium wallichianum, L.
napalense and L. polyphyllum) also. The distribution of the lily is mainly based on
environmental conditions like altitude, temperature, humidity, light intensity, etc. A
species may have a limited distribution, for example, Lilium regale is found only in
one steep-sided Chinese valley; others can be wanderers like the champion globe-
trotter like Lilium martagon known from Siberia across to Poland and down to the
Balkans. In Taiwan, the trumpet lily (Lilium formosanum) called after the islands
former name, grows from sea-level to some 3600 m.
Taxonomy
Lilium belongs to the subclass Monocotyledonae and family Liliaceae. It is an
herbaceous perennial. The lily bulb is composed of firm, fleshy scales that store food
for the following season’s growth. The bulb consists of short stem, or axis, to which
the scales are attached. The axis also called the basal plate is the most important part of
the bulb which produces the roots, scales, and buds for new growth. The colour of the
scales is one feature by which a lily species may be identified; this colour may change
on exposure to light. The lily bulbs are concentric or rhizomatous. Most European
and Asiatic lilies have concentric bulbs. In species such as Lilium lankongense, L.
nepalense, and L. wilsonii, the stem travels underground for some distance before
emerging, bearing bulblets away from the mother bulb. This habit has been termed
stoloniferous. The rhizomatous type of bulb is best developing in the Eastern American
species (Lilium canadense, L. michiganense, and L. superbum). A modification of
the rhizomatous type of bulb is exemplified in the Western American species Lilium
pardalinum and L. parryi.
A mature lilies’ flowering stem may be as short as a few inches in Lilium nanum or
other high alpine species, or as tall as 250 cm, as in Lilium leucanthum var. centifolium
or L. superbum. Some stems rise straight from the bulb, as in L. martagon and L.
regale, others travel horizontally underground before emerging, as in L. lankongense
and L. nepalense. The leaves range from the narrow grass like foliage of L. pumilum
to the broad, lanceolate leaves of L. auratum var. platyphyllum. Some species, such
as L. taliense, produce a naked, asparagus-like stem that rises 30 cm or more before
the leaves expand. Lilium martagon, L. hansonii, and their hybrids, as well as several
North American lilies, bear their leaves in regular whorls around the stem, with gaps
between the leaves. In most of other lilies, such as the trumpet and Oriental species
Lilium 335
and hybrids, the leaves are arranged alternately. This is also same in L. candidum and
L. x testaceum, but their leaves diminish in size from the base upward. Several species
and hybrids (L. lancifolium) bear small purple bulbils in the axils of their leaves.
The lily inflorescence may be a raceme, an umbel, or a single terminal flower. The
flowers of lilies are quite diverse in form and colour, and this diversity contributes
enormously to the charm and beauty of the genus. The basic forms are Turk’s-cap
(Lilium martagon), trumpet (Lilium longiflorum and L. regale) and bowl shaped
(Lilium auratum). The carriage of the flower is another feature used to differentiate
lilies. Flowers may be upright or up-facing, outfacing, or pendent. Within the flower
are six stamens composed of slender filaments or stalks with the anthers or pollen-
bearing organs at their tips. Lily pollen varies greatly in colour from species to species
and among hybrids, ranging from soft yellow to dark brown. The centre of the flower
contains the pistil composed of ovary at the base, a long style, and a three-lobed stigma
at the tip. At the base of each tepal there is a narrow groove, the nectar furrow. Nectar
is secreted here to attract pollinating insects and birds. Some species and hybrids,
however, lack nectaries.
The form of the lily seed capsule differs among species and hybrids, ranging from
the relatively short capsule of Lilium candidum to the long, slender capsule of L.
formosanum. All lily capsules are divided into three two-part sections with papery
dividing walls, inside which the numerous flat seeds are stacked like corns in a
wrapper. All lily seeds are flat. Some, such as those of Lilium auratum, have large
“wings” – the papery margins that aids in wind dispersal of the seeds. Others, such as
those of L. polyphyllum, have very little wing tissue. In a fertile seed embryo appears
as a line through the endosperm, the darker mass in the centre of the seed.
The genus Lilium comprised of around 110 species (GRIN 2016), which have
been taxonomically divided into seven sections: Lilium, Pseudolirium, Martagon,
Sinomartagon, Archelirion, Leucolirion and Oxypetalum (De Jong 1974). Some of the
important species and their descriptions are given below:
Lilium alexandrae (syn. Lilium nobilissimum, Lilium japonicum var. alexandrae,
Lilium longiflorum var. alexandrae, Lilium makinoi var. alexandrae, Lilium
ukeyuri): It is native to the south of Japan. Flowers are trumpet shaped and pure white
in colour. It is sometimes confused with Lilium longiflorum. It is almost similar to
Lilium Longiflorum but unlike it, in Lilium alexandrae the tepals are free, the style has
a distinct curve and the stigma is brownish.
Lilium amabile: It is native to Korea. Flowers are deep red with strong fragrance,
which may be sometimes unpleasant. It is free flowering from even small sized bulbs.
Lilium auratum: This species is also called Gold Band lily due to the presence of
gold colour. The flowers are fragrant, 15-25 cm in diameter, bowl shaped with tips of
petals recurving. At the base of the tepals are papillae and the centre of the tepal has a
channel which leads to the nectarines.
Lilium candidum: It is well named as candidum, which means dazzling white as the
flowers are pure white in colour. Flowers are fragrant, 12-14 cm in diameter and are
associated with religious feasts and symbolism, flower June – July.
Lilium columbianum: Commonly known as Columbia tiger or Oregon lily. It is native
to northern California through Oregon and western Idaho and into Washington State
and British Columbia. The flowers are dull orange and the petals recurve almost into a
ball. The flowers are not so attractive but are produced in large numbers.
Lilium formosanum: It is native to the island of Formosa. An interesting point of
this species is that with changing altitude the change in its morphology can be easily
observed. The plants are at lower elevations are larger in size and produce flowers of
pure white colour, trumpet shaped and of 25 cm length while with increasing elevation
the size of the plants as well as flowers decreases. Thus the plants at highest elevation
are much smaller and flowers have a red reserve in tepals.
Lilium henryi: This species is native to China. The shape of flowers is similar to
Lilium speciosum; hence it is also called Orange speciosum. The bulbs are 15 cm long
and also broad. The flowers are bright orange with numerous dark carmine spots, 7-9
cm in diameter and 8-10 in number in a raceme. The flowers are likely to bleach in
full sun, so the species should be planted where it is shaded during the hottest part of
the day.
Lilium longiflorum (Easter lily): It is native to Japan. Flowers are pure waxy white,
funnel shaped, mild fragrant, 5-6 per plant and 10-15 cm long. The bulb is globular
and large up to 10 cm diameter.
Lilium Martagon (Turk’s - cap lily): This species is native to Europe. The flowers
are pendant and when fully open the stamens are quite prominent, jutting out from the
centre of the flower. Flowers are purple with many darker spots on the tepals and are
3 cm long.
Lilium nepalense: It is native to Nepal. Flowers are bowl-shaped, fragrant, pendulous,
and green with red purple inside, 15 cm in diameter and 4-5 per plant. Bulbs are
globular, diameter 8-18 cm with broad thick scales and purple in colour.
Lilium pardalinum (Panther Lily): It is native to the coastal ranges of California.
Flowers are bright yellow, spotted brownish purple, 10 cm in diameter and pendulous.
Bulbs are scaly rhizome.
Lilium parryi (Lemon lily of California): This species is native to southern California.
The colour of flowers is lemon-yellow with maroon spots. Flowers are funnel shaped;
the tips of the tepals are curling back and are 8 cm in diameter.
Lilium philadelphicum: It is native to Canada and Carolina. The flowers are cup
shaped, upright and orange to deep red in colour.
Lilium polyphyllum: It is native to the western Himalayas. In the wild it grows up to
20 cm in height on the hills but in cultivation it grows only to 10 cm. Flowering takes
place during June-July on the hills. Flowers are creamy yellow, tinged and dotted
purple, fragrant and 4-5 per plant.
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Lilium regale: It is native to the western China. This species flowers in July but the
colour is not fade in the sun. Flowers are small, white, tinged yellow at the base with
purple midribs, trumpet-shaped, 10-15 cm long and 3-4 in number per plant.
Lilium speciosum: Native to Japan. It is one of the most beautiful lilies. The species
name ‘speciosum’ is quite suitable as it means good looking, showy and splendid.
Flowers are delicately fragrant, white, suffused rose pink in the centre and spotted
blood red with a green stripe at the base. The tepals are recurved and twisted in such
a way that the centre of the flower is well exposed with quite prominent papillae and
stamens.
Lilium tigrinum syn. Lilium lancifolium (Tiger lily): It is native to Japan. Flowers
are bright salmon red with purple-black spots. This pattern of colouration resembles
with the skin of the tiger, which gives it its name of Tiger-lily. Flowers are 8-10 cm in
diameter and 10-15 per plant. It produces deep purple bulbils in the upper leaf axils.
Lilium wallichianum: This species is native to western Himalayas regions. Bulb
globular, 5-8 cm in diameter, edges slightly notched, broad, thick reddish. Stem 1.5
to 2.0 cm long, green smooth, leaves erect, 10-12 cm long. Flowers 2-3, 20 cm in
diameter, fragrant, waxy, creamy white, flowers during July-August.
Cultivars
In recent years, due to interspecific hybridizations, a wide variety of hybrids are
developed. These hybrids are divided morphologically and taxonomically into seven
divisions each representing a separate group. Some of the outstanding cultivars of each
group are classified below.
Division I Asiatic hybrids: Hybrids derived from the following species and
interspecific hybrids: amabile, bulbiferum, callosum, cernuum, concolor, dauricum,
davidii, L. × hollandicum, lancifolium (syn. tigrinum), lankongense, leichtlinii, L.
× maculatum, pumilum, L. × scottiae, wardii and wilsonii. Flowers usually small to
medium-sized, few to fairly numerous, bowl-shaped, flat or with tepals recurved,
usually with an open centre, up-, out- or down-facing. Flower colour often uniform, or
with contrasting tepal tips and/or throat, rarely with contrasting white tepal margins.
Spots absent, or when present, well defined and often rounded. Papillae, if present,
usually inconspicuous. Conspicuous brush marks sometimes present. Tepal margins
usually smooth or slightly ruffled, with relatively inconspicuous nectaries. Flowers
usually with little or no scent. Inflorescence sometimes with secondary buds. Buds
sometimes hairy. Leaves scattered, narrow to medium width. Examples: Angela North,
Avignon, Ariadned, Black Eyed Cindy, Citronella, Connecticut King, Enchantment,
Mont Blanc, Willow Wood etc.
Division II Martagon hybrids: Hybrids of martagon type derived from the
following species and interspecific hybrids: L. × dalhansonii, hansonii, martagon,
medeoloides and tsingtauense. Flowers usually small, often numerous, mostly down
facing, typically with rather thick, recurved tepals and often of Turk’s cap form, and
often borne in a narrow, cylindrical inflorescence; sometimes out-facing with tepals
hardly recurved. Spots usually present, numerous, often on at least three-quarters of
each tepal and sometimes also on the edges of the outside. Tepal-margins usually
smooth. Flowers with little or an unpleasant scent. Buds are often hairy. Leaves are
typically whorled, often rather broad. Bulbs are often mauve or orange-yellow. Early
in flowering. Examples: Cadense, Claude Shride, Cranberry Dancer, Larissa, L. ×
dalhansonii ‘Marhan’, Orange Marmalade, and Rose Tattoo etc.
Division III Euro-Caucasian hybrids: Hybrids derived from the following species
and interspecific hybrids: candidum, chalcedonicum, kesselringianum, monadelphum,
pomponium, pyrenaicum and L. × testaceum. Flowers mostly small to medium-sized,
few to fairly numerous, often bell-shaped to Turk’s cap-shaped, often down-facing, in
a relatively short inflorescence. Flower colour often in rather pale muted shades. Spots
are absent to numerous. Brush marks are absent. Tepal-margins smooth, often gently
reflexed. Flowers are often scented. Inflorescence lacking secondary buds. Leaves
scattered. Many are lime-tolerant.
Examples: Ares, June Fragrance, Moonlight Madonna, L. × testaceum, Zeus etc.
Division IV American hybrids: Hybrids derived from the following American
species and interspecific hybrids: bolanderi, L. × burbankii, canadense, columbianum,
grayi, humboldtii, kelleyanum, kelloggii,
maritimum, michauxii, michiganense, occidentale, L. ×pardaboldtii, pardalinum,
parryi, parvum, philadelphicum, pitkinense, superbum, vollmeri, washingtonianum
and wigginsii.
Flowers small to medium-sized, often in a pyramidal inflorescence, mostly down-
facing. Flower colour often strong yellow to orange or orange-red, often with
contrasting centre and tepal-tips. Spots often very conspicuous, distributed over at
least half of each tepal, usually rounded and often surrounded by a paler halo. Papillae
absent or inconspicuous. Brush marks absent. Tepals rather narrow, margins smooth,
usually gently to strongly reflexed. Flowers with little scent. Pedicels often long
and slender. Buds usually without hairs. Leaves usually whorled (at least in part).
Examples: Bullwood, Bellingham, Del Norte, Eric Mayell, Lake Tulare, Mexico,
Oliver Wyatt, Shuksan etc.
Division V Longiflorum lilies: Hybrids or selections derived exclusively from
formosanum, longiflorum, philippinense and wallichianum. Flowers are medium-
sized to large, often few, trumpet-shaped. Flower colour typically uniform internally
(white). Spots, papillae and brush marks absent. Tepal-margins smooth. Flowers
usually scented. Inflorescence lacking in secondary buds. Leaves are scattered, narrow
to medium width. Examples: Formobel, Formolongi, Kiyosato, longiflorum ‘Slocum’s
Ace’, Yatsugatake etc.
Division VI Trumpet and Aurelian hybrids: Hybrids derived from the following
species and interspecific hybrids: L. × aurelianense, brownii, L. × centigale, henryi, L.
× imperiale, L. × kewense, leucanthum, regale, rosthornii, sargentiae, sulphureum and
L. × sulphurgale (but excluding hybrids of henryi with all species listed in Division
VII). Aurelian hybrids are derived from a combination of henryi and trumpet lilies.
Flowers medium-sized to large, trumpet-shaped, bowl shaped, flat or with tepals
reflexed (the flatter or star-shaped flowers usually with a shorter funnel-shaped base,
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so centre of flower is closed). Flower colour white, cream, yellow to orange or pink,
often with a contrasting star-shaped throat and/or strong bands of colour outside.
Trumpets usually scented, without spots, papillae or brush marks; other types often
with spotting as small streaks gathered in two bands at the base and sometimes with
conspicuous papillae. Tepal-margins smooth or twisted with irregular ruffling, tepal-
tips often reflexed. Inflorescence sometimes with secondary buds. Leaves scattered,
narrow to medium width. Examples: Carnival Queen, Gold Eagle, Golden Splendor,
Herald Angel, Louise, L. × kewense ‘White Henryi’ etc.
Division VII Oriental hybrids: Hybrids derived from the following species and
interspecific hybrids: auratum, japonicum, nobilissimum, L. × parkmanii, rubellum
and speciosum (but excluding all hybrids of these with henryi). Flowers usually
medium-sized to very large, few to fairly numerous, usually bowl-shaped, flat or with
recurved tepals. Inner tepals often very broad, margins often ruffled or twisted and
usually overlapping at base so the flower has a more ‘closed’ centre. Flower colour
mostly white to pink to purplish red, some golden yellow; ground colour often white,
with a contrasting colour as a central ray, or suffused over the whole tepal, except (in
many cases) at the margins. Spots absent to numerous and conspicuous, sometimes
covering more than half of each tepal, variable in form but often with diffuse edges.
Papillae often present and conspicuous, even when flowers are unspotted. Nectaries
often large and conspicuous. Flowers usually scented. Leaves scattered, usually broad
to very broad. Often late flowering. Examples: Casa Blanca, L. × parkmanii ‘Imperial
Silver’, Journey’s End, Star Gazer, Woodriff’s Memory etc.
Division VIII Other hybrids: Hybrids not covered by any of the previous Divisions
(I-VII). Includes all interdivisional hybrids, such as longiflorum/Asiatic (LA) hybrids,
longiflorum/Oriental (LO) hybrids, Oriental/Asiatic (OA) hybrids and Oriental/
Trumpet hybrids (Orienpets or OT hybrids). Hybrids of henryi with auratum,
japonicum, nobilissimum, L. × parkmanii, rubellum and speciosum (that are excluded
from Divs VI and VII) are placed here. Examples: Amber Star, Chinatown, Elegant
Lady, Eureka, First Crown, Pink Jazz, Red Planet, Wild Treasure etc.
Division IX Species and cultivars of species: Includes all species and their
subspecies, varieties and forms, and cultivars selected there from (excluding those
derived exclusively from any one of the following: formosanum, longiflorum,
philippinense and wallichianum, which are placed in Div. V). Examples: auratum
var. rubrovittatum ‘Crimson Beauty’, canadense var. editorum ‘Chocolate Chips’,
lancifolium ‘Splendens’, leucanthum var. centifolium ‘Kristine’s Charm’, nepalense,
speciosum ‘Coral Queen’ etc.
Sub-Divisions
Lilies in all Divisions may be further classified on the basis of flower aspect (up-,
out- or down-facing) and flower form (trumpet-shaped, bowl-shaped, flat, with tepals
recurved). Flower aspect is given before flower form and the two are separated by a
forward slash (/). Flower aspect is encoded as:-
a. up-facing
b. out-facing
c. down-facing
Flower form is encoded as:-
a. trumpet-shaped
b. bowl-shaped
c. flat (or with only tepal-tips recurved)
d. with tepals recurved (i.e. with more than just the tip recurved or reflexed and
with the Turk’s cap form as the ultimate state)
Examples: ‘Madison’ I(a/b) indicates an Asiatic hybrid with up facing, bowl-shaped
flowers.
‘Lightning Bug’ II(b/d) indicates a martagon hybrid with out-facing flowers with
recurved tepals. ‘Milden Red Ball’ IV(c/d) indicates an American hybrid with down-
facing flowers with recurved tepals. ‘Snowdon’ VII(a-b/-) indicates an Oriental hybrid
with flowers that vary from up- to out-facing, with no information about the flower
form. speciosum ‘Crimson Glory’ IX(b-c/d) indicates a selection from speciosum
with out- to down-facing flowers with recurved tepals.
Some of the important varieties under different cultivated groups are mentioned in
Table 1.
Table 1: Varieties recommended for cultivation
Asiatic hybrids
Varietiy Growing Period Plant height(cm) Number of Colour
( days) bud
Brunello 90 -100 90-100 6-7 Orange
Bariton 80-90 120-130 7 Orange
Gironde 90-100 110-120 7 Yellow
Navona 90-100 80-90 6 White
Nello 110-120 120-130 6 Orange/red
Tresser 100-110 100-110 6-7 Orange
Oriental hybrids
Acapulco 90-100 120-130 4 Dark pink
Bernini 100-110 120-130 5 Dark pink
Laguna 100-110 100-110 5 White
Mero Star 90-100 120-130 6 Pink/Red
Mother Choice 100-110 120-130 6 White
Rialto 110-120 120-130 5-6 White
Siberia 110-120 100-110 5 White
Sorbonne 110-120 100-120 5 Pink, White Edge
Tiara 90-100 110-120 5 Pinkish White
Tiber 100-110 100-110 6 Reddish Pink
Contd.
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LA-hybrids
Bright Diamond 90-100 130-135 5 White
Ceb Dazzle 90-100 100-110 6-8 Yellow
Cilesta 80-90 120-130 6 Orange
Courier 80-90 100-110 6 White
Ercolano 90-100 90-100 5 White
Eyeliner 90-100 120-130 5 Yellow
Golden Tycoon 100-110 120-130 6 Yellow
Litowen 80-90 120-130 6 White
Menorca 90-100 130-135 5 Salmon
Serrada 90-100 110-120 6 Yellow
Pavia 90-100 100-110 6 Yellow
OT-hybrids
Avocado 110-120 130-140 6 Salmon /yellow
Yelloween 100-110 130-140 5 Yellow
Torrango 100-110 110-120 4 Pink
Rexona 80-90 110-120 4 White
Belladonna 100-110 100-110 4 Yellow
Addison 100-120 120-130 7 White
Propagation
Generally, lilies are propagated by seeds, bulblets, bulbils, division, and scaling,
although in vitro culture using explants from scales is commonly used (Aartrijk et al,
1980; Magnani, 1988).
Seed Propagation
It is the cheap and easy method of propagation and used only for evolution of new
varieties. The only demerit in this method is that it involves a considerable time lapse.
Seeds are sown during winter in pots and are transplanted outdoors in the spring. An
ideal soil mixture should have loam, peat and sand in the ratio of 7:3:2. Moisture level
should be maintained in the soil so that seeds do not suffer a dry spell. Germination
of seeds in lilies may be of four different types: (1) immediate hypogeal, (2) delayed
hypogeal, (3) immediate epigeal, and (4) delayed epigeal. In hypogeal germination,
there is no cotyledon, which emerges above the ground. However, true seed leaves
emerge above the ground. Before the emergence of true seed leaves, the food from the
seed is transferred to a point which is underground and in between the root tip and true
seed leaves. Due to transfer of food material, the point gets swollen and becomes a
miniature bulb. If the growth cycle is continuous, it is called hypogeal immediate and
if a incubation period is necessary after the initial germination, it is called hypogeal
delayed.
In epigeal germination, a cotyledon emerges above the ground and the endosperm
nourishes the developing seedling. Just above the root tip a small node is apparent,
which then becomes the bulb. When it has sufficient strength, true leaves are produced.
Epigeal immediate types may be sown as soon as ripe, but this is not always practical.
Epigeal delayed requires a definite cold period before germination occurs.
Vegetative propagation
Lilium is vegetatively propagated by bulblets, axillary bulbils, separation of scales,
division of bulbs, leaf cuttings and through micropropagation. Vegetative propagation
allows plants to grow into true-to-type. Propagation through scales is a rapid means
of multiplication.
Bulb scales and bulblets
Lilies are commonly multiplied by scales. Mature bulbs are required for successful
forcing of lilies. Mature bulbs force rapidly and predictably after low temperature
treatment. Maturity of bulbs could be determined by the weight, extent of scale
filling, degree of summer dormancy remaining and responsiveness of flower inducing
treatments. Bud removal is a common practice to obtain large sized bulbs. Raju and
Misra (2002) reported highest bulblet formation with early disbudding. Singh et al.
(2016) reported maximum increase in number and weight of bulblets per plant when
flower shoots were harvesting at 40 cm above the ground surface. Highest bulblet
formation was reported with 100 ppm NAA or IBA in FYM + soilrite. Bulb production
suffers from problems such as double nose bulbs (i.e., bulbs having daughter meristems)
and premature sprouting of the daughter bulbs due to low temperatures during the
summer treated scales at 220C, followed by a cold treatment (0, 3 or 50C), for a total
of 14 or 11 weeks. Treatment at 220C delayed emergence and promoted production of
many small bulbs.
Propagation through scales depended largely on variety. Seradix B No.1 stimulated
rooting but increased bulblet yield in certain varieties. Darkness inhibited leaf
emergence from bulblets in vivo but this was reversed by chilling treatment (4±10C)
for I week. The season and position of scales (outer, middle or inner scales) also
influences the propagation. It was found that the number, weight and diameter of
bulblets were higher on scales taken in 1st June than on those taken on 1st March or
1st September and the numbers of bulblets were promoted by IBA (500 or 1000ppm),
IAA (500ppm) or NAA (up to 500 ppm); bulblet weight was promoted by IBA as well
as by BA (1000ppm) and Kinetin (500 or 1000ppm). Incubate the scales in a well-
ventilated room at 24±10C until the bulblets and roots are fully formed. The duration
of incubation depends on the variety. Asiatic hybrid lilies require 10-12 weeks,
trumpet species and hybrids 12 to 14 weeks, and Oriental hybrid lilies 16 to 18 weeks.
After removing the trays of scales with bulblets from the incubator, store them at an
intermediate temperature (4° to 10°C) for three to four weeks, and then place them
in cold storage (2°C) to break dormancy for specified period. When soil conditions
and temperatures are favorable, the scales are planted in outdoor rows or bed. The
bulblets have now been conditioned to sprout readily, so it is important not to plant
them too early and expose them to frost damage. Scale plantings are usually allowed to
remain in the ground for two growing seasons. Many Asiatic varieties could produce
flowering stems during the same season they are planted, which is an indication of
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superior vigor in the clone. In some lilies, new bulbs are produced from buds around
the rim of the bulb’s basal plate, which would develop into replacement bulbs for the
following season. Each species or hybrid reproduces at its own rate -a very small bulb,
a weak species, or a struggling bulb may produce just one new bulb; two new bulbs
is more normal and, with really happy, robust bulbs, a three- to six fold increase is
possible.
When we lift bulbs at the end of summer, we will find the new bulbs still joined at the
basal plate, but they can easily be cut or snapped off. If bulbs are left for two seasons
before lifting, the original connecting tissue will have perished, and of course last
season’s bulbs will have produced their own successors. The Asiatic and LA-hybrid
lilies are most suitably propagated by these methods than the Orientals. These may
be lifted in late summer, split and replanted in fresh spots or returned to their former
positions, once these have been well dug over and envigorated with generous additions
of humus. Bulblets may be formed on the underground or above ground part of the
stem. The number and size depends on the species or cultivar and the strength of
the individual bulb. The stem of a vigorous one can generate up to a dozen or more
bulblets -perfectly formed small bulbs with scales and roots ready for independent life
once the stem dies back. The number of these bulblets to be harvested from the buried
part of the stem is positively correlated to the amount and vigor of the stem rooting. To
increase the harvest by number and, even more significantly, by weight and volume,
stem rooting needs to be encouraged. This can be done initially by providing an open,
gritty, humus-rich soil and planting the bulbs with at least 10-15cm deep above their
noses, kept moist but not over-wet. Stem rooting activity can be dramatically increased
by humus mulches from late spring onwards.
Axillary bulbils
Small, dark bulbils appear in the leaf axils; they swell to become purple-black mini-
bulbs, sometimes starting to produce leaves and roots before they are fully ripe, and
fall to the ground. Bulbils formation can be enhanced by removing of flower buds. If
bulbils are harvested and potted up before late summer a good proportion of reasonable
sized ones can be got into such energetic growth as to bear one or more flowers the
very next summer.
Micro propagation
Use of micropropagation techniques is increasing day by day. It is the best method
to obtain true to type as well as disease free plants. Different explants used for this
purpose may be bulb scales, stem apices, apical meristem, floral organs etc. Misra et
al. (2001) used segments of bulb scales as explants in Asiatic lily cv. Orange Pixie. In
vitro raised bulbs exhibited 100 percent sprouting in the field as compared to in vivo
raised bulbs. An efficient system has been developed for in vitro plant regeneration of
Lilium longiflorum cv. Nellie White by culturing receptacle sections from flower buds.
A section size of 3-4 mm was found to be optimal (Duong et al., 2001). Anthers are
used for raising haploids. Anthers which can give true to type diploids of greenhouse
plants have a significantly higher capability to from callus and regenerate bulblets than
the field grown plants (Niimi, 2001).
Climate
Lilies prefer mild climatic conditions. It is better to grow them in partial shade as direct
sun may affect them adversely. Knowledge of climatic factors on growth and flowering
of lilies is important for successful forcing. Temperature strongly affects the growth,
stem elongation and bud development. Temperature above 300C and photoperiod in
the early stage prevent loss of flower buds. Lilies are susceptible to high temperatures
(>300C) but they tolerate and respond to high light intensity (2000 µmol m-2s-1).
Average daily temperature (ADT) affects flowering rate in lilium longiflorum, which
profoundly decreases as average daily temperature increases and flower abortion
occurs when ADT is >240C. The optimum day/night temperature combination that
could shorten length without interfering with flowering was found to be 16/240C day/
night. High temperatures being detrimental to the crop growth, temperature-dropping
methods were tried in lily. Of the five different methods tried, water sprinkling over the
white shading net over roof gave best results. Shading in the early vegetative growth
phase helps better growth. Effect of shading (25, 50 and 75 %) was tried on different
lily cultivars. All lilies cultivars recorded favourable height, fresh and dry weight,
number of flowers, stem diameter and leaf area by increasing shading percentage.
Soil
Lilium can be grown on a wide range of soil but the ideal soil should be well drained.
Water logging particularly during dormant period can be lethal to the plant. Saline
soils are not suitable for growing lilies. Most lilies prefer soil with pH 6.5 to 7.5.
However, Lilium philadelphicum prefers acidic soil while Lilium candidum prefers
alkaline soil. Easter lilies require non-acidic soil that is high in calcium. The critical
electrical conductivity (EC) for growth was 2.8 dS/m. Lilies cannot survive in soils
with an EC of >10.8 dS/m. application of NPK fertilizers to the soil would increase
EC. Nutrient uptake decreased with increasing salinity, and significantly decreased
when EC was >4.4dS/m.
Growth, development and flowering
Environmental factors affect the growth and development as well as flowering in lilies.
Light and temperature are among the important environmental factors.
Light
There are three aspects through which light can influence the growth and development
of any plant. These are light quality and quantity, photoperiod and intensity. Lilium
shows different growth behaviours with the changing light quality. If inner daughter
scales are treated with red or far-red light, shoot emergence is significantly increased
(Roh and Wilkins, 1974). Long photoperiod promotes stem elongation (Heins et
al., 1982). When lilies grown under reduced irradiance were increased plant height,
elongated internodes and pedicels and poor flower quality (Miller and Langhans,
1989a). Long days are also used to substitute vernalization to some extent. The bulbs
are responsive to photoperiod since bulbs exposed to long photoperiods during the
last two weeks of vernalization have fewer leaves and accelerated flowering. High
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irradiance is often associated with accelerated plant development but this effect is
probably due to increased plant temperature (Heins et al., 1982). Reducing greenhouse
irradiance decreased leaf and flower soluble carbohydrate concentrations and increased
the amount of bulb reserve hydrolysis during forcing (Miller and Langhans, 1989b).
Temperature and forcing
Optimum temperature for the growth of most lilies is about 16-200C. Plant height
becomes short as vernalization duration increased. Once bulbs are harvested and
shipped to growers, traditional bulb vernalization is given to accelerate flowering.
Bulbs are packed in moistened peat moss and stored at 4.5-7.00C for 6-8 weeks.
Bulb vernalization induces rapid and uniform shoot emergence and flowering but
the number of flower buds is reduced in Easter lily, but increased in Asiatic hybrid
lily. When Lilium longiflorum bulbs received 3 weeks of bulb vernalization, shoots
emerged early and the reduction in the number of flowers was minimal as compared to
bulbs that received 6 weeks of vernalization (Roh and Wilkins, 1976).
Dormancy
Dormancy is the period of rest when most of the physiological activities are slowed
down. In fact, the existence of rest periods is convenient for the geophytes since it
permits easy handling, storage and transportation of the bulbs. Hence, dormancy
can be called a necessary evil in the life cycle of geophytes. As Lilium is a summer
flowering bulbs on the hills, its dormancy period generally occurs in winter when the
temperature is low. The site of dormancy in Easter lily is considered to be the daughter
scales (Roh and Wilkins, 1977). If daughter scales are not present, there will not be
any dormancy. However, it is difficult to have bulbs lacking daughter scales. The
endogenous level of GA-like substance is lower in dormant bulbs as compared to non-
dormant bulbs (Kim et al., 1999). Thus, gibberellins are used for breaking dormancy.
It can also be broken by cold treatment. A cold treatment of 4oC for 6-8 weeks or GA
at the rate of 100-150 ppm found to be optimum for breaking dormancy.
Planting
The need of planting clean, healthy and disease-free bulbs can hardly be overstressed.
Time, depth and method of planting depends on the type of lily to be grown and size
of the bulbs, although there are certain general rules for all members of the lily groups.
The planting depth affects the stem, leaf and root growth of lilies in forced cultivation.
Bulbs are planted in mounded rows, 15-25 cm below the top of the mound. With
shallow planting, basal roots establish well and flower stems become shorter and stem
diameter more compared with deeper planting. When bulbs are planted deeply, the
growth of stem roots is promoted. However, number of days to shoot emergence and
flowering, and pant height are reduced by longer periods of cold treatment. Percentage
of winter sprouting decreased at later planting times and at deeper planting depths.
Percentage of winter sprouting also decreased as bulb size increased. Generally, plants
in the unheated plastic house produced more daughter bulbs than plants in the field
(Kim et al., 1994).
Spacing
Spacing of lilies is mostly depended on the size of the bulbs. Plant size varies
considerably between the groups, cultivars and bulb size planted, all of which influence
the optimum planting density. Planting density is also affected by the season and the
soil type. Decreasing planting density increased soil temperature and improved cut
flower quality. A high planting density is needed in the months of high temperatures
when light intensity is high. In winter or under poor light conditions a lower planting
density should be used. Planting density per group, type and size of bulb in cm per net
m2 of bed should be used is mentioned below:
Group Bulb size (cm)
10-12, 12-14, 14-16, 16-18, 18-20
Asiatic hybrid 60-70, 55-65, 50-60, 40-50
Oriental hybrids 40-50, 35-45, 30-40, 25-35, 25-35
LA-hybrids 50-60, 40-50, 40-50,
Irrigation
The amount of water depends on type of soil, climate and the variety. Too much or
too little watering will result in uneven, delayed emergence and growth; reduction in
stem length; Pythium (by excessive watering); and even flower bud desiccation among
certain susceptible cultivars. Water requirement in summer is 6 to 8 lit / m2 / day and in
other season are 4 to 5 lit / m2 / day. First two weeks irrigation only by using water can
or shower. Third week onwards it is recommended to use drip for irrigation. Lilies are
sensitive to salt. High salt contents will produce roots that are hard, brittle and yellow
to brown in colour. A high salt content will also reduce the roots capacity to absorb
water, and this will lead to a reduction in the height of the crop.
Manuring and fertilization
The nutrient requirement depends on the soil type. There was a significant interaction
between growing medium and fertilizer application on growth and development of
lilium. For optimum growth, fertilization is a necessary operation. Fertilizer doses
for most of the lilies are 140KgN, 280Kg P2O5 and 200Kg K2O per hectare. Normally
Indian soils are not deficient in K2O, so it is applied only when it is deficient. Only
a small portion of Nitrogen is applied at planting, the rest should be applied during
the period of rapid growth. In Lilium longiflorum, primary fertilisation factors are
described by Seeley (1950). These are as follows:
1. For minimising the incidence of leaf scorch from fluoride the pH of the planting
medium should be maintained high (soil 6.5-7.0; soil-less media 6.1-6.5).
2. High levels of calcium (supplied from pre-plant incorporation of lime and from
calcium nitrate applied during growth).
3. High levels of nitrate nitrogen for optimum leaf quality.
4. Freedom from elevated soluble salt levels that cause root injury.
The absorption and utilization of nitrogen increases during development of
inflorescence. If dry weather prevails, it is better to go for liquid fertilization. But
Lilium 347
when cloudy weather prevails, it is apt to go far a top dressing of slow release fertilizer
(Miller, 1991). Nitrogen and phosphorus both are linked to leaf senescence. Fluoride
induced leaf scorch is one of common nutritional disorders. Boron toxicity also leads
to leaf tip scorch.
When the balance of elements in the soil is disturbed by there being too much of one
in proportion to another, this disturbs the absorption of certain elements by the plant.
The table-1 lists the elements that can affect each other in this way.
Table.1: Elements that affect absorption of other elements
Too much of this element Reduce the absorption of this element
NH (ammonium) Ca (calcium), Mg (magnesium)
K (potassium) Ca (calcium), Mg (magnesium)
Mg (Magnesium) NH (ammonium)
Mn (manganese) Fe(Iron)
High EC level Ca (calcium)
Mulching
One way of conserving moisture in between watering is by mulching. Mulching is
advantageous for lilies. It keeps the soil cool, loose, discourages weeds, control soil
borne pathogens and control black body radiation. It provides a fluffy, nutritious
medium for the hungry stem roots The mulch can consist of with rice hulls, rice straw,
pine needles, upgraded black peat, etc. A certain amount of care should be taken
when mulching due to the possible presence of the fungus Rhizoctonia solani in some
mulching materials.
Staking
Depending on the time of the year and the cultivar, it should be necessary to stake
plants during the growing periods. Chrysanthemum netting is frequently used to
support lilies and during the growing period the height of this netting should increase
parallel to the growth of the plant.
Post harvest handling
The flower should be harvested at the appropriate harvesting stage, that is, when first
flower bud shows the colour. Treatments for extending the vase life include two separate
steps. The first step is to pulse the flowers with chemicals such as STS, sucrose, (Han,
1992), or growth regulators immediately after harvest. Especially, GA3 1000ppm and
MnCl2 when added in pulsing solutions were found to be very effective in prolonging
the vase life and preventing the leaf yellowing in lilies (Nowak and Mynett, 1985).
GA3 and MnCl2 might maintain a structural role in the chloroplast membrane system
and stimulate photosynthesis (Salisbury and Ross, 1985). The second step is to hold
the cut flowers in preservative solutions. Preservative solutions containing 150ppm
HQS +2 percent sucrose +50ppm GA3 or 30 percent soda water were reported to be
effective in ‘Corderia’ (Song et al., 1996).
Harvesting and storage of bulbs

When the aerial parts start yellowing and ultimately dry, bulbs are lifted. Lifting is
generally done on the hills in November when the temperature starts falling. Bulbs
should be dug carefully and should be properly cleaned, graded and treated with
suitable fungicides. Most of the Lilium species bear bulblets. These bulblets are also
separated, cleaned and treated with the fungicides. Lifting should always be done at
the proper time and maturity stage. If it is delayed, the bulbs become maturer and less
dormant. The outer new scales are the site of the maturity factor. Bulbs are graded
according to their size. In the U.S.A., the commercial grades are 15-17.5, 17.5-20,
20-22.5 and 22.5 – 25 cm in size (Larson, 1980). The bulbs should be cooled to 0-20C
within 3 weeks of lifting and before storage. Storage temperature for most of the lilies
is -2 to 20C.
Diseases and pests
Lilies are attacked by a number of diseases and pests. Penicillium, Bulb/ Scale rot &
Fusarium stem, Rhizoctonia, Phytophtora, Pythium and Botrytis are the main diseases
of lilies. Common diseases of lilium and their control measures are listed below:
Botrytis Blight: It is caused by Botrytis elliptica. It is probably the most serious
disease of field grown lilies. Grey-brown to dark brown speckles, sometimes with a
dark green edge, that measure 1 to 2 mm across appear on the leaves. The infestation
can begin in the middle of the leaf surface or at the edge where it will be crescent
shaped; the result will be a stunted, malformed leaf. If the leaves are severely infested,
the tissue can wither, turn yellow, shrivel and finally become papery. Botrytis can also
infest the stems. The exterior layer of the stem turns grey-green to dark brown. The
leaves will then yellow, wither and drop off. Buds infested during a very early stage
of development display brown raised spots on the outer petals. As they develop, they
become malformed and can rot altogether. Flowers that have opened are extremely
vulnerable to Botrytis damage in the form of greyish, watery-looking, round spots
known as “pox”. The common name for Botrytis is “fire”. Warm humid weather
favors the disease. Infection occurs most frequently between 100C and 180C. This
disease could be controlled by reducing planting density during a period of a high
RH, watering the soil in the morning and not sprinkling during times of little wind
or high RH and carefully remove crop residues after the completion of cultivation.
Copper fungicides like Benlate or Bordeux mixture @ 2 % are effective in controlling
the disease.
Bulb and Scale rot: Bulb rot is the most serious bulb disease of Asiatic and Oriental
lilies as it destroys the bulb and results in total crop loss. This disease is caused by
a fungus Fusarium oxysporium and Cylindrocarpon of lily. The disease generally
occurs during storage and the site of infection is the base of scales. The symptom of
disease including chocolate or dark brown rot that extends into the scales resulting
in scale detachment from the basal plate. Above ground, this can be identified by the
premature yellowing of the lowest leaves that will then turn brown, rot and fall off.
This can be controlled by steam sterilization of soil is very effective. Use disease free
planting material; avoid the excessive use of nitrogen fertilizer that will encourage the
Lilium 349
disease, over watering should be avoided and use resistant cultivars. Soil drenching
with Bavistin is effective and also treating bulbs in Benomyl solution at 300C for 30
minutes.
Penicillium: The infestation usually comes from Penicillium fungi commonly found
in the environment and starts during storage when the spores enter wounds in the
bulb tissue. An excessively high temperature and an excessively low RH during
storage promote the problem. Damage to the bulbs increases the risk of a Penicillium
infestation. Penicillium show up on the bulb scales as brown rotten spots covered
with a white fungal weft that later turns blue-green and is accompanied by masses of
spores. Once established, the rot slowly spreads throughout the storage period, even
under low temperatures (-2°C). To avoid these diseases keep the bulbs from drying out
during storage and processing, and store the bulbs at the lowest possible temperature.
Do not plant bulbs with infested base plates. Plant infested lots as quickly as possible,
preferably from December through March (when they can have a slow start).Keep the
soil at the proper moisture level before and after planting.
Root rot: Root rot is also a major problem in lilium cultivation. It is caused by
several pathogens including Fusarium, Rhizoctoni and Pythium species. The disease
results into die back of foliage starting at the base of the plant and moving up the
stem. The extent of root rotting may vary but the root decline contributes to non-
uniform development of the plants. Hence to prevent the disease, steam sterilization
or fertilization of soil/media should be done and maintain proper moisture/ drainage
and avoid the over watering.
Foot rot: It is caused by the fungus Phytophthora nicotianae. The stem just below the
soil surface is infected by the fungus which results in withering and ultimately death of
the plants. The disease occurs mostly in over-watered soil. To prevent the disease, soil
should have good drainage facility. Affected plants should be removed and destroyed.
Black scale and scale tip rot: Anthracnose or black scale is caused by colletotrichum
lilies and appears as black and rotted outer scales that reduce salability of the bulbs. At
harvest, brown lesions develop on the scales which enlarge in storage and the scales
shrivel and turn black (Linderman, 1985). This pathogen may also cause a serious
disease of petal tissues in Lilium longiflorum. Control involves the use of healthy
planting stock. Scale tip rot is characterized by darkening of scale tips and the surface
of outer scales that shrivel and rot.
Sclerotium: This disease is caused by a fungus: Rhizoctonia solani. It is transferred
to the plants from the soil and develops most rapidly under moist conditions and
at temperatures above 15°C. Leaves that have come into contact with the soil will
wilt and start to rot. Brown spots appear on the foot of the stem, which then rots all
the way through and collapses. Very characteristic of this fungus is the presence of
white strands of hyphae, and later the formation of round sclerotia on the diseased
tissue and surrounding soil. These sclerotia are first white and then younger leaves
and the growth point are usually damaged. The underground stem parts can display
brown stripes and spots that are usually elongated. The emergence of stem roots is
suppressed, development is delayed, and flowering is poor or nonexistent because the
flower buds have dried out at an early stage. Control involves the drenching of soil
with bavistin is effective.
Pests
Aphids: Aphids are the most serious pest of lilies as they transmit various viral
diseases. They suck the sap from the leaves and stem. They may also infest bulbs in
store. Different broad spectrum insecticides can used to control the aphids.
Lily Beetle: Larvae of the lily beetle may sometimes cause severe damage on leaves,
stem and flower buds. They foul the plants with black slimy excrement.
Bulb mites : Rhizoglyphus echinopus is usually a secondary pest attacking the bulbs.
It enters through prior mechanical injury to the bulb. Damaged bulbs should be
discarded. Hot water dip is also effective.
Thrips: These pests cause scarring of the foliage. They eat the surface of the leaves
and often an attack can be severe before being noticed. The bulbs should be stored at
a temperature below 100C to control this pest.
Slugs and snails: They attack the young shoots as tender shoots are attractive food for
these pests. Slug and snail bait should be used as a precautionary measure.
Nematodes: Foliar nematode Aphelencoides fragaric causes yellow blotching and
necrosis in foliage. Hot water dip treatment is effective in controlling nematodes.
Other methods of field control include crop rotation, rogueing, removal of plant debris
from the field, etc. (Linderman, 1985).
Viral diseases : Viruses also attack lilies to a great extent. Lily symptomless virus
(LSV), lily mottle virus (LiMV), cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), etc., attack the
lilies. Affected plants become dwarf and crippled. LSV produces vein clearing and is
transmitted by aphids in a non-persistent manner.
LiMV produces yellow mottle and mosaic on the leaves and the plants show stunted
growth. Sometimes, flowers get malformed with colour break. Aphids are the non-
persistent host for this virus. LiMV can be detected in hybridization assays since the
coat protein gene has been sequenced and virus specific primers have been produced
(Dekker et al., 1993).
CMV also produces mosaic patterns on the foliage and also necrosis on the plants.
Myzus persicae is a common vector of CMV.
Leaf scorch: Leaf scorch occurs at the time when flower buds are not yet visible. First
of all the young leaves are slightly inward and then a few days later greenish-yellow to
whitish spots appear on the scorched leaves. In severe cases all leaves and the tender
young buds will be lost. Leaf scorch occurs when there is a disturbance in the balance
between the absorption and evaporation of water which causes a calcium deficiency in
the cells of the youngest leaves. This disorder can be managed effectively by keeping
soil moistened before planting, plant bulb with good root system, plants to an adequate
depth i.e., allow 6cm-10cm of soil on top of the bulb, prevent large difference in green
house temperature and air humidity and maintain the R.H of approximately 75%.
Lilium 351
Bud drop and bud desiccation/Abscission: Bud drop can occur when the flower
buds reach a length of 1 to 2 cm. Buds turn light green in color when plants receive
insufficient light. Bud desiccation occurs if rooting conditions are poor. i.e. too dry
soil. Controlled by providing proper sun light (2000-3000 lux) and bulbs should not
be allowed to dry out during planting.
Papery leaves: The occurrence of papery leaves is related to weather conditions
outside previous to harvest, and the RH in the greenhouse. Under bright sunlight, lily
plants being produced under a high RH (exceeding 80%) will transpire slowly and
accumulate excessive moisture. After harvest, the stomata on the leaves of these lilies
will no longer be able to close. Areas of the leaves will then desiccate and take on a
papery appearance. A high RH combined with low light conditions will also increase
the risk of papery leaves. Maintain RH below 80% by watering beneath the crop,
shade during excessive sunlight and by providing sufficient light in the greenhouse
effectively control the papery leaves.
Nutrient deficiency
Iron deficiency: The leaf tissue between the veins of the young leaves is yellowish
green. This occurs particularly among rapidly growing plants. The greater the iron
deficiency the more yellow the plant will become. This abnormality occurs especially
in calcium rich soils (high pH) and on light, sludge soils or on sites with excess water.
It may also occur if soil temperature is too low. Iron deficiency can be control by
ensuring that the soil is well drained with a sufficiently low pH and good root system.
Iron chelate should be added to soils with a pH higher than 6.5 before planting @
2-3 g/m2. To prevent leaf scorch, the chelate should be applied in the early evening to
a moist crop.
Nitrogen deficiency: It results in the whole leaf becoming lighter in color and is often
more noticeable when plants are about to bloom. It should be controlled by applying
sufficient quantities of nitrogen based on the soil samples.
Other deficiency problems: One or more other deficiency problems can occur
during lily cultivation. Only some of these can be identified by a discoloration of the
leaves. By applying the required element in time, the symptoms can be prevented or
eliminated. In addition to the previous two deficiency diseases described, here are a
few more that may occur.
Calcium (Ca): Plants remain small and the colour of the leaves is light to pale green.
Leaf tips bend downward and sometimes turn brown at the very end. The leaves are
sometimes very pale green with white spots. Root development is poor. A calcium
deficiency can be prevented by liming the soil before planting with calcium carbonate
(CaCO3). Other fertilisers can also contribute to eliminating a calcium deficiency. These
include magnesium carbonate (MgCO3), magnesium oxide (MgO) and magnesium
hydroxide (Mg(OH)2).
Phosphate (P): Plants remain somewhat smaller. Colour is dull pale green. The
more mature leaves develop brownish-red leaf tips. A deficiency of phosphate can
be difficult to solve during cultivation since the phosphate level should be sufficient
previous to cultivation. Increasing the phosphate level can be done by fertilising with
dicalcium phosphate (CaHPO4). This fertiliser does not contain any fluoride. Scatter
phosphate previous to tilling the soil.
Potassium (K): Plants remain small and are somewhat stocky, poor growth rate;
younger leaves are dull yellow-green with a brown discoloration except for the leaf
tips. Small white necrotic spots appear over the entire surface of the leaves. Ultimately,
the leaf tips wither. Potassium deficiency can be eliminated by fertilising with such
fertilisers as nitrate of potash (K2O). This fertiliser can be added to the sprinkling
water.
Magnesium (Mg): Plants remain small. Leaves are light green and bent downward.
Brownish-white spots sometimes occur along the length of the leaves. The most
mature leaves show the worst symptoms. A magnesium deficiency can be eliminated
by applying magnesium sulphate with a sprinkler circuit or scattering it among the
plants.
References
Aartrijk, J. Van and Blom-Barnhoorn. G.T. 1980. Effects of sucrose, mineral salts and some
organic substances and the adventitious regeneration in vitro of plantlets from bulb-scale
of Lilium speciosum ‘Rubrun’. Acta Hort. 109:297-302.
De Jong, P.C. 1974. Some notes on the evolution of lilies. Lily Yearbook North Am. Lily Soc.
27: 23–28.
Dhyani, A.2007. Exploring Lilium polyphyllum in Uttarakhand, India. The lily yearbook of
North American lily Society, pp: 79-82.
Duong, T.N., Bui Van Le. And Tran Thbh Van, K. 2001. Manipulation of morphogenetic
pathways of L. longiflorum transverse thin layer explants by auxin and cytokinin. In vitro
cellular and developmental boil.’ Plants, 37(1):44-49.
GRIN. 2016. Germplasm Resources Information Network. Available at http://www.ars-grin.
gov. Accessed, 29 Feb 2016.
Han, S.S.1992. Role of sucrose in bud development and vase life of cut Liatris spicata (L.)
Willd. Hort Science., 27:1198-2000.
Heins, R.D., Pemberton, H.B. and Wilkins, H.F.1982. The influence of light in lily (Lilium
longiflorum Thunb.).1. Influence of light intensity on plant development. J.Amer. Soc.
Hort. Sci., 107: 330-335.
Kim, K.W., Kim,K.A., Byun, M., Kim.K.W., Kim,K.A. and Byun, M.S.1999. physiological
changes before and after breaking dormancy of L. honsonii bulblets regeneration in vitro.
J. Korean Soc. Hort. Sci., 40(6):751-754.
Larson, R.A. 1980.Introduction to Floriculture. New York, U.S.A.: Academic Press Inc.,
Linderman, R.G.1985. Easter lilies. In: Diseases of floral crops. Vol.2. (Ed.). Strider, D.L.L.New
York, U.S.A.: Praeger Publishers,pp. 9-40.
Magnani, G.1988. The effect of temperature levels during scale multiplication on the yield of
bulblets of Lilium. Colture Protette, 17(11):69-74.
Miller, R.O.1991. Lilies. In: Ball Red Book. (Ed.) Ball, V. 15th edition. West Chicago, III,
U.S.A.: George J. Ball Publisher, 625-651.
Miller, W.B. and Langhans, R.W.1989a. Carbohydrate changes of Easter lilies during growth in
normal and reduced irradiance environments. J.Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci., 114:310-315.
Miller, W.B. and Langhans, R.W.1989a. Reduced irradiance affects dry weight partitioning in
Easter lily. J.Amer. Soc. Hort.Sci., 114: 306-309.
Misra, P. and Datta, S.K.2001. Acclimatisation of Asiatic hybrid lilies under stress condition
after propagation through tissue culture. Current Science, 81(12):1530-1533.
Lilium 353
Niimi, Y., Dong Shang, H., Fujisaki, M. and Han, D.S. 2001. Production of virus free plantlets
by anther culture of Lilium x Enchantment. Scientia Hort., 90(3-4):325-334.
Raju, V.S. and Misra, R.L.2002. Response of Asiatic hybrid lily to flower bud removal. J.
Ornamental Horti., 5(2): 74-75.
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the bulbs of L. longiflorum cv. ‘Nellie White’. Hort. Science., 9:38-39.
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24
Statice
Ranjit Singh and Parminder Singh
Statice, botanically known as Limoniumis very highly demanded ornamental plant. It

is also known as ‘Sea Lavender’ owing to its color and place of growth. The genus
name Limonium is from Greek name ‘leimon’ which translates to origin ‘a meadow’,
most suitable as many species are found growing near marshy lands or salty areas of
sea shore. The statice plants have very wide adaptability and can be seen growing
under a wide range soil and climatic conditions like sea shores, marshy lands, deserts
and plains etc. Statice figures in top 20 cut flowers sold worldwide but information on
its trade, volume, export-import and number of stems sold etc. is not available. The
reason for this may be attributed to classification systems, data collection categories
and frequently changing nature of the assortments in the international flower market.
Comprehensive trade statistics are difficult to locate for Statice. However, Statice
figured in top 10 imported products in the Netherlands way back during 2013, 2014
and 2015. Though it is presently not among the top 10 flowers category, still it enjoys
the immense popularity among the growers owing to its ease in cultivation and other
characteristics. It is cultivated as annual as well as perennial crop, as different species
have been domesticated for this purpose.
Importance and uses
Statice is used in flower bouquets as low-cost filler. It replaces gypsophylla in
preparation of flower arrangements and bouquets. Unique characteristics of its branches
make it very special for bouquets, corsages and other flower arrangements. As a filler
it is very much used in making mixed bouquets. As per Royal Flora Holland figures
during 2018, Limonium recorded 21 % increase in volume compared to 2017. Its bright
purple, pink, yellow or white flowers complement the bouquets (Hamrick, 2003).
Statice is also grown for garden decoration as it is suitable for borders, rock gardens,
pots and for alpine houses. The calyx of the flowers of statice retains its original colour
even after dying. So, it is also used as dry flower, as solely or in making bouquets and
arrangements. Limonium profusum species used for extraction of medicines from its
roots (Arora and Pal ,2002). It is grown worldwide like Mediterranean region, Europe,
Japan, Korea, China, Israel, Kenya, Zimbabwe, USA, Colombia and India. In India
it is cultivated in almost all the states. However, in Punjab it is cultivated as winter
annual for seed production and also as filler for making flower arrangements.
Origin, Morphology and Taxonomy

Statice is native to Europe; the Mediterranean regions, Asia and Canary Islands.
Caucasus mountains are reported to be the place of origin for L. tataricum species.
Many species are found growing near or around the coastal marshes which are
characterized by salty or saline soils.
The sea lavender or statice, Limonium sp. belongs to family Plumbaginaceae which
falls in caryophyllale order in kingdom plantae. The Limonium sp may be annual,
biennial or perennials with deciduous and ever green nature. Plants are 60-65 cm
tall. Leaves are simple to entire or sometime pinnatifid or lobed in different species.
Leaves are stalkless, rosettes from which plant grows upright. Inflorescence is panicle
or corymb. The stems which bear inflorescences only carry scale leaves also known
as winged stem. The individual flowers are small 4-10 mm long with 5-lobed calyx
and corolla and five stamens. The color of the flower may be pink, or violet to purple
or yellow or white. Many species are apomictic. Fruit is capsule which is very small
containing a single seed, partly enclosed by the calyx which is persistent and retains
its color even after drying.
Climate
Statice is cultivated in open and sunny situation. Night temperature range between
13-15˚ C and day temperature range 23-27˚ C is preferred temperature regime for
production of flowers. Temperature is reported to influence the flowering of Statice
when employed through seed treatment. The seed treatment to low temperature is
reported to reduce the time period from sowing to flowering and also increased the
number of cut flowers produced (Yoo et al., 1998). Vernalization of seedlings at 2-3˚ C
for 30 days also have been reported to cause early flowering (Azuma et al 1983). Farina
et al(2000) also concluded that low temperature exposure of the plants at suitable
growth stage is necessary for blooming of statice. Five weeks at 6˚ C applied to plants
with more than 16 leaves are sufficient for induction of flowering. Devernalization was
also not observed after the exposure of the vernalized adult plants to constant 32˚ C for
4 weeks. Chin Dan et al (2009) also have reported beneficial effect of low temperature
treatment of plants of Limonium cv. Fantasia as low temperature treatment for six
weeks has resulted in early flowering, also improved the quality of cut flowers, yield
and also increased fresh weight of stems. L. perezii is free flowering species, does not
require any vernalization.
Limonium sinuatum is classified as facultative long day plant with critical day length of
13 hr. Long days also promote flowering in many species (Chen et al, 2010). Low light
intensities are detrimental to flowering in statice as the flower stocks become corky
and weak, thus reduce the quality of the produce. Seedling illumination combined with
low temperature treatment at 2-3˚ C for 50 days resulted in increased number of cut
flowers produced (Katsutani et al 1998).
Statice 357
Soil
Statice is grown successfully in wide range of soils, however it prefers soils which
are rich in lime content with soil pH 6.5-7.5 and EC 0.7 mmhos/cm. It is resistant to
drought hence we can think of sandy soils also. Sandy loam textured soils with ample
organic matter and good drainage are most suitable for many species, except L.altaica
which prefers clayey soils.
The basic chromosome numbers for genus Limonium is reported as 6, 7, 8, 9
(Darlington and Wylie, 1969). Polyploidy is well documented in this genus. Laguna et
al (2016) has also reported aneuploid and polyploid species which are occurring in this
genus through apomictic seed production. There are around 150 species under genus
Limonium. Limonium species are diverse in growth habit and cycles which include
annual (L. lobatum, L. sinuatom ssp, L. beaumieranum), perennial herbs (L. sinuatum
ssp sinuatum) and even woody shrubs up to 2m (L. arborescens) (Morgan and Funnel,
2018). Some species are listed below:
L. album (Coincy) Sennen: Perennial species, found near region of Murcia, Spain at
an altitude of 300-500 m. on rocky slopes.
L. alutaceum (Steven) Kuntze: Native to west, Ukraine
L. amoenum (CH wright) R.A. Dyer: Native to S.W.Cape Province
L. aureum (L.) Hill: Erect 30 cm tall perennial but grown as annual. Calyces are
yellow to orange good for cut flower.
Limonium acuminatum L. Bolus: Native range is S.W. Cape.
L. bellidifolium (Gouan) Dumort.: Commonly known as matted sea lavender and is
found in salt marshes of Europe and South West Asia. It is compact evergreen woody-
based perennial and grows from rhizome.
L. gmelinii (Willd.) Kuntze: Commonly known as Siberian statice. Perennial, very
attractive with smoky blue flowers. Very attractive to butterflies and bees.
L. otolepis (Schrenk) Kuntze: Perennial, rhizomatous and herbaceous in nature.
Flower color pale blue purple.
L. perezii (Stapf.) F.T. Hubb.: Commonly known as Perez sea lavender and Sea foam
statice. It is native of the Canary Islands and is widely used genus. It is perennial with
woody rhizome which hold its basal rosette with triangular shaped leaves.
L. peregrinum (P.J. Bergius) R.A. Dyer: It is endemic to Cape west coast. Grows to
100 cm. Leaves are long and oblanceolate. Petals are magenta with calyx dull pink in
color.
L. purpuratum F.T. Hubb. ex L.H. Bailey: Its native range is South West cape
province.
Limonium platyphyllum Lincz: Perennial, branched 60-62 cm tall, long leaves. Six
mm long deep Lavender to Blue flowers, calyces white. Also known as broad leaved
statice.
L. sinuatum (L.) Mill.: It is common statice or wavy leaf sea lavender or annual
statice. Its plants are erect. It is herbaceous perennial. But in India grown as winter
annual. Plant is branched and 50-60 cm tall. Leaves are long to lance shaped deeply
lobed with wavy margins, basal rosettes. Flowers are small funnel shaped pink, white
or blue in color. Violet blue calyx and white corolla. It requires very low maintenance
and used as cut flower.
L. sinense (Giard) Kuntze: Herbaceous perennial with up to 60 cm height. The
underground part i.e. roots of this species are reported to have an antiviral compound
gallic acid which inhibits the hepatitis C virus infection by blocking early viral entry
into the cells (Hsu et al., 2015). This species occurs near China sea shore, Ryukyu
islands,Taiwan and Vietnam
L. tataricum (L.) Mill syn Goniolimon tartaricum commonly known as Tartarian Sea
Lavender or Tartarian Statice or German Statice. It has pink, violet or white colored
flowers. It is perennial in nature. It has more compact shape with small flowers.
L. vulgare Mill. It is perennial plant that can grow up to 30 cm height. The root
of this species has medicinal value. They are decongestant and depurative (Freethy,
1985). Plant is also known to repel moths. (Freethy, 1985) and root is source of tannin
(Uphoff,1959).
Cultivars: Morgan and Funnell (2018) stated that comparatively narrow range of
closely related species is currently being used in the trade. They have also reported
that the cultivars are categorized horticulturally as Altaica, Latifolium, Sinensis and
Limonium or statice.
I. Altaica: Hybrids of L. gmelinii, L. altaica L. latifolium and L. serotinum. They
include Emille cultivars.
II. Latifolium: Hybrids between L. latifolium and L. otolepsis
Eg. Misty Blue, Beltlaard
III. Sinensis: Includes hybrids between L. Sinensisand, L. fortunei, L. tetragonum
and L. aureum
IV. Statice comprises of L. sinuatum
Some of the selected cultivars are given (Mukherjee, 2008)
Blue Colour: Blue Bonnet, Blue Moon, Turbo Blue, Misty Blue, Forever Blue,
Excellent Blue, Sea Sun Birds, Aqua Sun Birds.
Lavender Colour: Lavender Emille, Lavender Queen, Sky Sun Birds.
Pink Colour: Excellent Pink, Forever Pink, Pink Emile, Atlanta Sun Birds, Caldo Sun
Birds.
Purple Colour: Turbo Purple, Forever Purple, Purple Monarch, Excellent purple.
Rose Colour: American Beauty, Early Rose, Sunset Rose, Rose Light, Sophia, Rose
Strike
Yellow Colour: Forever Gold, Forever Yellow, Gold Coast, Sunset Yellow, Turbo
Yellow,Shiny Sun Birds
Statice 359
White Colour: Forever White, Iceberg,Turbo White, Snow Birds, Silver Sun Birds
China Flamingo, China Red, Misty Blue, Misty White are perennial cultivars of statice.
Yellow cultivars are more prone to root fungi than blue cultivars, hence need more
care while cultivation.
Propagation
Statice can be propagated through seeds, vegetative means and micropropagation.
Most of the perennial cultivars grown under protected conditions are propagated
through micropropagation.
Seed propagation
Seed propagation is easy and best method and is common for annual types. Seeds of
statice are planted as winter annual. One-gram weight consists of around 350 seeds.
Seeds are sown during September-October in plains when the temperature falls down.
Best temperature for germination of seeds is 14-18˚C. Seed germinate within 5-9
days. Seedlings when acquire 3-4 cm length, are transplanted in the main field. In hills
transplanting time is March-April. Avoid early sowing of seeds as it is reported that
seeds require vernalization. Vernalization of seeds certainly improves germination,
plant growth, stem length and weight of fresh cut stems. Vernalization of statice seeds
at 2-3˚C for 30 days has been reported beneficial for early flowering and also increased
the number of flowers per plant (Azuma et al 1983).
Vegetative propagation: Perennial statice cultivars are propagated through division
of clumps as in case of some grasses. Each separated portion from the clumps must
contain some roots.
Micropropagation: Perennial Limonium species are multiplied through micropro-
pagation for commercial cultivation in countries like Israel, Holland, Korea, Japan
etc. Micropropagated plants have advantages in many ways. They are uniform
in growth and color, disease free and bear flowers at the top of the stem with long
stems. Shoot tips and axillary buds at flowering stage have been successfully used as
explant for micropropagation. MS medium has been used with various supplements
of growth regulators depending upon the need i.e. for shoot and root regeneration.
Plant regeneration from cell suspension culture has also been reported in statice.
Lateral buds from flowering stock were used and cultured in vitro in half strength MS
medium. Repeated sub-culturing was done along with low temperature treatment at
2-4˚C to the shoots thus regenerated. It was found that low temperature treatment of
shoots with less sub-culturing results in more and uniform flowering (Miyama, 2009).
Planting
Three to four weeks old seedlings are transplanted or when they have attained 4-5
cm height. Since statice is chiefly cultivated from seeds as winter annual so planting
time is Mid-September to Mid-October for open field conditions. Plant spacing of
60×30 cm has been reported optimum for November transplanting for various yield
characteristics. While planting of statice for landscaping and as border or rock garden
generally 25-30 cm spacing is followed. Plants generally come to flower after 3-4
months. Approximately 14000-15000 plants are required for planting one-acre. Very
close plants viz. 30×30 cm will result in more number of cut stems but quality may
be compromised. Continuous cropping can be harvested, if the climatic conditions are
mild provided with 2-4 weeks interval in seed sowing as well as transplanting. The
perennial Limonium varieties can also be grown outdoor but the attack of Botrytis
blight may be a challenging factor. Hence, they can be cultivated in low cost protected
structures like bamboo made structures or even naturally ventilated polyhouse. The
perennial varieties will flower many times a year and are not in much demand of cool
or chilling hours as in case of annual varieties. For greenhouse cultivation 30×30 cm
spacing is followed. The bed width is 1m with 40 cm wide path between the beds
is recommended. Two rows of plants are planted per bed. This will accommodate 6
plants per net meter square area. Cultivar Emille is suitable for high density planting,
it can be planted 8 plants per net m2 area. The plant spacing may be followed 40×40
cm or 30×30 cm depending upon the weather i.e. winter planting or summer planting
scheme. The perennial crop may last for 3-4 years.
Manuring
Field should be well prepared by incorporating well rottened Farm Yard Manure @ 20
Tonnes per acre at least 15-20 days before actual planting. Statice plants do not require
much nutrition. The basal dose for statice has been recommended by the Netherlands
grower companies that consists of potassium sulphate, magnesium sulphate and triple
super phosphate each @ 30-40 gm per meter square area. In another recommendation
application of 100 kg/hectare each of N, P, K is emphasized for proper crop growth.
Half of this N and full P and K should be incorporated in soil before transplanting as
basal dose. Remaining half N is applied one month after first application. Lot of work
have been reported on nutritional aspects but again it is based on soil characteristics.
The liquid fertilization is also practiced in statice. The target figures for main
element in liquid fertilization in perennial statice is as (values in mmol/liter)-NH4+
0.1, Nitrate(NO3-) 2.5, Potassium(K+) 1.3, Chlorine(Cl-) ˂ 0.4, Sodium(Na+) ˂ 0.4,
Sulphate(SO4-) 1.5, Calcium(Ca2+) 1.5, Bicarbonates(HCO3-) 0.5, Magnesium(Mg2+)
1.0, Phosphate(H2PO4-) 0.1. The EC of the water through which fertilization, if applied
through drip is very important. It must not increase 0.5 m mohs/s.
Irrigation
As the Statice grows from basal rosette leaves, in 3-4 months the crop will be coming
to harvesting. It grows very fast at early stages. Soil moisture stress at any stage may
lead to economic losses. So, adequate amount of moisture in the soil is essential. The
water supply at flowering stage may reduce but not stopped. At early stages of plant
growth overhead irrigation can be employed. After rosette formation care should be
taken that leaves do not rot due to accumulation of water on them. Flower bud must
not come in contact with water, it may lead to development of botrytis blight. The
statice plants absorb enough water from ground during the night to compensate water
requirement of the plant. In terms of salinity tolerance L. sinuatum is reported to be
moderately tolerant while L. Perezii is sensitive (Grieve et al 2005).
Statice 361
Support
The plants particularly the perennial types are to be supported by wire mesh netting.
A single layer of 17×20 cm mesh wire netting is used. Supporting poles are placed
oneither side of the beds at 3.5 m to 5 m intervals (Anonymous, 1997).The support
is required both for indoor and outdoor cultivation as the flowering stems has the
tendency to lodge downwards.
Weed control
Many weedicides have been reported for statice but one must be careful about the label
claims as well as adequate dosages. As the improper utilization may lead to development
of resistance among the weeds. Innova (1999) has reported that six herbicides applied
have resulted in increased cut flower yield. Pre emergence herbicides applied before
transplanting and a second application over the top before flowering with Chlorothal-
dimethyl, oxadiazon and oxyfluorfen proved safe for control of weeds. Alachlor,
Chlorothal-dimethyl, Napropamide and Ozyzalin have been reported effective even
against grasses also during winter.
Extending flowering period
Some work has been reported that flowering can be extended in statice from over
and above its natural flowering time. Low temperature treatment has been tried. Blue
and White cultivars of L. sinuatum were tried by vernalization (6˚ C for 5 weeks) of
seedling to produce early (February) crop. For production of flowering during mid-
October to end November white cultivars were unable to produce flowers in response
to vernalization.
As mentioned earlier harvesting can be expected in 3-4 months after planting
depending upon variety and climatic conditions. Flower stems should be cut when
90% of the flowers show color and are open. Flowers should not be picked too early or
at immature stage as they will not open in vases. Harvesting stage can be ascertained
when most of the calyices have been opened and start showing color. The stems are cut
with sharp secateur and are put in water immediately after harvesting.
The yield of cut stems also varies with variety. Generally depending upon the cultivar,
it varies from 12-20 stems per plant per year (100-125 stems/m2/year). Blue colored
varieties are reported to be low yielder as compared to yellow cultivars.
Post-Harvest Handling
After the flowers have reached at post-harvest handling facility, the lower 2-3 cm
portion is recut and is placed in plain water. They will remain fresh for 2 weeks in
plain water. Gibberellic acid @ 300 ppm has been reported to enhance the flower
bud opening when used along with certain biocides like silver nitrate or aluminum
sulphate. The flowers of statice can be stored at 5˚ C.
Stems are graded based on uniform stem length, free from disease/ insects and freshness
of the produce. The stems are made into bunches of 5 each and then 5 bunches (25
stems) are packed in one package especially polythene sleeves which are supplied by
auction centers in the Netherlands. In local market 20 stems per bunch are sold without
any packing.
Drying of flowers
Dried flowers of statice are also prevalent in the market for flower arrangements and
bouquets, due to their special ability to retain color even after drying. The flowers dried
properly will remain in good condition for 2-4 years. For drying of statice flowering
stage of harvesting is very important. The proper stage is when half of the flower
are open in on the stems. The leaves are removed from the stems. They are made
into bunches of 15-20 each. They are tied from the base lightly. Then these bundles
are hanged upside down in well ventilated dark room till they dry up completely.
Alternatively stems of statice can also be dried by soaking in glycerol and water (1:2
ratio) solution followed by microwave treatment at 34˚ C for one minute.
Insects Pests and Diseases
Insects: Most of the statice varieties come to flowering during February onwards in
Northern plains. At this time, it may be attacked by various sucking insect pests and
also, by insects which damage foliage by cutting and eating the leaves thus reduce
the quality. Various sucking pests like Aphids, thrips can be controlled by spraying
rogor (2ml/L) or Imidacloprid (40 ml/100 L of water) or thiamethoxym(2ml/L) one
or two sprays are enough. Try to use green labelled insecticides. Mealy bugs are not
big problem but sometimes may attack the statice crop. For mealy bugs Profenofos
2-2.5 ml/L or clothianidin (15 ml/100L water) can be used effectively. For other
types of insects like larvae etc. which cut and chew the foliage, one can go for
chloropyriphos(2ml/L) or chlorantraniliprole (1-2 ml/L) or spinetoram (100g/100L of
water) as broad-spectrum insecticides.
Diseases
Damping off: This disease occurs in nursey stage. The seedlings are infected with
this disease. The collar region is affected first, then the seedling dies. The causal
organism may Pythium spp, and Phytophthora spp.\. The disease can be suppressed
by drenching the nursery beds with some fungicide like carbendazim @ 2g/liter or try
other suitable fungicide.
Powdery mildew (Oidium sp): Powdery mildew colonies will be visible on the
infected portion. This is more likely to occur in warm winters. It can be controlled
by spraying Tridemorpz @ 0.5 ml/L or Carbendazim @ 2g/L or Zineb 300 g dusty
powder.
Downy mildew (Peronospora statices): This fungus produces spores at temperature
range of 15-18˚ C which is easily available during day time during winter in Northern
Indian plains. The fungal spores penetrate through the stomatal pores on lower side.
Chlorotic or reddish colored spots on young leaves appear which may be followed
Statice 363
by brown oval or round spots on the edges of the leaves. To control this disease
spray application of azoxystrobin @2ml/liter or forsetyl or mancozeb @ 2g/L is
recommended.
Grey mould: (Botrytis cinerea) This fungus infects the leaves and flowers causing
irreversible damage. Very low temperature along with high humidity favors the spread
of this disease. Soft water soaked, small brown spots appear on the leaves and flower
buds or petals. In dark colored petals the spots are brown white and in light colored
petals they are white and circular. These spots develop into fuzzy grey mould, the
spores are air borne thus infecting more plants. It can be prevented by
During cultivation; - Do not allow flowers to come into direct contact with water.
During processing; - Never place damp flowers in the cold store, Do not bunch flowers
too tightly so that moisture from breathing can evaporate, Remove damaged or loose
leaves, as they can be easily affected by Botrytis, Keep buckets clean.
We have to manage growing environment (if growing indoor) or we can go for certain
fungicides like carbendazim(2g/L) or benomyl(2g/L) or chlorothanonil(2g/L)
Leaf spots: Various fungi are reported to cause leaf spots in statice. They may be
Cercospora insulana, Alternaria sp and Phyllostricta sp etc Spray application of
chlorothanonil(2g/L) or mancozeb(2g/L) will be effective enough to control these leaf
spots.
Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporiodes): This fungus causes crown rot
and lesions on the leaves, stems and young flower buds. Spray the crop with
carbendazim(2g/L) or mancozeb(2g/L) at weekly interval can control the disease very
effectively.
Bacterial leaf spot and Bacterial wilt: Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas caryophylli) are
characterized by unilateral chlorosis or entire wilting. Where as in bacterial leaf spot
(P. andropogonis) leaf and flower scape lesions are seen. For bacterial diseases we can
spray antibiotics.
Viral Diseases: Number of viruses are reported to infect Statice. Some of them are
Clover Yellow Vein Virus, Cucumber Mosaic cucumovirus, Tomato Spotted Wilt
tospovirus etc. We have to control the vectors which cause their spread. This may
be any insect or sometimes our cutting implements may also help in spread of viral
diseases.
Phytoplasma diseases: Some workers have reported aster Yellow phytoplasma
disease in some varieties of Statice. They will cause degeneration of chloroplast,
flower phyllody. Witches broom, leaf reddening, stunting growth, shoot dieback,
malformation, flower discoloration and seed sterility. We must remove and destroy
such plants and control the vector (insect pests) responsible for the transmission of
phytoplasma.
References
Anonymous 1997. Production Manual Perennial Statice (Free flowering varieties) APEDA,
Ministry of Commerce Govt. of India pp 9
Arora, J S and Pal P. 2002. StaticeIn Commercial Flowers Vol 1&2 (Eds. Bose T K and Yadav
LP) Nayaprokash Calcutta. PP 576-584
Azuma A, Shimasaki Jand Inubushi S .1983. Acceleration of flowering of statice (Limonium
sinuatum Mill) by seed vernalization. J.Jap.Soc.Hort.Sci.51(4):466-474
Chen J, Funnell K A and Morgan Ed .2010 A model for scheduling flowering of a Limonium
sinuatum × L. perezii hybrid. Horti Science 45(10) 1441-1446
Chin Young Don, Dong Chun An, Ju Chean Hwang, Ju Yeon Song, Byoung Ryong Jeong.
2009. Effect of Low Temperature on Flowering and Cut Flower Yield of Limonium spp.
‘Fantasia’ Korean J Hortic Science and Tech 27(3): 380-385
Darlington CD, Wylie AP .1969. Chromosome atlas of flowering plants, 2nd edn. McMillan,
New York
Farina E, Dalla Guda and Scordo E. 2000. Effect of low temperature and photoperiod on
flowering of Limonium gmelinii Acta Hortic,. 541 pp:93-199
Freethy, R.1985. From Agar to Zenery: The Crossword Press, Marlborough U.K. Grieve C M,
Poss J A, Grattan S R, Shouse P J, Leith J H and Zeng L. 2005. Productivity and mineral
nutrition of Limonium species irrigated with saline waste waters. Hort. Science., 40(3):
654-658
Hamrick D. 2003. Ball Red Book Crop Production Volume -2, 17th Edition, Ball Publishing
Batavia, Illinois USA Pp 506-511
Hsu Wen-Chan, Chang Shun-Pong, Lin Lie-Chwen, Li Chia-Lin, Richardson C D, Lin Chung-
Ching and Lin Liang-Tzung. 2015. Limonium sinense and gallic acid suppress hepatitis C
virus infection by blocking early viral entry. Antiviral Research 118 pp139-14
Innova I (1999) Effect of some herbicides systems on flower production of statice (Limonium
sinuatum) Rastenievdni-Nauki.36(4) Pp 212-215
Katsutani N, Kajihara S, Kawamoto Y and Hara H. 1998. Forcing of Statice (Limonium sinuatum
Mill.) by low temperature treatment of seedlings with illumination to prevent their rot Bull
Hiroshima Perfectural Agri. Res. Centre No. 66 53-59
Laguna E, Navarro A, Perez-Rovira P, Ferrando I, Pablo Ferrer-Gallego, P. 2016. Translocation
of Limonium perplexum (Plumbaginaceae), a threatened coastal endemic. Plant Ecol
217(10):1183–1194.
Morgan and Fennell K. 2018. Limonium In Handbook of Plant Breeding- Ornamental Crops
(Eds. Huylenbroeck, Van J.) Springer International Publishing AG. Switzerland PP 520-27
Mukherjee, D. 2008. Specialty Cut Flowers Production Technologies, Naya Udyog, Calcutta
pp 447-473 Sub culturing in vitro on subsequent flowering of Limonium sinuatum Mill.
67(4) pp 632-634
Uphof, J C T.1959. Dictionary of Economic Plants Weinheim, Engelmann. 400pp
Yoo, D L, Ryu S Y, Kim W B, Nam C W Choi Y E Kim B Hand Kim J K .1998. Effects of high
land raising and seed low temperature treatment on yield of statice (Limonium sinuatum)
cut flowers under structures during winter season in low land RDA J.Hort Sci.40(1150-
154).
25
Jasmines
Safeena S.A.
Jasmines constitute a group of traditional flower crops which are commercially grown
for their fragrant flowers and essential oil production. There are trailing, climbing,
and erect growing species and cultivars in the genus Jasminum. The genus Jasminum
comprises of more than 200 species which are known to occur in different tropical and
subtropical regions of the world. The countries growing Jasmines on a commercial
scale are India, France, Italy, Morocco, Algeria, North Africa, Egypt and Spain. More
than 80 Jasminum species are found in India, of which only four species viz., Jasminum
sambac (Mogra / Gundumalli), Jasminum auriculatum (Jui / Mullai), Jasminum
multiflorum syn Jasminum pubescens (Kunda / Kakda) and Jasminum grandiflorum
(Jai / Pitchi) are widely used for commercial cultivation. Jasmines are commercially
grown in many parts of the country as a dry land crop. The leading states in jasmine
production are South Indian states like Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
In India, the commercial cultivation of jasmines are popular in Athoor, Coimbatore,
Dharampuri, Dindigul, Erode, Krishnagiri, Madurai, Nilakottai, Periakulam, Salem,
Thiruchirapalli, Thirunelveli, Thiruvallur, Tirumanagalam, Vellore, Virudhunagar etc.
in Tamil Nadu; Bangalore, Bellary, Kolar, Mysore, Shimoga, Tumkur etc. in Karnataka
; Hyderabad, Khammam, Mahbubnagar, Mancherial, Ranga Reddy, Sangareddy,
Vikarabad, Warangal Rural, Yadadri etc. in Telangana; Anantapur, Chittoor, Cuddapah,
East Godavari, Guntur, Krishna, Kurnool, Nellore, Prakasam, West Godavari etc.
in Andhra Pradesh; Ahmednagar, Aurangabad, Pune, Sangli etc. in Maharashtra;
Ahmedabad, Anand, Bharuch, Bhavnagar, Kutch, Vadodara etc. in Gujarat; Gazipur,
Jaunpur, Kannauj etc. in Uttar Pradesh; Ajmer, Jaipur, Kota, Udaipur etc. in Rajasthan;
Panskura Ranaghat etc. in West Bengal; Guwahati, Hoja, Jorhat etc.in Assam ; and
parts of Punjab and Delhi. Jasmines contributes markedly to the national economy and
it is estimated that annually more than 20 crores worth of jasmine flowers are produced
and traded in India and are also exported to countries like Malaysia, Singapore, Sri
Lanka, UAE and United States (Safeena et al., 2017).
Importance and Uses
The flowers of jasmines are used for various purposes viz., for making special type
of flower strings called veni, garlands, decorating hair of women, worshipping /
religious offerings, floral decorations etc. The flowers of jasmine are mostly worn by
women in their hair in south India. This crop is extensively cultivated for the unique
fragrance of their flowers. The flowers of jasmine are used for extraction of essential
oil which is used in preparing high grade perfumes, perfumed hair oils and attar, soap
and cosmetic industry, colognes and flavouring the beverages etc. The main beauty
and uniqueness of Jasmine is its odour, which cannot be imitated by any known
synthetic aromatic chemical, still has a unique status in the perfume world (Safeena
et al.,2016). Jasmine oil blends with every floral scent and hence widely used as an
important perfumery item throughout the world. It is in good demand in the world
market and used widely in cosmetic and perfumery industries and have a great export
potential. Jasmines are also enjoyed in the garden, as a house plant. Jasminum species
are suitable for planting in shrubbery, arches and pergolas. The flowers of Arabian
jasmine (Jasminum sambac) are reported to be used for flavouring tea. They also have
medicinal uses which has growing demand in India as well as in many developed
countries of the world.
The genus Jasminum contains more than 200 species native to tropical, subtropical
and warm temperate regions of the Eurasia, Australasia and Oceania. The center of
diversity of Jasmine is in South Asia and Southeast Asia. The pattern of distribution of
some important Jasminum species is given below: -
J. auriculatum : India
J. grandiflorum : Subtropical Himalayan Region
J. multiflorum : India, China, Myanmar, Malaysia, U.S.A
J. favreri : Myanmar
J. humile : Tropical Asia
J. flexile : India
J. officinale : Iran, India, China
Taxonomy
Taxonomic name Jasminum is a genus of shrubs and vines belonging to the family
Oleaceae. The basic chromosome number of the genus Jasminum is 13, and most
of the species are diploid (2n=26). But, natural polyploidy also exists in Jasminum
species, mostly in Jasminum sambac (2n=39), Jasminum mesnyi (2n=39), Jasminum
angustifolium (2n=52) and Jasminum flexile (2n=52). Jasmines are either erect,
spreading, trailing or climbing shrubs and vines. Leaves of jasmine are opposite or
alternate in arrangement. They can be simple, trifoliate, or pinnate. The flowers are
usually very fragrant, white, cream or yellow in colour, borne in cymose clusters with a
minimum of three flowers, sometimes solitary on the ends of branchlets. Each jasmine
flower consists of about four to nine petals, two locules, and one to four ovules. They
have two stamens with very short filaments. The bracts are ovate or linear. The calyx is
bell-shaped. The fruit of jasmine is a berry that turns to black colour when ripe.
Jasmines 367

Some selected species of Jasminum include Jasminum humile L. – Italian jasmine,
Italian Yellow Jasmine, Peeli Chameli, Semmaligai; Jasminum adenophyllum Wall. –
Blue Grape Jasmine, Pinwheel Jasmine, Princess Jasmine; Jasminum mesnyi Hance
– Japanese Jasmine, Prim Rose Jasmine, Yellow Jasmine; Jasminum angustifolium
(L.) Willd.; Jasminum auriculatum Vahl – Indian jasmine, Needle-flower Jasmine;
Jasminum sambac (L.) Aiton – Arabian jasmine, Sambac jasmine; Jasminum
arborescens – Tree jasmine, Muta, Bela, Nava Mallige; Jasminum calophyllum –
Pandal Malli; Jasminum flexile and Jasminum nittidum.
The four commercially important Jasminum species which are cultivated widely
in India are Jasminum sambac, Jasminum auriculatum, Jasminum multiflorum and
Jasminum grandiflorum. Amongst these, the first three species are mainly cultivated
for use as fresh flowers whereas the last one is cultivated mainly for concrete extraction.
The brief description of these species with their important cultivars are given below.
Jasminum sambac: It is popularly known as Mogra / Bela / Gundumalli / Arabian
Jasmine / Tuscan Jasmine / Malligai. Jasminum sambac is one of the most common
cultivated species in India. The flower buds of this species are white with single or
multi-whorled petals. The leaves are ovate, simple, opposite and smooth (glabrous).
The important varieties of Jasminum sambac are : Adukkumalli, Arka Aradhana
(Flower yield is 8t/ha ,Concrete yield is 14.95 kg/ha), Butt Mogra, Bela Japani,
Double Mogra, Elusuthu malligai, Gundumalli (Average yield of flowers is 7-8t/ha ,
Estimated concrete yield is 15kg/ha), Iruvatchi, Kasthurimalli, Khoya , Madanaban,
Motia, Mysore Mallige, Nilakottai Mallige, Oosimalli, Ramaban, Ramanathapuram
gundumalli (Flower yield is 7 to 8 t/ha.), Rameswaram Mallige, Single Mogra,
Sujimallige, Virupakshi etc.
Jasminum auriculatum: It is commonly known as Jui / Juhi / Mullai / Malle / Indian
Jasmine / Needle flower jasmine. It produces star shaped white scented blooms.
Leaves are simple and occasionally trifoliate. The important varieties of Jasminum
auriculatum are: Co-1 Mullai, Co-2 Mullai, Long Point, Long Round, Manamadhurai
Mullai, Medium Point, Nilakottai Mullai, Periakulam Mullai, Short Point, Short
Round, Parimullai (Concrete recovery is 0.29 per cent ,Flower bud yield is 8 t/ha),
Co-1 Mullai (Concrete recovery is 0.34 per cent, yield 8.8 t/ha ), Co-2 Mullai (yield
- 11 t/ha) etc.
Jasminum multiflorum
It is commonly known as Kundphul / Kunda / Kakada / Kundo / Tundam / Kundamu
/ Star jasmine / Winter Jasmine. It is a highly resistant species of jasmine with high
ornamental value but it is not scented. It bears complete white flowers in clusters which
are widely sold as loose flowers. The important varieties of Jasminum multiflorum are:
Arka Arpan (Flower yield is 6t/ha), Mysore Kakada etc.
Jasminum grandiflorum
It is popularly known as Chameli / Jai / Jahi / Pitchi / Jajimalli / Jathimalli / Royal
Jasmine / Spanish Jasmine / French or Catalonian Jasmine. The leaves are opposite,
pinnate, compound with 7-9 leaflets of equal sizes. Flowers are axillary or terminal,
five petalled, white and often tinged with purple outside. The flowers possess unique
and sweet fragrance. The important varieties / clones of Jasminum grandiflorum are:
Arka Surabhi, Bangalore Pitchi (J.G.1), Co-1 Pitchi, Co-2 Pitchi, Coimbatore Pitchi
(J.G.2), Lucknow Pitchi (J.G.3), Nilakkottai Pitchi, Periakulam Pitchi, Tenkasi White
Pitchi (J.G.4), Thimmapuram Pitchi (J.G.5), Thrum type and Triploid (J.G.6) etc.
Salient features of some Jasminum grandiflorum varieties
Co-1 Pitchi: Clonal selection from germplasm. It is suitable for use as both loose
flowers and extraction of essential oil. Flower buds are pink tinged with long corolla
tube, pink streaks are found on external surface of the flower petal, concrete recovery
is 0.29 per cent, concrete yield is 29.42 kg/ hectare. Average flower yield is 10 t/ha.
Co-2 Pitchi: It is an induced mutant evolved by treating the vegetative cuttings of
Co-1 Pitchi with gamma rays @ 1.5 kR , Buds are bolder, white with pink tinge and
have long corolla tube, The flower bud is 4.14 cm in length as against 4.00 cm in Co-1
Pitchi and weight of 100 flower buds is 10 g. It is best suitable for earlier and quicker
tying of buds in garland making, flower yield is 11.68 t/ha.
Arka Surabhi: It is a clonal selection earlier known as Pink Pin. It is remarkably
tolerant to drought, it is a high yielder of essential oils. Flowers are also sold as fresh
loose flowers, concrete recovery is 0.35 per cent, per hectare yield of concrete is 35 kg
and average flower yield is 10 t/ha.
Climate
Jasmines can be cultivated in a variety of climate. They can be grown in the open
field for commercial flower production. Mild tropical climate is considered to be ideal
for the optimum growth and flowering of Jasmines. It ideally prefers warm summer,
sunny days, moderate rainfall and mild winter for their successful cultivation. They
are sensitive to frost.
Soil
Jasmines can be planted on a wide range of soils. Well-drained sandy loams and red
loams under tropical conditions are best suitable for its cultivation. In clayey type of
soils, increased vegetative growth and reduced flowering is observed. Clayey soils can
be improved by addition of more organic manures and lime. Jasmines can be grown
in sandy soils also, with liberal application of manures and assured supply of water.
Propagation
Most of the cultivated Jasminum species generally do not bear seeds and the plant
is reproduced solely by different methods of asexual propagation. Jasmines can be
propagated by cuttings, layering, sucker, grafting, budding and tissue culture (Safeena
Jasmines 369
et al., 2016). Layering and cuttings are the main methods of propagation. Easiest
method of vegetative propagation is by stem cuttings. Most successful method of
layering is ground layering. Commercially Jasminum auriculatum is propagated by
Semi hard wood cuttings, Jasminum grandiflorum by Terminal cuttings and Jasminum
sambac by Terminal and Semi hardwood cuttings (Safeena., 2018). Higher rooting
percentage and increased number of roots are obtained when cuttings are taken during
April – September. Better rooting of cuttings can be obtained by planting in a medium
of coarse sand under mist and also by using any of the rooting hormones like IBA
(1000 ppm), IAA (1000 ppm) and NAA (1000 ppm) for terminal cuttings. 2500 ppm
of rooting hormones are used for semi hard wood cuttings. Simple and compound
methods of layering can be practiced during June-July to October-November. Layers
will be ready for planting within 90-120 days.
Planting
Jasmines are perennial in nature and once planted, it remains in the same spot for
10-15 years. Hence for planting of jasmines, land with proper drainage, irrigation
facilities and sunny location are essential. Jasmines are generally planted during the
rainy season. Pits of 45 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm have to be dug at least one month before
planting and exposed to sunlight. Pits should be filled with 2 parts of well rotten
farmyard manure and one part each of fresh earth and coarse sand, a few days before
planting. Healthy and strong well-rooted plants are planted in 45 cm3 pits according to
the spacing recommended for each species during June - November.
The distance of planting plays a key role in flower yield. The recommended spacing
for planting of commercially important Jasminum species are given below. Jasminum
sambac are planted at a spacing of 1.25 m x 1.25 m. Jasminum auriculatum are planted
in pits dug at a spacing of 1.8 m x 1.8 m. Jasminum grandiflorum are planted at
a spacing of 2.0 m x 1.5 m. Jasminum pubescens. Syn. Jasminum multiflorum are
planted at a spacing of 1.2 m x 1.2 m.
Manures and Fertilizers
Jasmines responds well to application of manures and fertilizers. Too much of
manuring encourages vegetative growth in Jasmines and hampers quality and quantity
of blooms. In Jasminum sambac, FYM or compost 10 kg and NPK at 60:120:120 g
per plant is applied in two split doses. i.e. once after annual pruning (November) and
again during June - July. In Jasminum auriculatum, FYM or compost 10 kg and NPK
at 120:240:120 g per plant is applied in six split doses at bimonthly intervals. The first
dose is given immediately after annual pruning (January). In Jasminum grandiflorum,
FYM or compost 10 kg, NPK at 60: 120: 120 g per plant is applied in 2 split doses.
i.e. once in December after annual pruning and again in June - July. In Jasminum
multiflorum, FYM or compost 10 kg, NPK at 120:240:120 g per plant is applied in 2
split doses in December after pruning and again in June - July. An increase in flower
yield may be obtained if micronutrients like Mg (40 kg/ha), Boron (5 kg/ha) and Zinc
(10 kg/ha) are applied along with NPK fertilizers.
Irrigation
Irrigation should be given to jasmines immediately after planting followed by weekly
irrigation depending upon the weather conditions. It prefers moderate watering.
Constant and adequate water supply during peak flowering season is essential for high
yield of flowers. During flowering season, water should be applied twice a week if
there are no rains. After flowering is over, the water supply can be cut off. During
summer, irrigate twice a week and once a week during rest of the months.
Weeds compete with the nutrients applied to jasmine and causes obstruction in movement
during harvesting of flower buds. Manual weeding is effective but expensive. The first
weeding in Jasmine plots should be done 20-25 days after planting and subsequent
weeding have to be done once in 2-3 months. Mulching is another effective method to
reduce the weed population. After the first rains, the basins of jasmine plants should be
mulched thoroughly which keeps most of the weeds under control. Mulching should
be followed by 2-3 hand weedings a year. Chemical weed control is effective and
economical. Spraying of post emergent weedicides like paraquat and glyphosate (2.0
kg/ha) can be practised to control both grassy and broad-leaved weeds. Strengthening
of irrigation channels and bunds are the other intercultural operations that should be
followed for jasmine cultivation.
Pruning
In jasmines, flowering habit is terminal and axillary. So, increasing the number of
shoots or branches would increase the yield in jasmines, for which pruning is essential.
Pruning is generally done to get the desired crop. Pruning influences the growth of
new healthy shoots, flower bud initiation, differentiation and ultimately the flower
production in Jasmines. Normally, irrigation is withheld prior to pruning and the
plants are pruned by removing all the past season shoots including dead and diseased
branches. Jasminum sambac bushes are pruned to 50 cm height from the ground level
during last week of November. The bushes of Jasminum auriculatum are pruned to
45 cm height from ground level during the last week of January. Pruning is done
in Jasminum grandiflorum during the last week of December to 45 cm height from
ground level. Pruning is done in Jasminum multiflorum during last week of October to
45 cm height from ground level (Safeena et al., 2020).
Flowering commences in Jasmines after 6 months of planting. Jasmines gives economic
yield only from the third year of planting and produces maximum flowers up to 12-15
years and then the yield starts declining. The stage of harvesting in Jasmines depends
on the purpose of flowers to be harvested. For fresh flowers, flower buds of jasmines
are plucked either in the evening or early morning hours when the buds are unopened
and fully developed. For the purpose of jasmine concrete extraction, only freshly
picked fully opened flowers are required. The flowers of Jasminum grandiflorum
usually open in the evening hours between 5-7 p.m. Fully opened flowers should
Jasmines 371
be harvested in the early morning hours, preferably before 10.00 a.m. There will be
gradual reduction in the yield of concrete if flower picking is delayed. The yield and
quality of the concrete will be considerably reduced if the flowers are picked during
hot hours. Hence, always care should be taken to harvest the fully opened flowers in
the early morning hours before weather becomes hot. Avoid damage to flowers during
harvest as it will affect the shelf life of fresh flowers and concrete recovery.
Yield in Jasmines depends upon the cultural practices followed by the farmer. In
Jasminum sambac, flowering commences in March - April. Unopened flower buds
which are fully developed should be picked in the morning hours. Yield of about 5t / ha
can be obtained from Jasminum sambac. In Jasminum auriculatum, flowering extends
from May to November. Fully matured unopened flower buds should be picked in
the morning hours. Yield of about 5,000 kg of flower buds/ha can be obtained from
Jasminum auriculatum. In Jasminum grandiflorum, the flowering season starts from
May to October. Unopened flower buds which are fully matured should be picked in the
morning for fresh flower trade. For oil extraction fully opened flowers are to be picked
before 10 a.m. The flower yield is 6 t/ha of flower buds in Jasminum grandiflorum.
Jasminum multiflorum is the species which flowers profusely for longest duration. The
flowering season in Jasminum multiflorum starts from November to December and
bears flowers upto August. The flower buds which are fully developed and unopened
should be picked in the morning for fresh flower trade. The flower yield in Jasminum
multiflorum is about 3-4 t/ha of flower buds.
Post-harvest management
Grading: There are no standard grades available for jasmines. The flowers may be
graded according to the corolla tube length, size of the flower bud, shape of the flower
bud and freshness.
Packing: Harvested flowers should be provided with cold treatment before packing.
Packing should be functional, economical and attractive for better acceptance in the
markets. Corrugated cardboard boxes are good for distant market. Wholesalers pack
jasmine flowers in bamboo baskets. Packing should be done in such a way that there
is maintenance of some moisture and air circulation in the baskets. It is advisable to
sprinkle water on the newspapers covering the inside of the basket. Cover the top
portion with paper again and close with a bamboo basket cover or a gunny sack.
Marketing, Distribution and Transportation
Transporting of jasmine flowers is done through trucks, ships (Refrigerated) etc.
Before long distance transportation it is better to keep jasmine flowers in bamboo
basket which should be covered under moist muslin cloth. Jasmine flowers should not
be handled badly or damaged during transportation. Damage to flowers during transit
will affect shelf life of fresh flowers and concrete recovery.
Export Packaging Technology for Jasmine
Major mode of transport of Jasmine flowers for export is by air. Jasmine flowers reach
the Dubai and Singapore markets within 24 hours after harvesting, while it takes
around 36 – 48 hours to reach the New York market. High levels of post-harvest losses
(35 to 40%) was reported during transit. Jasmine flowers show signs of wilting with an
abrupt loss of fragrance within 24 -36 hours after harvesting, since they are delicate in
nature. One of the major problems faced by the exporters is lack of a proper packaging
technology for export. Whenever there is delay in sending the flowers due to flight
cancellations, the exporters face heavy losses, because the jasmine flowers cannot
be preserved beyond a day. Jasmine flowers retain their freshness only for a day in
ordinary packaging. Hence, any packaging technology that would extend the post-
harvest life for even few hours would benefit the exporters (Source:TNAU).
An export packaging technology has been standardized for jasmine flowers by Tamil
Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU), Coimbatore under the ICAR-NAIP sponsored
project ‘Value Chain on Flowers for Domestic and Export Markets’, in collaboration
with a successful flower exporter, M/S. Vanguard Exports (TNAU Agritech Portal.,
2014).
Export packaging technology for Jasmine for Dubai, Market
The flowers of jasmines were collected from the auction centres and then strings were
made with different shape and size based on the requirement of the buyer. These strings
are further treated with floral preservatives (Boric acid @ 4%) to preserve its freshness
and improve the shelf life. Treated strings of jasmine flowers are packed in well
ventilated corrugated fibre board (CFB) boxes with butter paper lining. After proper
packaging the CFB boxes are airlifted to respective destination (Source: TNAU).
Export packaging technology for Jasmine for USA, Market
Jasmine flowers were collected from auction centres and loose flowers are made
into strings and related products. These jasmine strings are further treated with 4%
boric acid and packed in aluminium foil lined light weight cardboard boxes. These
boxes are then packaged in large thermocole boxes with intermittent ice gel packs to
maintain the temperature and humidity inside the box. After proper packaging, these
thermocole boxes are transported in refrigerated vans to airport and then despatched
to the respective destination (Source: TNAU).
Impact of the advanced packaging technology
• Shelf life of flowers increased to 72 hours against 36 hours in normal packaging
• Post-harvest losses in jasmine were reduced from 40% to 10%
• The export volume increased to 1000 kg/ day from 500 kg/day
Extraction of jasmine concrete (Source: http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/):
The concrete obtained from Jasminum grandiflorum is a wax like substance which
contains the natural perfume of the flower together with plant waxes, albumin and
colouring matter. Natural perfume is available in jasmine flowers in very meagre
quantity (0.25%) in the form of volatile oil. Steam distillation process for the extraction
of the volatile oil could not be followed in jasmines as it does not yield the perfume
Jasmines 373
oil on steam distillation. Hence, the method of Solvent extraction is practiced for
extraction of jasmine concrete. The principle behind this method is that the odoriferous
substances of the flowers are allowed to be absorbed by a highly volatile solvent and
then the solvent is evaporated leaving the odoriferous principles (Hemla Naik and
Kannan., 2012).
The fully opened flowers of Jasminum grandiflorum should be plucked and transported
in clean baskets or cloth bags. While harvesting care should be taken not to damage
the flowers and sweat, dirt etc., of the person who pick the flowers do not contaminate
them. The contamination if any during picking and transporting will reflect in the
concrete quality. The flowers which are damaged yield concrete with more percentage
of unwanted wax and other plant materials. The harvested flowers should be stored in
a cool location and processed within a maximum period of two hours.
Two steps are involved in the processing of jasmine flowers.
Step 1 : Dissolving the perfume material by soaking the flowers with the solvent
Step 2: Removal of solvent from the perfume material by evaporation
Step 1 : Treating the flowers with the solvent
The fully opened flowers of Jasminum grandiflorum are treated with the solvent so
that all the odoriferous material in the flowers gets dissolved in it. The most crucial
factor in solvent extraction process is the quality of solvent used. Commercial food
grade hexane is one of the good solvents used in large scale for the extraction of
floral concrete across the globe. Food grade hexane available in the market should be
purified before using it as solvent. Food grade hexane is treated with liquid paraffin
at 5% and distilled at 700C. The residue which is not evaporating at 700C is rejected
as impurities. The purified hexane is a colourless liquid with a boiling point ranging
from 600C to 800C. The jasmine flowers are soaked in purified hexane at 2 litres per
kg of flower for about 30 minutes. For ensuring the complete extraction of perfume
from the flowers, rotate the container having flowers and solvent slowly for 20 minutes
in the rotary type of extractor. In this process, the solvent penetrates the flowers and
dissolves perfume substances along with waxes, pigments, albumin and colouring
matter also, which have to be removed at later stage to get the pure perfume oil.
Step 2 : Evaporation
After the complete extraction of the perfume from the jasmine flowers, the perfume
laden solvent is led into the evaporator. The solvent is filtered and concentrated by
evaporation at a constant temperature of 750C. At 750C, the solvent evaporates leaving
the perfume and other plant waxes. Vapour of the solvent is condensed to liquid again
for recycling. Concentrated liquid which contains perfume, wax, pigments and solvent
is distilled in a vacuum distillation unit for complete solvent removal in the still.
The still should not be heated directly and heating should be done on a water bath.
The vacuum created in the still facilitate the solvent to evaporate quickly at lower
temperature which is condensed in the condenser and collected for recycling. Heating
should be continued till the last traces of hexane are removed. The operation can be
stopped when there is no condensation of hexane vapour in the condenser. After the
complete removal of the solvent, a semi-solid wax like brown substance is left in the
still which is the jasmine concrete of commerce. It is cooled and stored in glass or
aluminium containers.
Crop Protection (TNAU Agritech Portal., 2014)
Insect-Pests
Bud worm (Hendecasis duplifasciallis): It is a green larva with a black head. It bores
into closed immature flower buds and feeds on inner floral structures. Larva makes a
web like pattern among adjacent buds and feed on petals. Infested flowers turn pale
red in colour and fall off from the plant. Collect and destroy infested flowers along
with larvae at least once in a week. Light traps are effective to attract and kill the adult
moths. Spray Monocrotophos 2ml/l for the control of the pest.
Gallery worm (Elasmopalpus jasminophagus): It web together the terminal leaves,
shoots and flower heads and feeds on them. Faecal matter can be seen attached to the
silken web. Management is same as given for jasmine bud worm
Leaf webworm (Nausinoe geometralis): Leaves mostly in the lower bushy and
shaded portions are affected. The leaves are webbed in an open and loose manner.
The silk threads are seen as a cobweb on the surface of the leaves. Larvae feed on the
leaves and skeletonise it. Spray dimethoate 30 EC 500 ml in 500–750 L of water/ha
for the control of the pest.
Blossom midge: Spray Monocrotophos 2 ml/lit or Quinalphos 2 ml/lit to control it.
Red spider mite (Steneotarsonemus pallidus): Incidence of this pest is high during
warm and dry weather, especially during summer. Pests feed on the under surface of
the leaves which become yellow and drop off. Spray Wettable Sulphur 50 WP @ 2 g/
lit or Dicofol 2.5 ml/lit to control the mite infestation.
Jasmine eriophyid mite (Aceria jasmini): Feeding causes felt-like hairy out growth
(erineum) on the surface of the leaves, tender stem and flower buds. It makes web
which appear to be a white hairy growth on the leaf surface, tender stems and flower
buds. Spray wettable sulphur 50WP 5g/lit or Dicofol 18.5 EC 3ml/l.
Leaf eating caterpillar: Leaf eating caterpillar can be controlled by spraying
Quinalphos 2 ml/lit.
White ants: Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from tender shoots and buds and
prevent flower formation. To control, dust Lindane @ 5 g/pit to the pits before planting
Green plant hopper (Flata ocellata): The adult bug is green in colour with minute
spot on fore wings. Both nymphs and adults feed on terminal shoots.
Jasmine leaf roller (Glyphodes unionalis): The green caterpillar roll the leaves
and feed on them. Adult is a white moth with brown lines along the costal margin of
forewings.
Jasmine bug (Antestia cruciata): Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from tender
shoots and buds and prevent flower formation.
Jasmines 375
Diseases
Leaf Blight: It is caused by a fungi viz., Cercospora jasminicola. Circular to irregular
reddish-brown spots (2-8 mm diameter) appear on the upper leaf surface which later
become irregular covering larger leaf area. Spray of Bavistin (0.1%), Mancozeb 0.25%
and Bordeaux mixture (1%) are equally effective.
Alternaria leaf spot and blight: It is caused by Alternaria jasmini or A. alternata.
Dark brown spots appear on the leaves. Later the spots enlarge covering larger area
causing blighting of leaves. Concentric rings can be seen the lesions. The disease also
affects stem, petiole and flowers. Collect and remove fallen leaves. Spray with Copper
oxychloride 0.25% or Mancozeb at 2 g/lit. from the onset of monsoon at monthly
interval to control the disease occurrence.
Wilt: Wilt is caused by Fusarium solani. Symptoms are yellowing of lower leaves
which gradually spread upwards and finally results in death of the plant. Bordeaux
mixture (1%) can be drenched to soil around the plants to control the disease.
Collar rot and Root rot: It is caused by Sclerotium rolfsii. Plants at all stages are
infected. The older leaves turn yellow first followed by younger leaves and finally death
of the plant. In the root black discoloration can be seen. White strands of mycelia and
mustard like sclerotia appear on the infected tissues and stem surface. Soil drenching
with Copper oxychloride 0.25% is the control measure.
Leaf spot: Spraying of Mancozeb at 2 g/lit. from the onset of monsoon at monthly
intervals will control the disease occurrence.
Yellowing of leaves: It is caused by 3 factors viz., iron deficiency, nematode infection,
and root rot disease.
Iron deficiency: Iron deficiency can be corrected by spraying Ferrous sulphate 5 g/lit
at monthly intervals until the chlorotic symptoms disappear.
Nematode: Initially test the soil for nematode infection. Apply Temik granules (10 g)
near the root zone and then irrigate the field.
Root rot: Soil drenching with Copper oxychloride at 2.5 g/lit is effective to control
root rot.
References
B. Hemla Naik and M. Kannan., 2012. Commercial Floriculture (FLA 202) Topic 19 – Extraction
of Jasmine Concrete. e-Krishi Shiksha. http:// ecoursesonline. iasri.res.in / mod/page/view.
php?id=79738
Safeena S. A, M. Thangam and N.P.Singh., 2016. Package of practices for cultivation of
Jasminum sambac. Extension Folder No.77, ICAR- Central Coastal Agricultural Research
Institute (Indian Council of Agricultural Research), Ela, Old Goa, Goa
Safeena S.A, M. Thangam, S. Priya Devi and N.P.Singh., 2016. A Catalogue of Jasmine
Accessions in Goa, Technical Bulletin No : 58 , ICAR - Central Coastal Agricultural
Research Institute (Indian Council of Agricultural Research), Old Goa, Goa
Safeena S. A, M. Thangam, S.Priya Devi AND N.P. Singh , 2017. Genetic Diversity of
Jasmine and its Conservation under Coastal Humid Ecosystem of Goa. World Journal of
Pharmaceutical and Life Sciences. Vol. 3, Issue 6, 116-123
Safeena S.A, Tarak Nath Saha, P. Naveen Kumar and D.V.S. Raju., 2020. Advances in cultivation
of jasmine, crossandra and specialty flowers. In Training Manual (e-manual) of five days
Training Programme on Advances in Commercial Floriculture jointly organized by ICAR-
DFR, Pune and National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE) at
VAMNICOM, Pune during 2-6 March 2020.
Safeena, S. A., 2018, Advances in cultivation of jasmine for loose flower production. In Training
Manual of Certified Farm Advisor in Floriculture (Module-II) jointly organized by ICAR-
DFR, Pune and National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE)
during 14-28 November, 2018. Pp : 73-81
TNAU Agritech Portal., 2014. Crop Protection: Jasmine. http:// www. agritech. tnau. ac. in /
crop_protection/jasmine
TNAU Agritech Portal., 2014. Export Packaging Technology for Jasmine. http:// agritech. tnau.
ac. in/ export_import/jasmine/index.html
26
Marigold
B.S. Beniwal and Sonu Kumari Sheoran
Marigold (Tagetes spp.) is an important annual flower crop; native to Central and
South America especially Mexico and belongs to family Asteraceae (Compositae). It
is commonly known as “Gainda” in India and also called as “Friendship Flower” in
United States of America. Loose flowers of marigold are in great demand throughout
the year. It is commercially grown in tropical and subtropical regions of India owing
to its ease in cultivation, hardy nature, wider adaptability and year round availability
of single, semi-double and double flowers of vibrant colours.
Marigold is grown over an area of about 66.09 thousand hectares with production
of 603.18 thousand MT loose flowers in India. Major states involved in loose flower
production of marigold are Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh,
West Bengal, Maharashtra, Haryana and Chhattisgarh. In India, Assam is the only
state, which produces marigold for both cut as well as loose flower purpose on an area
of about 0.61 thousand hectare (Anonymous, 2016a).
Marigold is a cross-pollinated flower crop and it is pollinated by insects (Kaneko et al.,
1990). It bears terminal and solitary inflorescence, known as head or capitulum, which
possesses long and hollow peduncle with swollen apex and campanulate involucres
(Setshogo, 2005). Capitulum consists of peripheral ray florets and central disc florets.
Ray florets are pistillate, ligulate, sessile, epigynous and zygomorphic, whereas, disc
florets are bisexual, tubular, sessile, epigynous and actinomorphic (Subrahmanyam,
1996 & Setshogo, 2005).
African marigold (Tagetes erecta L.) is a diploid species (2n = 2x = 24), while,
French marigold (Tagetes patula L.) is a tetraploid species (2n = 4x = 48) with basic
chromosome no. of x = 12 as revealed by breeding work of various researchers (Towner,
1961, Chen and Lin, 1981, Chen and Lin, 1982, Serrato-Cruz et al. 2000, Zhang et
al., 2011). Tagetes erecta and Tagetes tenuifolia are diploid species, whereas, Tagetes
patula, Tagetes minuta, Tagetes biflora and Tagetes remotiflora species are tetraploid
in nature (De, 2017). On the basis of floral morphology; three different types of male
sterile systems i.e. apetaloid, petaloid and gynomonoecious types was observed in
African marigold (Prakash et al., 2016). Out of these, apetalous male sterility (femina
type) is more reliable and preferred over petalous male sterility because later is more
prone to break down (Goldsmith, 1968 & Janakiram, 2004). Apetaloid male sterility
was controlled by single recessive gene (Prakash et al., 2016). A monogenic recessive
male sterile apetalous mutant was detected from T. erecta population by Khoshoo
(1979). Cyto-genetic male sterility is also found in marigold (De, 2017). Petaloid and
gynomonoecious male sterile systems were controlled by cytoplasmic inheritance
(Prakash et al., 2016). In marigold, cytoplasmic genetic male sterile lines were also
developed for commercial production of Fl sterile hybrids (Pratibha et al., 2000).
Importance and Uses
Marigold (Tagetes spp.) is known to be a versatile crop with “Bumper Harvest”. It has
a habit of profuse flowering, short crop duration to produce marketable flowers, wide
spectrum of attractive colors, shape, size and good keeping quality. These qualities
make marigold one of the most important loose flower crop grown commercially in
India. Its flowers are composed of a dense arrangement of ray and disc florets that
comes in off white, yellow, orange, golden yellow, primrose, mahogany, rusty red and
tangerine or deep scarlet.
The entire plant of marigold is of great use to humankind in some way or the other
way. Marigold flowers are extensively used for making garlands, wreath, religious
offerings, flower exhibitions, insect and nematode repellants, nutrient supplement
for poultry feed, extraction of essential oil and natural colour pigments for culinary,
dyeing and pharmaceutical purposes. Marigold is also widely used as bed plant, pot
plant and edge plant in garden for making herbaceous borders, rockeries, hanging
basket and window boxes. It is also used in various dry flower arrangements.
Essential oil extracted from Tagetes erecta flowers has been mainly used for the
compounding of high-grade perfumes. It also has anti-inflammatory, antiseptic,
antispasmodic, antihaemorrhagic, astringent, diaphoretic and emmenagogue
properties. This oil is very important in aromatherapy for its powerful skin healing
effects and has fly repellant properties (Gupta, 2014). French marigold finds use in
perfumery particularly in certain types of herbaceous fragrances like fougere and
lavender. This oil is also used in aldehyde oriented tabac bases. Tagetes minuta oil
is generally used in germicidal, insecticidal and microbicidal preparations due to the
presence of toxic compound tagetone (Mohamed et al. 2000 and Joy et al. 2001).
In French marigold, maximum oil content (0.800 ml/ kg) was obtained in MGH 8-2
followed by MGH 17-1 (0.717 ml/kg) extracted through hydro distillation method
(Gulia et al., 2017b).
Marigold is gaining industrial importance as a potential source of natural colour
pigments mainly carotenoids like lutein, carotenes, mono-hydroxy pigments, di-
hydroxy pigments etc. It finds applications in cosmetic, colouring and pharmaceutical
industry (Gupta and Vasudeva, 2012). Carotenoids extracted from flowers are used
commercially as food supplements; poultry feed additives and natural colourants
in food, beverage, cosmetics and textile industries for imparting various shades of
yellow, orange, and red color. These colors are safe for human consumption, unlike
other artificial colors which are carcinogenic in nature. Marigold cultivars with orange
flowers have higher xanthophylls as compared to cultivars having yellow flowers
(Deineka et al., 2007). In French marigold, maximum total carotenes (69.83 mg/100
g), xanthophylls (305.48 mg/100 g) and di-hydroxy pigments (171.55 mg/100 g) were
recorded in genotype 109-1-2, while maximum mono-hydroxy pigments were reported
Marigold 379
in genotype 26-3-1 (107.82 mg/100 g) (Beniwal et al., 2017a). African marigold

genotype 160-8 (PN) recorded maximum mono-hydroxy pigments (121.18 mg/100g),
whereas, maximum Total carotenes (77.36 mg/100g) and di-hydroxy pigments (229.18
mg/100g) were recorded in genotype 160-9-2 and maximum xanthophylls (362.03
mg/100g) were obtained in genotype 160-5 (Beniwal et al., 2017b).
All carotenoid pigments like total carotene, di-hydroxy pigments and total xanthophylls
were found higher at bud burst stage and their maximum content was observed on the
first day of storage. Maximum carotenes were obtained in MGH 160-9-2 and mono-
hydroxy pigment was present in Pusa Narangi. Chlorophyll ‘a’ and total chlorophyll
were found higher at bud burst stage in contrary to chlorophyll ‘b’, which was higher at
full bloom stage (Gulia et al., 2017a). Marigold flower extracts have been used as feed
additives to supplement the poultry feed for decades to colour egg yolks orange and
broiler skins yellow (Gupta, 2014). Marigold flower is a rich source of lutein. Lutein
and zeaxanthin are the predominant carotenoids of the retina and are considered to act
as photoprotectants preventing retinal degeneration (Richard, 2013). Dried marigold
flowers contain 0.1–0.2% dry matter of carotenoids, out of which 80% are lutein
diesters (Sivel et al., 2014). Orange coloured French marigold varieties contains the
maximum amount of lutein (Bhattacharyya et al., 2010).
Marigold also possesses nematicidal properties. It can suppress 14 genera of plant-
parasitic nematodes; out of these lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) and root-knot
nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) are most affected type of nematodes (Suatmadji, 1969).
Tagetes minuta oil concentrations (1–4 %) possess strong toxicity to eggs and juveniles
of Meloidogyne incognita (Adekunle et al. 2007). These juveniles were unable to fully
develop in the roots of T. erecta (Ploeg and Maris, 1999). Marigold roots release the
chemical alpha-terthienyl, which can aid in the reduction of root-knot nematodes and
other disease promoting organisms, such as fungi, bacteria, insects, and some viruses
(Hethelyi et al., 1986; Gommers and Bakker, 1988 and Soule 1993b).
Tagetes erecta as intercrop can efficiently reduce the levels of spiral (Helicotylenchus
multicinctus), lance (Hoplolaimus indicus) and burrowing (Radopholus similis)
nematodes in highly susceptible banana crop, whereas, Tagetes patula can be grown
as an ideal cover crop for suppressing lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus penetrans and
P. pratensis) in ornamentals (Wang et al., 2007). Prevailing temperature can also affect
nematode suppression activity of marigold. Companion planting short vine tomatoes
with French marigolds throughout the growing season will slow development of
white fly populations (Conboy et al., 2019). A significant reduction in soil nematode
population (150.25/50 ml), number of root galls (8/plant) and root nematode population
(29.80/8galls) along with good vegetative growth was recorded in tomato plant with
border planting of French marigold (Mali et al., 2019).
The marigold flowers are widely used in folk medicine, particularly for curing
inflammatory disorders (Nahak and Sahu, 2017). Healing properties of Tagetes species
have been implemented by folk medicine for centuries (Montellano, 1986). French
marigold (Tagetes patula) is used for preparing ethnobotanical remedies against
rheumatism, stomach and intestinal problems, kidney and hepatic disorders, fever, and
pneumonia (Neher, 1968, Yonzone and Yonzone, 1999).
Origin
All Tagetes species are endemic to the Americas and thought to be originated in Central
and South America especially in Mexico (Ferraro 1955, Kaplan, 1960, Neher, 1968
& Soule, 1996). African marigold (Tagetes erecta), Sweet Scented marigold (Tagetes
lucida) and Signet marigold (Tagetes tenuifolia) originated in Mexico, whereas,
Stinking Roger marigold (Tagetes minuta) originated in South America (Joy et al.
2001). Marigold is introduced by Portuguese in India (Watts, 1893). It became popular
and spread quickly because of its easy cultivation and wide adaptability to varied agro-
climatic conditions. Currently marigold is well distributed and commercially grown
throughout the India (Singh, 2006a).
Taxonomy
Species
Marigold belongs to Asteraceae family. The genus Tagetes contains about 50-56
species, out of these, African marigold (Tagetes erecta L.), French marigold (Tagetes
patula L.) and Signet marigold (Tagetes tenuifolia Cav.) are commonly grown
throughout the world due to their ornamental importance (Neher, 1966, Panero,
2007, Kaplan, 1960, Turner and Nesom, 1993, Soule, 1993a, Soule, 1996). Earlier
Rydberg (1915) reported that genus Tagetes comprises of about 33 species of strongly
scented annual and perennial herbs, later on Soule (1993a) recorded 56 species out of
which, 27 species are annual and remaining 29 species are perennial in nature. African
marigold (Tagetes erecta L., 2n = 24) and French marigold (Tagetes patula L., 2n =
48) are two important annual species, which are commercially grown in India. Other
species are Signet marigold (Tagetes tenuifolia Cav. /Tagetes signata Bartl.) (Greuter,
2006+), Sweet Scented marigold (Tagetes lucida Cav.)1, Lemmon’s marigold (Tagetes
lemmonii A. Gray)1, Wild marigold or Stink weed or Muster John Henry marigold
(Tagetes minuta L.)1 (CABI, 2020), Licorice marigold (Tagetes micrantha Cav.)1,
Miniature marigold (Tagetes minima L.)1 and Lesser marigold (Tagetes filifolia Lag./
Tagetes pusilla Kunth)1&2. These species have medicinal and ornamental value but not
commercially grown in India.
Source:1https://plants.usda.gov/java/Classification Servlet? source = profile & symbol
= TAGET & display=31& 2http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl/record/gcc-82417
African or Aztec marigold (Tagetes erecta L.)
It is a hardy, erect, branched and tall annual of about 90-100 cm height. It has pinnately
divided leaf with lanceolate and serrated leaflets. It bears medium to large sized single
or double flowers with quilled florets of vibrant colours like light yellow, golden
yellow, canary yellow, bright yellow, lemon yellow, cadmium orange, deep orange,
golden orange, bright orange and off white. African marigold flower oil is reddish
yellow in colour, possessing characteristic marigold odour and polymerizing readily
in air. This oil contains approximately 8.5% ocimene, 14.03% limonene, 21.14%
linalool, 13.75% linalyl acetate and 40.38% tagetone. Leaf oil and stem oil of African
marigold is greenish yellow in colour (Joy et al., 2001).
Marigold 381
French marigold (Tagetes patula L.)

It is a hardy, bushy and dwarf plant of about 30-45 cm height with reddish purple stem.
This plant has pinnately divided dark green leaves with linear, lanceolate and serrated
leaflets. It bears small to medium sized single or double flowers of yellow, orange,
crimson, mahogany red, light yellow with maroon blotches, deep crimson with golden
yellow margin, red, primrose and deep scarlet colour on long peduncles.
Signet marigold (Tagetes tenuifolia Cav.)
These marigolds produce compact plants having lacy foliage and small single flowers
in cluster. They have edible flowers of yellow to orange colour. The foliage of these
marigolds has a pleasant lemon fragrance. These are excellent garden plants; generally
used in beds, edges and window boxes.
Wild marigold (Tagetes minuta L.)
It is also known as Stinking Roger or Stink weed and Muster John Henry marigold
(CABI, 2020). It is an erect and woody annual with strong aroma. It has glossy green;
pinnately compound leaves and lanceolate leaflets. It attains 1-2 m height with 7-15
cm long leaves with yellow to orange flowers. Strong smelling oil of Tagetes minuta is
used as a laxative, diuretic, flavoring agent and insect repellent (Holm et al., 1997). It is
generally cultivated as a main crop or as an intercrop with maize, tomato and geranium
for essential oil purpose (Singh and Singh, 2001). Vanphool variety of Tagetes minuta
was found suitable for growing in North Indian plains for high yield of good quality
essential oil (Kumar et al., 1999).
Sweet Scented marigold (Tagetes lucida Cav.)
It is a perennial herb of 30-40 cm height with oblong-lanceolate and finely serrated
leaves. It bears dense clusters of orange yellow flowers at terminal end. This Sweet
Scented marigold is mainly suitable for border plantation in garden. Tagetes lucida oil
is greenish yellow in colour and estragol is the major chemical constituent present in
it (Joy et al., 2001).
Interspecific hybrids
These are sterile, triploid hybrids resulted due to interspecific crosses between diploid
and tetraploid Tagetes spp. They are also known mule hybrids. These plants are
intermediate in vegetative and reproductive characters with medium to tall in height
and double orange to red flowers.
Important varieties
African marigold
Giant Double African Orange, Giant Double African Yellow, Cracker Jack, Climax,
Dubloon, Golden Age, Chrysanthemum Charm, Crown of Gold, Spun Gold, Guinea
Gold, Apricot, Primrose, Sun Giant, Fiesta, Golden Yellow Glitters, Happiness,
Hawaii, Honeycomb, Cerpid, Double Eagle, New Alaska, Pusa Narangi Gainda,
Pusa Basanti Gainda, Pusa Bahar, Arka Bangara, Arka Bangara-2, Arka Agni, Arka
Alankara, Punjab Gainda No.1 and MDU 1.
French marigold
Red Brocade, Rusty Red, Flame, Naughty, Butter Scotch, Valencia, Marietta, Sussana,
Star of India, Harmony, Pusa Arpita, Pusa Deep, Arka Honey, Arka Pari, Hisar Jaffri-2
and Hisar Beauty
Signet marigold
Golden Gem, Lulu, Pumila, Ursula, Paprika and Lemon Gem
Interspecific hybrids
Show Boat, Nugget, Red Seven Star, Red and Gold Hybrid and Show Boat
Characteristics of important varieties developed in India
ICAR- IARI, New Delhi Varieties (Sindhu, 2019)
Pusa Basanti Gainda

It is an African marigold hybrid developed by crossing of Golden Yellow variety with
Sun Giant variety. It produces lemon yellow flowers of medium size after 135-145
days of sowing. This variety can be cultivated throughout India for pot cultivation and
garden display purpose. It produces 20-25 t/ha fresh flowers and 75-100 kg/ha seeds.
Pusa Narangi Gainda
It is also an African marigold hybrid developed by crossing Cracker Jack with Golden
Jubilee. It produces deep orange flowers with ruffled florets and flowering occurs after
125-135 days of sowing. This variety is suitable for cultivation in all over the India;
but it is more popular in southern India because of its big flower size. It produces 25-
30 t fresh flowers/ha and 100-125 kg seeds. Flowers are rich in carotenoids and widely
used in poultry industry, food, pharmaceutical and nutraceutical industries.
Pusa Bahar
This is an open pollinated variety of African marigold with vigorous growth habit
having 75-85 cm plant height. It produces compact and flattened yellow colored
flowers of large size (8-9 cm). Ideal time for sowing of seeds is mid October to mid
November in northern plains of India. Flowering occurs in mid January and continues
up to March. Average flower yield of this variety is 50-60 flowers per plant. It is also
suitable for bedding and decoration purpose in gardens.
Pusa Arpita
It is a French marigold variety with light orange flowers of medium size. It is
developed by selection from heterozygous population of French marigold. Flowering
starts from mid December and continues up to mid February. This variety is suitable
for cultivation in northern plains of India. Its average yield is 18-20 t fresh flowers/ha.
Marigold 383
Pusa Deep
It is an early flowering variety of French marigold with medium height (55-65 cm) and
spreading habit (50-55 cm). It produces dark red and compact flowers of medium size
during the month of October –November in northern plains of India. It is suitable for
loose flower production during festive season with 80-90 flowers per plant and 18-20
t flowers/ha.
ICAR-IIHR, Bangalore varieties
(Source3: https://www.iihr.res.in/ varieties and Anonymous, 2016b)
Arka Honey
It is a photo-insensitive; dwarf variety of French marigold with spreading habit and
floriferous nature having bi-coloured flowers of medium size (4.8 cm). These bi-
coloured flowers have orange border of petals and their centre is dark red in colour.
Early flowering initiation is observed; generally within 30-35 days after planting and
it continues for 6 weeks. This variety produces flowers throughout the year under
Bangalore condition. Its crop duration is of about three months and produces 5.8 t
flowers/acre.
Arka Pari
It is a photo insensitive French marigold variety having orange flowers. It is also a
dwarf variety with spreading canopy and good blooming habit throughout the year.
Plants have medium sized flowers and complete their life cycle in about three months.
Flowering starts 30 days after planting and it continues for about 9 weeks. Flower
colour changes into different shades of orange depending upon light, temperature and
stage of flower. Flower yield of this variety is 4.7t/acre.
Arka Bangara
It is an African marigold variety having petaloid male sterile flowers of yellow gold
colour. Flowering starts in 40-45 days after planting and it continues to flower for next
65-70 days. Flowers are medium in size (5-6.5 cm). Yield potential of this variety is
18 tons/acre.
Arka Bangara-2
This variety is early flowering and mainly grown for loose flower production. It
has yellow gold flowers, which are compact and large in size. It is propagated by
vegetative means.
Arka Agni
It is a petaloid male sterile hybrid developed from hybridization between IIHRMGYP1
and 9-2. It has medium plant height (80-85 cm) with compact, large (7.5-8 cm) and
orange flowers. Flowering starts at 40-45 days after planting and continues for 60
days. Average loose flower yield of this variety is 7-7.5 t/acre. It is multiplied by
vegetative propagation.
Arka Alankara
It is also a petaloid male sterile marigold hybrid developed from hybridization between
IIHRMGYP-1 and 9-2. It has medium height plant (75-80 cm) with compact, large
(7- 7.5 cm) and golden yellow flowers. Flowering starts 40-45 days after planting and
continues to flower for 60 days. It is a vegetatively propagated plant with high yield
potential (6-6.5 t/acre).
PAU Marigold Variety (Muker et al., 2016)
Punjab Gainda No. 1

It is a heat tolerant and open pollinated variety of marigold with medium height (69
cm). It bears fully double flowers of medium size with bright orange colour after 82
days of seed sowing. This variety is suitable for growing in summer season (February-
March and June-July in Punjab) and produces 44.2q of flowers per acre. It possesses
moderate resistance to Alternaria blight disease.
HAU varieties (Beniwal et al., 2009)
Hisar Beauty: It is released from CCS HAU, Hisar in 2008-09. It is a dwarf and
compact French marigold variety with 8-10 branches, its leaves are dark green with
serrated margin. It produces 40-50 small to medium sized dark red flowers with yellow
margin. This variety is suitable for exhibition, bedding and potting purpose.
Hisar Jaffri-2: It is also released from CCS HAU, Hisar in 2008-09. This French
marigold variety is dwarf and compact with 18-22 branches. It bears dark green
serrated leaf with medium sized 70-80 orange flowers per plant. This variety is suitable
for exhibition and loose flower production.
TNAU variety
MDU 1: This African marigold variety is developed through selection and released
in 1986. It has medium tall plants with moderate branching habit. It produces large
flowers with light orange petals and 8.39 cm long stalk. An estimated yield of this
variety is 41.54 t flowers/ha (Anonymous, 2013).
Climate
Marigold requires mild climate for good vegetative and reproductive growth. Profuse
growth of marigold is attained between the temperature range of 18-30ºC temperatures.
It ceases to grow and produces very less flowers of poor quality at very high temperature.
In severe winter, blackening, wilting and senescence of affected plant part occurs due
to heavy frost damage. Sprouting in plants occur, if they are allowed to over winter,
during spring season and produce very few flowers. Signet marigold has a stronger
requirement for short photoperiod than French or African marigolds (Tsukamoto et al,
1968). Marigold can be grown round the year in open field except very hot and cold
climatic conditions. Generally, seed sowing and transplanting of seedlings is carried
out during rainy, winter and summer season.
Marigold 385
Soil
Marigold can be successfully grown on a wide range of soils except water logged
and saline conditions. Suitable soil for its cultivation is fertile, friable, sandy loam
soil; rich in organic matter with good water holding, drainage and aeration capacity.
African marigold flourish well in moist and fertile soil with good drainage facility,
whereas, light soil is best suited for growing French marigold. Ideal soil pH should be
near to neutral in reaction viz. 7.0-7.5.
Propagation
Marigold is generally propagated either by seeds or herbaceous cuttings. Marigold
plants raised through seeds will look more robust and have better yield potential as
compared to vegetatively propagated plants. So, commercially it is propagated by
seeds. Micro propagation is rarely practiced mainly for propagation of white marigold
and male sterile lines.
Propagation by Seeds
Seeds selected for nursery raising should be healthy, viable and black in colour.
Freshly harvested seeds have generally 90-95 % germination rate and remain viable
for about 1-2 seasons. Seeds will germinate after 5-7 days of sowing. Optimum
temperature required for better germination of marigold seed is 18-30ºC. 1.5 kg of
marigold seed is sufficient for raising nursery of about one hectare area (Arora, 2012).
Marigold seedlings can be grown in any type of container like seed box or pot on a
small scale mainly for gardening purpose, but raised nursery beds should be preferred
for commercial cultivation of marigold. Raised beds of 3m × 1m size with 10-15 cm
height should be prepared well in advance for marigold seed sowing. Add 8-10 kg of
well decomposed FYM per sq. m. and thoroughly mix it with the soil (Arora, 2012).
Seeds can be broadcasted uniformly or line sowing at 8-10 cm spacing with depth
of 0.5-1.0 cm should be done for better seed germination. Cover the seeds with thin
layer of fine FYM or sand or leaf mould manure followed by light irrigation with
fine rose can. Uniformly spread a thin layer of straw mulch over the bed after seed
sowing to enhance germination process. Small amount of insecticide is applied at the
border of nursery bed to avoid ant or termite attack. Nursery beds should be kept moist
throughout the growing period by frequent and light watering in the cool hours of the
day.
Propagation by herbaceous cuttings
It is mainly practiced to get true to type plants for their further use in various marigold
breeding programmes. Some marigold varieties like Gaint African Yellow and Gaint
African Orange do not set seed (Anonymous, 2017). In addition to this, several promising
germplasm like male sterile lines, white marigold etc. can only be propagated through
vegetative means due to lack of sufficient seed setting or seed formation or poor seed
germination. Generally, 8-10 cm long herbaceous cuttings should be taken during
rainy season from apical part of the plant. Nursery beds are prepared in shady areas.
Plant these cuttings in pots or nursery beds filled with sand for their quick growth and
easy rooting. Before planting these cuttings in the growing medium, their basal portion
is treated with IBA to encourage early rooting. African marigold stem cuttings treated
with 200 ppm NAA produced maximum number of roots/cutting (49.13), fresh (0.77
g) and dry weight (0.10g) of roots/cutting (Sharma, 2014). Maximum number of roots
(93.44), fresh (404 mg) and dry weight of roots/cutting (34.11 mg) was recorded with
300 ppm IBA treatment and average length of root (12.23 cm) was recorded maximum
with 100 ppm IBA treatment (Kaushik and Shukla, 2020), whereas, maximum root
length (9.14 cm) and root spread (4.53 cm) was recorded in African marigold cuttings
treated with 200 ppm IBA (Sharma, 2014). NAA treated cuttings exhibited best shoot
parameters, while, IBA treated cuttings produced best root parameters (Kaushik and
Shukla, 2020). Combined application of 200 ppm NAA + 200 ppm IBA on African
marigold cuttings resulted in to better rooting percentage as compared to individual
application of 200 ppm NAA and 200 ppm IBA (Sharma, 2014). Always keep the
beds in moist condition by regular watering. Cutting starts rooting within 5-7 days of
sowing and become ready for transplanting after 3-4 weeks.
Micropropagation
It is not commonly used on commercial scale for marigold propagation because of
high phenol exudation from explants in initial culture establishment stage and high
plant mortality during hardening stage (Kumar, 2002). White marigold possesses
low seed viability and poor germination hence it is difficult to propagate through
seeds. So tissue culture can be practiced for its large scale commercial propagation.
Shoot tip proliferation was found suitable for its micro propagation (Misra and Datta,
1999). Some promising germplasm like male sterile lines can be maintained through
vegetative means only. Round the year production and maintenance of true breeding
lines can only be done through efficient tissue culture techniques (Kumar et al., 2018).
Planting
Sowing time and season

Marigold can be grown throughout the year except very hot and very cold agro-climatic
conditions experienced in May-June and January-February months in northern India.
Generally commercial growers in India prefer to take three crops per year based on
seasons i.e. rainy, winter and summer. Staggered planting at an interval of 15 days can
be done from August to October or January to February for assured supply of flowers
to the market during September to February or April to May.
The time of sowing and transplanting of seedlings for obtaining flowers at different
seasons of year is as follows:
In plains
Season Time of seed sowing Time of transplanting Peak flowering
Rainy season May-June June-July September-October
Winter season August-October September-November December-February
Summer season January-February February-March April-May
Marigold 387
Field preparation
Land should be free from hard and compact soil layer, clods, weeds and any other
debris. Before transplanting, it should be ploughed and harrowed 2-3 times in order to
make the soil friable with fine tilth.
Transplanting of seedlings
Transplanting of seedlings is done manually in the cool hours of the day (morning or
evening) and established in the field easily without much mortality. Fast growing root
system of marigold enable the seedlings to establish better. The one month old healthy
seedlings with sturdy stalk and 3-4 true leaves are suitable for transplanting in the field.
Thin and long seedlings should be avoided. Too much big seedlings are not desirable
because they have lost their juvenile phase in the nursery itself. Transplanting should
be done in well prepared field in the evening especially during rainy and summer
seasons to avoid exposure to harsh weather, transplanting shock and to allow better
establishment in cool hours of night. Soil is pressed well around root zone to avoid
air pockets. Light irrigation is applied in the field immediately after transplanting
for better establishment of seedlings and to reduce chances of seedling mortality.
Heavy irrigation if done just after transplanting, seedlings will bend down and leaves
stick with the soil which delays proper development of plant. Light irrigation before
transplanting is considered beneficial in sandy soil for the better establishment of
seedlings. Prepare beds of convenient size for easy handling of various intercultural
practices like irrigation, weeding, pinching etc.
Spacing
Growth habit, cultivar and the soil type affect the plant density. Proper spacing
between plants is required for better growth, development and flower production. Two
marigold species which are commonly grown for commercial production of flowers
require different spacings, for example Tagetes erecta requires wider spacing than T.
patula. In general, the spacing should be 30 × 30 cm for dwarf and 40 × 40 cm for
tall African marigolds. Optimum spacing for African marigold is 60 × 30 cm or 45 ×
30 cm, for French marigold is 20 × 20 cm or 20 × 15 cm as recommended by DFR,
ICAR at its Hyderabad centre (Anonymous, 2017). Wider spacing of 40 × 40 cm
produced best results with respect to maximum flower diameter, weight of individual
flower and number of flowers/plant in African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi Gainda
under North Bihar agro-ecological conditions (Singh et al., 2015). African marigold
plants spaced at 40 x 40 cm attained maximum growth, flowering and yield in terms of
plant spread (64.01 cm), number of flowers/plant (51.43), duration of flowering (53.98
days), flower diameter (6.42 cm), fresh weight of flower (9.03 g) and flower yield/
plant (460.42 g), however closest spacing of 30 x 30 cm resulted in to maximum plant
height (71.76 cm) and flower yield/hectare (36.34 t) (Nain et al., 2017).
Manure and fertilizers
Marigold is a hardy and vigorous crop and requires less manures and fertilizers as
compared to other flower crops. The rate of nutrient utilization from soil has been
reported to be 57.5 % of available N, 20.1 % P, 94.4 % K, 8.6% Ca, 23.0% Mg and

6.4% Na. Incorporate well decomposed 15-20 tonnes FYM/ hectare during the last
ploughing. Apply 200 kg nitrogen, 200 kg phosphorus and 100 kg of potassium per
hectare. Half dose of nitrogen, entire dose of phosphorus and potash should be applied
as basal dose before transplanting. Leftover 100 kg nitrogen should be applied after
one month of transplanting. A field experiment was conducted at CCS HAU, Hisar
to standardize the optimum dose of nitrogen and phosphorus application in African
marigold. All growth and flowering parameters were significantly influenced with
every increase in nitrogen dose from 0 to 30 g/m2 and phosphorus dose from 0 to 25
g/m2. Combined application of 30 g N/m2 with 25 g P/m2 recorded maximum flower
yield per plant (558.09 g) and flower yield per hectare (34.88 t) as compared to control
(Nain et al., 2016). French marigold cv. Hisar Beauty gave maximum flower yield
when fertilized with 750 g of poultry manure per kg of sand or 750 g of FYM per kg of
sand and in case of vermicompost maximum yield was found with application of 1000
g vermicompost per kg of sand (Chander et al., 2015).
In marigold, higher flower yield can be obtained with application of 400 kg N, 200 kg
P2O5 and 200 kg K2O/ha (Joy et al., 2001). African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi Gainda
produced highest flower yield (15.53 t/ha) with 75:150:150 kg NPK/ha + 10t/ha FYM
+ Azospirillum + PSB @ 5 kg/ha (Kumura et al., 2019). African marigold cv. Pusa
Basanti Gainda plants supplied with 75% RDF + Piriformospora indica inoculated to
seeds took minimum duration to full flowering (59.55 days) and attained maximum
flower diameter (9.27 cm), fresh weight of total flowers/plant (394.47 g) and highest
yield (29.06 t/ha), whereas, plants supplied with 50 % RDF + Piriformospora indica
inoculated to seeds produced higher number of flowers per plant (53.62) (Noorjahan
et al., 2019).
Irrigation
Moisture stress at any stage of growth and development may hamper the productivity
of marigold. Irrigation requirement of marigold varies according to variety and agro-
climatic conditions. During rainy season; if rainfall is normal and well distributed,
frequent irrigation is not required, but if the rain is scanty, irrigation is needed
frequently. During the summer months from April to June, frequent irrigation at the
interval of 4-5days is required. During winter season irrigation can be done at an
interval of 8-10 days. In general, irrigate the marigold crop at weekly interval. In
lighter soil more frequent irrigation is required than that in heavy soil. In sandy loam
soil, weekly irrigation is necessary between September to March while during summer
months between April to June irrigation at 4-5 days intervals is required.
Weeding and hoeing
Weeds are a common problem in marigold cultivation especially in rainy season. After
transplanting of marigold seedlings in the field, weeds grow faster than marigold in
initial stages and cover a large area in a few days. Weeding is necessary to avoid the
competition with crop which causes great loss in terms of growth and productivity
during all seasons. In India, weeding is done manually. During entire crop growth
period, 3 - 4 manual hoeing and weeding should be done to make the soil loose and
weed free.
Marigold 389
Pinching
Pinching is done to reduce the effect of apical dominance and stimulate lateral growth
of plant, which will ultimately give rise to more number of branches and hence more
flower yield. It is manually practiced after 3-4 weeks of transplanting mainly in tall
varieties of African marigold to encourage better plant stand with uniform lateral
growth. Pinching is also beneficial in several other ways. It promotes vegetative
growth and delays flowering, thus helps in growth regulation of the plant for regular
supply of flowers to the market. It reduces the plant height and prevents lodging of
plants during strong windy conditions in summer season.
Maximum plant spread, number of primary branches per plant, fresh and dry weight of
plant was recorded in African marigold plants pinched at 2 weeks after transplanting
while plant height was recorded maximum in un-pinched plants (Sheoran et al., 2016).
African marigold plants pinched at 4 weeks after transplanting significantly exhibited
maximum growth in terms of plant spread (63.59 cm), number of flowers/plant (54.54),
flower yield/plant (403.68 g) and flower yield/hectare (33.33 t) as compared to un-
pinched plants (Nain et al., 2017). The maximum number of flowers/plant (47.70)
and flower yield/hectare (9.05 t) was recorded in African marigold plants pinched at
2 weeks after transplanting, whereas, the maximum fresh weight of flower (3.29 g)
was observed in un-pinched plants of summer season (Sheoran et al., 2017a). African
marigold plants pinched at 2 weeks after transplanting in summer attained maximum
plant spread (65.05 cm) and flower yield/plant (144.80 g), whereas, the higher plant
height (84.66 cm) was observed in un-pinched plants (Sheoran et al., 2017b).
Application of growth regulators
All the vegetative characters were highly influenced by higher dose of gibberellic
acid in African marigold. A successive increase in GA3 concentration from 25 ppm to
200 ppm significantly resulted in to early flowering and long duration of flowering.
Number of flowers/plant (57.81), duration of flowering (87.18 days) and flower yield/
plant (639.18 g) was recorded maximum with 200 ppm GA3 as compared to control
(43.67, 80.26 days and 406.13 g) respectively (Kumar et al., 2010). Application of 350
ppm dose of GA3 produced maximum plant spread and number of primary branches/
plant, while plant height, fresh weight of plant and dry weight of plant were recorded
maximum with 250 ppm GA3 treatment as compared to control (Sheoran et al., 2016).
Foliar spray of GA3 250 ppm at 4 weeks after transplanting was found beneficial in
increasing number of flowers per plant (48.29) and flower yield per hectare (9.93 t)
during summer season (Sheoran et al., 2017a). GA3 250 ppm dose was found best
for obtaining higher plant height (88.7 cm), flower yield/plant (158.93 g), however,
plant spread (65.59 cm) was observed maximum in plants sprayed with GA3 350 ppm
in summer season (Sheoran et al., 2017b). Foliar spray of 350 ppm GA3 on plants
pinched at 2 weeks after transplanting resulted in maximum plant spread (68.82
cm) in summer, whereas, maximum number of primary branches/plant (16.50) was
observed in winter. African marigold plants pinched at 2 weeks after transplanting
attained maximum fresh weight of plant (616.67 g) and produced maximum number
of flowers/plant (53.18) with 250 ppm dose of GA3 in summer. A significant reduction
in days to first flower appearance was also observed in un-pinched plants with 350
ppm dose of GA3 in summer (Sheoran et al., 2019). Ethrel showed dwarfing effect
and caused late flowering of African marigold plants. A significant decrease in plant
height was recorded with successive increase in ethrel concentration from 100 to 400
ppm. Maximum reduction in plant height (66.12 cm) was recorded with 400 ppm
ethrel as compared to control (74.67 cm) (Kumar et al., 2010). Best quality flowers
exhibiting maximum shelf life of 3.67 days were produced by marigold plants with
pre-harvest spray of 50 ppm BA (Benzyle Adenine) as compared to 10 ppm Jeevamrut
and distilled water pre-harvest spray (Sharma, 2017).
Marigold is harvested by hand plucking. Hand plucking is done because flower stalk
is a hollow structure, which breaks off easily when twisted between thumb and finger.
Pluck fresh and fully opened marigold flowers manually during cool hours of the day
either in early morning or late evening to avoid moisture loss and maintain turgidity
of flowers otherwise wilting of flowers will occur. Light irrigation should be applied
before plucking of flowers so that flowers look fresh for longer period after harvest.
Regular plucking of fresh flowers should be done to increase crop productivity. The
best performance with respect to flower size, weight and number of flowers/plant was
recorded with 1st September planting of African marigold cv. Pusa Narangi Gainda,
however, the highest number of branches and plant canopy spread were attained with
May and July plantings under agro-ecological conditions of North Bihar (Singh et
al., 2015). The yield of flower in African and French marigold varies with cultivars,
cultural practices like planting, spacing, fertilization etc. Average flower yield of
African marigold and French marigold varies from 11 to 18 tonnes/ha and 8 to 12
tonnes/ha, respectively.
Marigold flowers are generally collected either in moist gunny bags or in bamboo baskets
covered with moist cotton cloth or polythene sheet for transportation to nearby local
markets during cool hours of the day preferably in early morning or late evening. Plastic
crates are considered best packing materials for transport of loose marigold flowers
to short distance market as later showed maximum shelf life (4 days) with minimum
moisture loss percentage (6.75%) (Source4: https://tnau.ac.in/college-hcriperiyakulam/
department-of-fp-technologies-developed/). Marigold flowers packed in cardboard
boxes of size 37.5 × 16.4 × 12.5 cm and lined with polyethylene attained maximum
shelf life (4.13 days) with best freshness index than flowers placed inside the cardboard
boxes lined with newspaper and cellophane (Sharma, 2017).
Dry storage of cut marigold stems from harvest to shipping stage extended their
vase life as compared to cut stems stored in water. African marigold stems of cv.
‘Sovereign’ can be stored dry for up to one week (Ahmad and Dole, 2015). Marigold
cv. Pusa Narangi Gainda exhibited better shelf life (3.42-3.81 days) under cold
storage (4ᵒC) condition as compared to room temperature condition (2.40 -2.56 days)
(Sharma, 2017). Fully opened flowers of marigold cv. Calcutta Gainda when packed in
Marigold 391
black polythene bags and stored in cold storage at 4°C temperature with 93% relative
humidity attained greater shelf life (8 days) with better visual appearance than flowers
stored at normal room conditions (3.5 days). Highest post-storage life of 2 days was
also observed in black polythene packaged flowers of cold storage (Jadhav, 2018).
Cut stems of marigold cv. Double Eagle placed in either homemade or commercial
floral preservatives had a longer vase life than stems placed in tap water, irrespective
of duration (Ahmad and Dole, 2014). Longest vase life (15.7 days) was recorded when
stems were placed continuously in vase solution containing 500 ml/litre soda (lemon
or lime flavored 7 Up soda) followed by vase solution having 400 mg citric acid +
20 g sugar + 0.007 ml/litre Kathon CG (15.5 days) or pulsed for 48 hour with vase
solution made of 100 mg citric acid + 20 g sugar + 200 mg/litre aluminum sulfate (15.5
days) as compared to tap water (7.9 days) (Ahmad and Dole, 2014). Flowers placed
continuously for 44 hours in holding preservative solution only or along with hydrator
for 4 hours had 3 days longer vase life than control flowers in deionized water (Ahmad
and Dole, 2015). 0.2 mM Silver thiosulfate (STS) was found beneficial in increasing
vase life of cut African marigold stems cv. Sovereign by 2.1 days as compared to
deionized (DI) water (Ahmad and Dole, 2015).
All parts of marigold plant can be used for extraction of 0.02-0.08% essential oil
through commercially used steam distillation method followed by absorption of
distillate in benzene or petroleum ether (Joy et al., 2001).
Insect-pests
Red spider mite (Tetranychus sp.): Attack of these mites can be easily identified by
dusty appearance of plants and chances of its occurrence are more during flowering
time. It can be controlled by spraying Metasystox 25E.C. or Rogor E.C. @ 1ml/liter
of water (Arora, 2012).
Hairy caterpillar (Spilosoma oblique/Diacrisia obliqua): It is polyphagous in nature
and causes drastic damage to plants by eating and damaging their foliage and flowers
thus results in to significant yield loss. This caterpillar can be controlled by sprays of
Nuvan 59 E.C. @ 1ml/liter of water (Arora, 2012).
Bud caterpillars (Helicoverpa armigera and Phycita sp.): These caterpillars lay
their eggs on young buds. Helicoverpa armigera larvae feed on developing flowers,
whereas larvae of Phycita sp. feed on heads of buds and flowers, which ultimately
causes great damage to developing buds and flowers. Collect and destroy infested
buds along with damaged flowers in order to reduce the spread of this bud caterpillar.
(Anonymous, 2017).
Aphids (Aphis gossypii): Aphids mainly nymphs and adults attack on lower bases of
leaves and flowers. These suck the sap from tender parts of the plant and cause their
discoloration and withering. These aphids also act as vectors of some viral diseases
in marigold. Spraying of Oxydemeton methyl 0.05% should be done to control these
aphids (Anonymous, 2017).
Thrips: Thrips suck the sap from tender parts of plant like young leaves, buds and
flowers. Distorted leaves and petals resulted due to thrips attack will ultimately turn
brown. In order to control thrips attack; 2-3 sprays of Oxydemeton methyl @ 0.05%
should be done at 10 days interval (Anonymous, 2017).
Diseases
Fungal diseases
Important fungal diseases of marigold are damping off (Pythium sp.), Alternaria leaf
spot, Cercospora leaf spot (Cercospora megalopotamica), flower blight (Alternaria
zinniae), wilt and stem rot (Phytophthora cryptogea), Collar rot (Phytophthora sp.;
Pythium sp.) and Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporium) (Sohi, 1983; Pawar, 1971).
Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus fumigatus and Curvularia lunata were isolated and
found to be pathogenic to Tagetes erecta and T. patula (Aktar and Shamsi, 2017).
Leaf spot and flower blight disease caused by Alternaria tagetica poses a great impact
on yield potential of marigold by retarding its overall growth and development. This
infection leads to premature defoliation, which ultimately results in to plant death
(Gurjar et al., 2019).
Alternaria leaf spot and blight (Alternaria sp.)
Circular brownish gray spots develop on the lower leaves at the initial stage of
infection. Poor vegetative growth, defoliation and reduced flower size followed
by death of affected plant occurs at a later stage of infection. Alternaria leaf spot
disease caused by Alternaria tagetica aggravated with continuous exposure to high
moisture conditions for long duration (Hotchkiss and Baxter, 1983). Temperature
shows remarkable effect on disease development, while no significant effect of rainfall
and humidity was observed on development of this disease. The minimum disease
severity was recorded in the month of January and the maximum was recorded in the
month of May (Aktar and Shamsi, 2017). To control this disease 0.2% Dithane M-45
spray should be done at fortnightly intervals starting from the 1st onset of symptoms
(Arora, 2012) whereas, Blitox was found efficient for controlling Alternaria zinnia
(Mazumdar, 2000).
Septoria leaf spot (Septoria species)
Small, circular water-soaked spots develop on leaves, petioles, stem and calyx of
infected plants at initial stage. Later on these spots became grey and their margins
turn in to dark brown colour. Affected leaves become yellow and then turn brown,
shriveled followed by defoliation (Shukla and Thakur, 2018). To control this disease
foliar application of by 0.2% Dithane M-45 fungicide at regular intervals should be
done (Aktar and Shamsi, 2015 and Bharnwal et al., 2002).
Cercospora leaf spot (Cercospora megalopotamica)
Circular spots with ash gray centres and reddish purple to dark brown borders occur
on leaves. Excessive use of fungicides lead to development of resistance of disease
causing pathogens against fungicides as reported by Gangavane, (1981) and Arora et
al. (1992). Bavistin is found to be the best fungicide for control of the Cercospora leaf
Marigold 393
spot. A bio-formulation consisting of garlic extract + cow urine + soap nut was also
found effective in controlling this disease (Chandel and Kumar, 2017).
Inflorescence blight (Alternaria zinnae)
Large irregular blotches of light tan to dark brown colour with zonation occur on the
foliage, whereas elongated lesions are formed on inflorescence (Gurjar et al., 2019).
Foliar spray of Dithane M-45 (0.2%) spray at regular interval can be done to control
this blight disease (Aktar and Shamsi, 2015, Singh et al., 2012, Bharnwal et al. 2002).
Wilt and stem rot (Phytophthora cryptogea)
It infects mainly collar portion of the plant and develops rapidly with availability of soil
moisture in nursery or field conditions. This causes damping off of nursery seedlings
and wilting of plants in field. French marigold and dwarf varieties of marigold are
found less susceptible to the disease in comparison to African marigold (Gurjar, 2019).
The disease can be controlled by treating the soil with Metalaxyl (Anonymous, 2017).
Collar and root rot (Pellicularia filamentosa, P.rolfsii, Pythium ultimum and
Scelrotinia slerotiarum)
Black lesions appear on the main stem followed by rotting of root and collar region,
which eventually results in to wilting of plant. In severe cases, plant death can also
occur. Selection of healthy planting material and proper soil fumigation should be
practiced in order to control this disease (Anonymous, 2017c). Manzate at 0.3%
concentration can completely inhibit the growth of pathogen, whereas, Copper
oxychloride at 0.3-0.5% concentration can control the pathogen. Use of biological
antagonist like Streptoverticillium sp., Trichoderma sp. and Gliocladium virens and
plant extracts of Rauwalfia serpentine can also be used to significantly control this
disease (Rout and Mishra, 2008).
Damping off
It is caused by Rhizoctoina solani (Singh et al., 2012). Ceratobasidium sp. as causal
agent of damping off was first reported in India by Saroj et al. (2013). This disease
more frequently occurs at the seedling stage than later stages of plant growth. Pre-
emergence symptoms appear as brown necrotic spots and rings, which further extends
to plumule and eventually cause pre-emergence mortality in seedlings, whereas, water
soaked, brown necrotic ring appear on lower part of hypocotyls as post-emergence
symptoms leading to collapse of seedlings (Singh et al., 2012). Application of 2%
formalin for soil sterilization prior to sowing and foliar spray of 0.2% Dithane M-45
are some effective measures to control this disease (Gurjar et al., 2019). Proper
drainage should be provided in the nursery bed and 3-4 years crop rotation should be
followed to control the spread of this disease (Singh et al., 2012).
Flower Bud Rot (Alternaria dianthi)
Young flower buds tend to shrivel, turn deep brown and dry up followed by rotting,
while mature buds fail to open as a result of flower bud rot disease (Mondal and
Chaudhari, 1976 and Arora, 2012). Blight and brown necrotic spots occur on margins
and tips of older leaves, whereas, brown, scorched, necrotic discoloration of sepals,
stalk and florets occurs due to incidence of this disease. Foliar spray of 0.2% Dithane
M-45 effectively controls the infection of leaf and flower bud (Singh et al., 2012 and
Arora, 2012).
Powdery mildew (Oidium sp. and Leveillula taurica)
It is caused by Oidium sp. and Leveillula taurica, which produces tiny, whitish and
superficial spots on leaves and later on whole aerial parts of plant, is covered with
whitish powder having conidia and conidiophores of the pathogens (Grover, 1952
and Sreeramula, 1953). The disease can be controlled by spraying Sulfex (3g/litre of
water) or 0.5% Karathane (40 E.C.) at regular intervals (Arora, 2012).
Botrytis blight or gray mold
It is caused by Botrytis cinerea. Gray coloured downy growth of fungus along with
spores appears on infected plant parts and thus this disease is also known as gray
mould. Irregularly shaped spots occur on leaves, flowers and stem. Infested flower
buds fail to open and decaying of affected flowers followed by their premature fruit
drop occurs. Later on, collapse of plants occurs due to rotting of their diseased stem.
Remove plant debris as soon as initial disease symptoms appear and provide proper air
circulation, avoid overhead watering and maintain dry foliage to control this disease.
Apart from these cultural practices, use disease-resistant cultivars and apply fungicides
to control the pathogen (Dhiman and Arora, 1990 and Anonymous, 2018a).
Bacterial diseases
Bacterial leaf spot of marigold (Pseudomonas syringae pv. tagetis)
This disease is seed borne and adversely affects growth as well as development of
immature marigold plants. Tiny, watery and dark-green spots appear on lower leaf
surface at initial stage of infection, while, diffused brownish discolouration occur on
upper leaf surface after one or two days of infection (Hellmers, 1955). Occurrences
of black spots on cotyledon of seedlings, necrotic leaves with chlorotic and distorted
apical growth are some important symptoms of this disease. Mortality of severely
infected plants occurs in some cases. To control the pathogen, healthy seeds should be
used for raising marigold nursery (Gurjar, et al., 2019).
Viral diseases
Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) (Hanson et al., 1951), Marigold Mosaic Virus
(MMV) and Marigold Mottle Virus (Naqvi et al., 1981) are important viral diseases of
marigold. CMV is transmitted by seeds mainly and can be transmitted through insect
vectors like Aphis gossypii, Aphis craccivora and Myzus persicae. Plants infected
with viral diseases exhibit stunted growth with deformed flowers and very less yield
potential. Affected leaves become yellow and show mosaic with vein chlorosis and
mild curling. In severe cases, growth ceases and top necrosis occurs in plants. Another
important disease of marigold is Aster yellows, which is caused by Phytoplasma.
Stunted growth, week and clumpy stems, discolouration of infected leaves, deformed
flowers with improper coloration are prominent symptoms of this disease (Gurjar et
Marigold 395
al., 2019). To control its further spread, infected plants should be completely removed
and destroyed (Anonymous 2018a). Antiviral Glycoprotein isolated from Boerhaavia
diffusa roots acts directly on viruses and effectively manages the virus (Awasthi et al.,
2016).
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27
Lotus
P. K. Yadav and Kumari Lata
Lotus being a national flower of India, is closely associated with religion and culture.
It is a perennial, aquatic crop that is grown and consumed throughout Asia. The edible
parts of lotus are Leaves, flowers, seeds and rhizomes, and the flowers are also used
in religious ceremonies. Lotus flowers are also, used for extraction of perfumes. It is
one of the oldest plants in the world Archaeologists in China found Lotus seeds with
estimated ages of 5,000 years in 1972 in Yunnan Provincelagoons.
During the pre-historic period, the South India Dravidians used lotus flowers
(pundarika) as their food, much earlier than the people of the Indus Valley civilization
(3000-2000 BC). However, there is no evidence of lotus being present during the
Indus Valley culture of the Mohenjo Daro and Harappa period in northern India. The
Rigveda reference that lotus was made by the Aryans (2000-1500 BC) wherein it is
also mention that lotus can be used as food. Subsequently, lotus was mentioned in the
Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas, Slokas, plays and other ancient Sanskrit literature. The
lotus symbol is not only mentioned in the scriptures of Hinduism but it also occurs in
the Buddhist and Jainism literature.
In the Arthasastra (350-300 BC) by Kautilya, the great diplomat during the golden age
of Chandra Gupta, it is recorded that one of the varieties of sandal wood possesses the
fragrance of lotus. The Mughal kings were also attracted towards the beauty of lotus.
While describing Agra, the Mughal king Jehangir (1605-1627 AD) in his memories
Tuzuk-i-Jehangiri, mentioned a memorable scene of a tank full of exquisite red lotus
flowers, the like of which he had not seen before.
The lotus was inspired the poets, the sculptors and the artists of both ancient and
contemporary periods. The lotus shapes have also been used in architecture,
particularly in the decoration of ceilings of the temples of Vellore Fort and Dilwara
(Mount Abu). Even during Mughal period lotus shape was represented in architecture.
In Shahjahanabad city presently known as the Red Fort established by the king
Shahjahan (AD 1627-58), the exclusive female apartments, the Rang Mahal, is
designed as a large lotus with deftly patterned petals disburse within a square bordered
frame. In the basin centre’s there is a willowy stem with a silver or Indian lotus at
the top from which water rushes out. The lotus was also used as a symbol of self-
regeneration and rebirth.
Lotus are offered to the Gods and Goddesses in temples all over India. It is customary
to offer 108 lotus blossoms for the worship of Durga on the occasion of the Durga Puja
festival. Lotus stalks are used to make ornaments, like necklaces and bracelets in West
Bengal.
Lotus flowers are symbolized for divineness, purity, kindness, fragrance, coolness,
fertility and prosperity.
Taxonomy
The family Nymphacaceae has two important genera which have aquatic species with
attractive flowers, e.g. water lily and lotus belonging to the genera: Nymphaca and
Nelumbo, respectively. The genus Nelumbo has only two species, N. nucifera and N.
lutea. Nelumbo nucifera GAERTN.; Syn. Nelumbium speciosum Willd., also called
Sacred Lotus or Indian Lotus, originated in Asia, Persia, India (Makino, 1979).It is a
potential symbol of fertility and purity and even immortality in different civilizations
over the centuries. N. lutea is known as American lotus having yellow flowers. It is a
native of America where it grows wild in the Central states of the USA, near the Great
Lakes. Bythe Red Indians it was primarily being cultivated for food in the Cumberland,
Tenesse and the Mississippi Rivers extended up to Connediant. All species of genus
Nymphaeceae are water lilies. White Lotus lily (Nymphaea lotus) and Blue Lotus lily
(Nymphaea caerulea) are native lilies represented in Egyptian art and religion. Many
Eastern religions, particularly Buddhism, have adopted it as the paramount symbol of
purity, paramount conscience, peace and tranquillity.
Nelumbo nucifera lacrt. syn. Nelumbium nelumbo Druce, is usually known as the
Indian Lotus,the sacred Lotus, the East Indian Lotus,the Hindu lotus and the Chinese
lotus. The lotus is native to India, Japan and China. It is generally distributed from
tropical East Africa to North Eastern Australia. It is growing in lakes, ponds,rivers,
and pools all over India, from the Himalayas in the north to Kanyakumari in the south.
Nelumbo nucifera Nelumbo lutea

It is large, glaucous, perennial, aquatic, herbaceous plant. Rhizomes are long about 60
to 120 cm in length, 6-9 cm in diameter. They are starchy, white to burnish-orange in
colour. Cross-section shows a few large cavities adjoined by several small ones. It is
fleshy, mucilaginous and slightly fibrous. This part is also edible. Leaves are large with
centrally placed stalk with blue-grey colour.
Lotus 403
Flowers are solitary borne at or above leaf level which is single. The flower is deep
pink in colour, sepals are 4-5 in number, free, caducous, green, petals are obovate,
obtuse, elliptic, nervulose, 8-12 cm long and 3-7 cm wide. These are multiseriate,
hyogynous, anthers linear introse, numerous, yellow, 15-20 mm long, filament linear,
7-25 mm long, style short exerted, stigma terminal, carpels are many usually 10-30
in number, uniovulate, free, embedded in the large flat topped spongy receptacle
thalamus resembling the roses of small watering cans, carpels maturing into nut-like
achenes (seeds), nuts ellipsoidal, about 20 mm long, pericarp hard without endosperm,
cotyledons thickened.
Medicinal and Uses
The lotus leaves known for their various properties like having astringent, comparable
refrigerant and diuretic actions. Hence, these are helpful to cure various diseases
like diarrhoea, high fever, strangury, haemorrhoids and leprosy. Seeds are helpful to
stop irritation or vomiting of the digestive tract. Ripe seeds of lotus are provide a
spleentonic and used for their astringent action in the seasoning of seminal emission,
leucorrhoea and chronic diarrhoea. It also have a sedative action, making themuseful
for heart palpitations and insomnia. The sun dried plumule or embryo of ripe lotus
seeds are primarily used for insomnia, nervous disorders, high feverswith uneasiness
and hypertension. The flower pods or receptacles contain proteins, carbohydrates and
a little amount of Nelumbine alkaloid, used to stop bleeding andeliminate stagnated
blood. Stamens are helpful to strengthen kidney function and are helpful in treatment
of male sexual disorders particularly and also female leucorrhoea (Naguyen, 2001).
Lotus contains large number of odour essence in leaves and flowers. In leaves, 40% of
odour essence is cis-3-hexanol and in flower 75% of odour essence are hydrocarbons
mainly linalool,1, 4-dimethoxybenzene-1, 8-cineoleand 4-terpineol (Omata et al.,
1992).
Lotus is popular for its sanctity and aesthetic value. Besides, the pods and stemsare
also used as food. Its flowers are offered to gods and goddesses in temples. The lotus
buds are used in flower arrangement. The flower buds are cut one or two days before
opening can be transported to long distances. It is often grown. In ponds and pools for
landscaping a large garden (Nguyen, 2001).
The tender leaves, petioles and flowers are eaten as vegetables. Yellowish white fibre is
produced from petioles. The perfumeis also extracted from lotus flowers. Its perfume
available as a blend of patchouli, benzom and styrax with phenylethyl and cinnamic
alcohols in trade.
Cultivars
There are several cultivars, developed in China and Japan, which have single or double
flowers of white to deep pink or red colours. There is also a cultivar having variegated
leaves. The important cultivars of lotus are given here in detail.
1. Alba Striata: The edge of petals is striped antippedwith red colour.
2. Alba: This is also known as the Magnolia Lotus. The flowers are of white
colour.
3. Alba Plena: The flowers are large in shape and white in colour. They are also
double flowered.
4. Rosea Plena: They are double flowered. The colour of the flower is rose pink.
5. Pekinemis Rubra: The colour of the flower of this cultivar is rosy carmine.
6. Shiroman: This is a Japanese cultivar. The flower is large and double. The
colour of flower is white with greenish tinge.
7. Pygmaca Alba Plena: This cultivar is dwarf. It has double flower with pink to
red colour.
8. Kimhiren: The colour of the flower of this cultivator is white shaded pink.
9. Grossberzog Ernst Ludwig: The flower colour of this cultivar is rose purple.
10. Pulchra: The colour of the flower is rosy red in this case.
11. Gigantea: The cultivar is very large in size. The flower colour is rose purple.
12. PekinensisRubra Plena: The culuvar IS very large in size. The flower are
double with rosy caramine colour.
Propagation
Sexual Propagation (by Seed)

Lotus seeds have the longest viability with age. It is estimated that up to 1,500 years
old seeds were propagated and generated healthy plants and these plants were able
to produce their own viable seed (Shen-Miller et al., 1995). The long viability of
seeds is due to the presence of extra hard, impermeable testa or seed coat. The seed
propagation can be followed by the scarification of seed coat followed by incubating
at 25-30oC. The seeds should submerged in water-saturated media. The choice of
media depends on the application - if plants are to be transplanted then the coarse
sand media is suitable for propagation. Absence of media encourages fungal growth,
which borne from the inside of the seed. Plants generated by this technique are not be
true-to-type because there is high degree of genetic variability in the seeds. Therefore,
seed propagation should be done for selection of new varieties or identifying potential
qualities may be the cross with another varieties.
Vegetative Propagation (Rhizome)
This is the most easy and effective method of lotus propagation in recent days and
also produce true-to-type plants. Seed rhizomes should separate from the current crop,
or a separate mother pond is constructed to supply seed rhizome material in different
seasons continuously. Using this technique, a rhizome with at least two segments sealed
either at the distal end by the intact node, is submerged in water-saturated media at an
angle of 15o with the shoot meristem approximately 5 cm below the media surface.
Meristems are left intact for further propagating material, although, if planting a crop,
only one meristem is left intact. Larger rhizomes are produced more vigorous plants.
Lotus 405
Assuming this method of plant propagation is for a crop situation or seed rhizome
production, then nutrition should follow as per recommendations.
Pond Management
Design
There is a critical pond design for lotus production and, once the design constructed,
it’s difficult to change. That’s why, it is the recommendation that civil engineers
should consult these points regardingthe pond design, construction and use. Water
management should be examine in the context of acquisition, storage, movement and
crop pond management. A deep waterbody preferably located on higher ground, can
be used for water storage. It also allows the gravity feeding of water through irrigation
pipes to all ponds. Water may accumulate in each pond and be pumped back into
the waterbody before being finally collected into a catchment, or the catchment pond
may be second waterbody.Water may need filtering through a sedge bog and pumped
back into the reservoir for example to remove nutrients. However, the amount of area
under cropwould bereduced bya second reservoir. The deliberate site should have the
inherent qualities likea gentle slope and rather asuitable soil type for Lotus cultivation.
Attention has to be paid to the method of sealing the pond. Traditional farm dams are
sealed by impervious clamping, which are unsuitable for Lotus cultivation because
rhizomes can grow into them. It is difficult to harvest from hard, compacted soil and
if dug, the seal of the pond may be compromised. Depending on the habit of each
variety, a soft layer of soil to a depth of about 1 meter is required. Similarly, it is
possible to line the pond with pond liners that are manufactured in a range of available
materials. Again, if the soil on site is inappropriate, the type of soil can be selected by
the grower for use. The pond liners will restrict downward growth of rhizomes and
result in flat misshapen rhizomes if the soil depth is not sufficient. Consideration of
the intended scale of operation will be dictated by economics; on a larger scale, the
cost of construction as well as crop production and pond maintenanceis more. Further,
some areas may require council or EPA approval due to significant changes to water
catchment regulations on properties.
Construction
When a design has been planned and the mandatory approvals has been received and
obtained, the producer should follow alike construction plan for the example given.
Note that, as it only incorporates the underdeveloped elements of a specific plan,
producers should always be aware to their own distinctive situation. For connecting
pond system, earthmoving equipment accessibility, operators and prevailing
environmental conditions at the time of construction farther consideration should
given to irrigation piping. Moving soil in wet, waterlogged conditions would not be
favourable situation.
• The area should be clear intended for vegetation;
• Mark the area for pond;
• Remove the topsoil and place it aside (this soilcan be used as the growing media
by the growers);
• Remove the lower soil horizons to the required depth (approx. 1.2 m) and install
the piping or irrigation mechanisms;
a) Compact the subsurface soil if it is favourable to creating an impervious
seal. Ensure slight slope for water flow and control; OR
b) If this method is adopted than install the pond liner.
• Introducing water to the system of pond to test the pond’s permeability and
water movement (water should move frequently over the incline and not leak
out - this is best done before introducing growing media);
• Drain the pond (recirculate the water to hold reservoir);
• Return thetopsoil back to the pond area (dug out) and work for necessary
nutrients and soil/water ameliorants;
• Fill the pond with water to the necessary level
Cultivation
There are two common methods of planting lotus. They are by direct planting and
through rhizomes which are discussed here in detail.
1. Direct Planting
Planting can be done directly into the base of the pond or the pool, particularly
ina newly constructed one. Generally at the bottom of the pool there is a base of
a mixture of three parts of loam and one part of well-rotten cow dung manure or
farmyard manure. Coarse bone mealmay be used if cow dung manure is not available.
The bottom of the pool is filled with soil and manure mixture to a depth of 15-20
centimeter. The pool should be empty at the time of planting. After planting, water
just sufficient to cover the crown of the plant is allowed. After a week or ten days
another 2-3 cm water is added and it is continued until the pond or pool is full which
may take 6-8 weeks.
2. Through Rhizomes
Another method is to plant the rhizomes or young plants split up from the clump by
division, in small baskets or pans about 35-40 cm in diameter and 20-25 cm in depth.
The above mentioned compost mixture (soil and manure) is used to fill the baskets
or pans. Loam, crushed charcoal and bone-meal can also be used. After planting,
watering is doneand then the basket is carefully lowered and placed on bricks for
about a week or ten days so that the crown remains fairly close to the surface. The
plant is gradually lower when new growth appears. The planting is done in the month
of March to April. Seeds are sown in small shallow pans in ordinary loamy soil. The
pan is kept in a bigger container filled with water. After germination, the seedlings are
transplanted into 15 cm pots. Later, they are planted in baskets, which are lowered in
the pool as described earlier.
In China and Japan, lotus is grown in terraced fields as a commercial crop for edible
rhizomes. However, cultivation in ponds is preferred for a better development of
rhizomes that may spread up to 13m in a year. The rhizomes are harvested by digging
Lotus 407
in October. The average yield of rhizomes is about 35-40 quintals per hectare. About
10-12 kg seeds are required to produce seedlings sufficient to grow in hectare.
Flowering
Lotus flowers grow profusely in summer and rainy seasons. The flowers are produced
on long stalks at or above the level of the leaves. The flower buds when picked 2 to 3
days before opening are able to withstand long distance transportation and keep well
when placed in vases.
Weed Management
Sometimes aquatic weeds may grow vigorously in large ponds and completely
crowd out the lotus plants. One such troublesome aquatic weed is the water-hyacinth
(Eichhornia crassipes), which spreads rapidly through runners. Typha is another
common aquatic weed. The weeds may be removed mechanically, by hand or by other
means. In difficult cases, herbicides may be used like simazin (3-6 ppm) and Monuron
(4-12 ppm). These herbicides when used in low concentrations do not harm fish in the
pool.
Diseases and Pests
Unless we prevent the occurrence of diseases and pests we cannot get profitable yield.
Common diseases and pests on lotus plant are discussed here.
Diseases
The two common diseases are leaf spots caused by Cercospora spp. and Ovularia sp.
and root rot caused by Phytophthora spp. It is not possible to use any fungicide to
control the disease because they may be harmful to fish. However, Bordeaux mixture
may be sprayed on the foliage when there is no fish in the pool.
Pests
Aphids and beetles are the common insect pests. In case of infestation of aphids,
spraying a strong jet of water may knock the aphids into the water where they will be
eaten by fish. The infested leaves and flower stalks may be kept immersed in water for
at least one or two days which will help to drown the aphids. The beetles may be either
picked up by hand or dislodged by spraying water as in case of aphids.
Harvesting
Flowers: the first leaf and flower can be harvestedafter three months of planting.
During summer season flower picking should be done at two days interval while in
case of winter picking should be done at three days interval.The flower production is
at its climax after four months of planting. The manual flower harvesting done by hand
after three to four months of planting (Wikipedia).
Rhizomes for Vegetable Purpose: for cooking purpose, rhizomes mature at
approximately six to nine months.The harvesting of rhizomes is done when the ponds
or fields are drained and the time of early varieties varies from July to September while
the late varieties harvested from October to March. It is easy to dig out the large, starch
rich rhizomes from the drained soil. In small scale production, rhizomes are harvested
by hand using fork like tools (Wikipedia).
Rhizomes for Transplanting: Rhizomes of lotusare harvestedat dormant stage.The
growth of the plant parts above water slows down during fall stage as nutrients are
directed to the underground stem. The dormant stage of plant lies between the time
when the top turns yellow and wilts and the leaf bud semergence during spring. It
is important to handle the rhizomes of lotus with care at the time of harvesting to
prevent damage to the delicate rhizomes and growing tips.
Seed Harvesting: The seed pods are harvested after four to eight months of planting
when the seeds are turning black in colour from green. The seeds are removed from
seed pods and then sun drying should be done for 3-4 days after it the coat and
embryo is removed.
References
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelumbo_nucifera
Makino, Tomitaro(1979). Makino’s New Illustrated Flora of Japan. The Hokuryukan Co. Ltd.,
Tokyo, Japan (In Japanese).
Nguyen, Q. V., 2001. Exporting lotus to Asia an agronolic and physiological study. Rural
industries research and development coporation. Pp: 1-47
Omata,A., Yomogida, K., Nakamura, S., Ohta,T., Izawa,Y., Watanabe, S. (1992). The odour of
Lotus (Nelumbonaceae) flower. Edited by Bhattacharyya, S.C., Sen, N. and Sethi. K.L.
Proceedings of the 11th international Congress of Essential oils, fragrances and flavours.
New Delhi, India, 12-16 November 1989. Vol. 4 Chemistry-analysis and structure.
1990:43-48.
Shen-Miller, J., Mudgett, M.B., Schopf, J.W., Clarke,S. and Berger, R.(1995). Exceptional seed
longevity and robust growth: Ancient sacred lotus from China. American Journal of Botany
82 (11):1367-1380
www.agrifutures.com.au
28
Post-Harvest Handling of Flowers
Puja Sharma, S.R. Dhiman, Bharati Kashyap, Priyanka Sharma
and Panchal Sangmesh
Floriculture is a high value industry. It is increasingly regarded as a feasible

diversification option from traditional field crops due to increased per unit returns and
increasing habit of ‘Greeting with Flowers’ during all the occasions. With increasing
awareness among consumers and pressure from the artificial floral products on the
fresh flower industry, and continued competition even amongst the growers, whole
salers and retailers, quality is becoming increasingly important. The aspects related
to visual quality of the product are the main determining indices of consumer’s
acceptability of flowers.
The important flower crops in the international market are rose, carnation, lisianthus,
chrysanthemum, gerbera, hydrangea, gladiolus, gypsophila, bird of paradise,
orchids, anthurium, tulip and lilies etc. Cut flowers have the highest economic value
and are the most perishable. Their high respiration rates, rapid deterioration, and
susceptibility to damage require the utmost care during postharvest handling for
quality maintenance. The post-harvest losses can be both, quantitative as well as
qualitative, which ultimately result in loss in terms of its monetary value.
Floriculture industry is facing main problem due to highly perishable nature of its
flowers which demand for appropriate post-harvest handling techniques to maintain
the quality. With changing scenario in international floriculture trade, perfection
in post-harvest technology is mandatory to offer quality plant products to the
consumers round the year. The post-harvest life of cut flowers and flowering pot
plants can be extended relatively by a range of treatments and technologies. Quality
factors that influence the post- harvest keeping quality and flower longevity are
environmental factors as well as the influence of the pathogenic organisms.
Due to perishable nature of cut flowers, huge post-harvest loss is there which ranges
from 30-50 per cent. Qualitative losses which include consumer acceptability of fresh
produce are much more difficult to measure than quantitative losses. Quantitative
losses can occur during the entire post-harvest and marketing chain due to lack
of proper post harvest handling (Bhattacharjee, 2006). These losses could be on a
higher side, which might be due to lack of knowledge on ‘post-harvest handling’
of cut flowers and proper infrastructure for post-harvest management and storage.
However, all these losses can only be minimized by proper technique of harvesting,
post-harvest handling, packaging, storage, marketing and value addition of flowers.
Proper post-harvest handling is an important part of modern flower production.

The technology of post-harvest handling bridges the gap between the produce and
the consumer, a gap often of time and distance. Post-harvest handling involves the
practical application of engineering principles and knowledge of flower and flower
physiology to solve this problems.
The sum total of activities carried out after harvesting of cut flowers until it reaches
the end user i.e. consumer are referred to as post harvest handling. It includes various
activities like optimum harvesting procedure, precooling, conditioning, pulsing,
storage and transportation of cut stems etc.
Post-harvest losses of flowers can also be reduced by involving well trained people in
harvesting and handling of flowers. The next most important thing is that the flowers
should be harvested at optimum maturity stage and finally after harvest the cut flowers
should be kept in water immediately to avoid blockage of vacuole with air. The flower
then should be immediately taken to packaging house using cold chain facility. To
maintain high quality of produce, storage and transportation should also be done under
cold storage conditions.
Factors Affecting Post-Harvest Life
I. Pre-Harvest Factors Affecting Post-Harvest Life

Genotypic Factors: Keeping quality of flowers vary from species and cultivars, which
may be due to genetic or inherent factors like differences in anatomical, physiological,
physical, biochemical and genetic makeup.
Light: Light is an important factor and regulates several physiological processes like
chlorophyll synthesis, phototropism, respiration and stomatal opening. Most of the
commercial flowers need high intensity (3,000-8,000 f.c) and absorption of red light
(625-700 nm) through a pigment phytochrome. It has been found that a decrease in
available solar radiation before harvest reduces the post-harvest life of cut flowers.
Low light intensity generally causes excessive elongation of flower stems and reduces
stem hardening, which results in bent neck in rose and stem bending in carnation
and gerbera. Similarly, excessive light intensity is also harmful and it deteriorates
the flower quality. In case of lilium, the stem length reduces if grown under full light
intensity.
Temperature: Higher temperature during field conditions decreases vase life
and quality of cut flowers. Exposure of rose plants to high temperature reduces
anthocyanin content and increases darkening of petals. A day temperature of 18-25oC
has been found to be optimum for best grade carnation flowers. Increase of greenhouse
temperature from 10 to 27oC for one week before harvest causes reduction of vase life
of cut carnations from 4 to 7 days at ambient temperature.
Mineral nutrition: Nitrogen is an essential element for plant structure and function
as it is necessary for the synthesis of amino acids, purines, pyrimidines, chlorophyll
and coenzymes. The soil application of N lengthens the time taken for flower bud
initiation. Field grown rose cultivars require nitrogen for better yield and longer post-
Post-Harvest Handling of Flowers 411
harvest life in cut flowers. Similarly the availability of all other nutrients at optimum
level is required for production of high quality flowers.
Irrigation: Optimum moisture level is required throughout the growing phase of the
crop. Stress due to excessive or inadequate water in the growing medium reduces
the longevity and quality of cut flowers. Heavy irrigation is required from the bud
development stage to harvesting in all the flowers. Insufficient water during bud
development leads to calyx splitting in carnation and insufficient floret opening in
gladiolus.
Carbon dioxide: In general, CO2 enrichment increases photosynthesis and decreases
photo respiration. At elevated CO2 levels, young carnation plants and mature flowers
have higher dry matter content. When polyhouse is enriched with CO2 roses with
more number of petals, longer and thicker stems are produced. Chrysanthemums at
a concentration of 1,000-2,000 ppm CO2 produced longer length, more fresh weight,
leaf number and increased longevity of cut flowers (Tanigawa et al., 1995)
Use of agrochemicals: GA3 is well known to promote flower formation and development
in many long day and cold requiring plants (Bernier et al., 1981). Application of
GA3 (50-100 ppm) improves post-harvest quality of roses by proper anthocyanin
pigmentation. Pre harvest spray of BA in improves shelf life of chrysanthemum loose
flowers (Sagar et al., 2019).
Pests and Diseases: Export quality flowers should be completely free from pests and
diseases. Hence, protection is necessary from the nursery itself so that there is no
hidden infection caused by pathogens or insects which reduces the longevity as well
as consumer acceptance.
II. Harvest Factors
Harvesting is the process of detaching flowers from the plant in a scientific way using
sterilized equipments. For this, the maturity indices of the various cut flowers are to
be known. Proper stage, method and time of harvest is of considerable importance to
ensure long vase life of cut flowers. Flowers maintain a fresh appearance much longer
if they are harvested at the appropriate stage of development. In general, flowers cut at
more advanced phases of development have a shorter vase life than younger flowers.
The optimal phase of flower development for harvest depends upon the plant species,
the cultivars, the season, the distance to the market place, and the consumer preference.
Table 1: Optimum stage of harvesting of commercial flower crops.

Flower Name Stage of Harvest
Alstroemeria (Lily of Incas) 4-5 florets open.
Anthurium andreanum Spadix almost fully opened.
Chrysanthemum morifolium Outer petals fully elongated.
Standard types Open but before anthesis.
Spray types Centre of the oldest flower fully open
Single Open but before central disc florets begin to
Pompons and decorative elongate.
Anemones
Dianthus caryophyllus (Carnation) Paint brush stage when flowers are half open
Standard cultivars At least 2 fully open flowers
Spray cultivars
Gerbera jamesonii Flowers open and outer two rows show shedding of
(Gerbera) pollens.
Gladiolus 1-5 buds showing colors.
Lilium spp. (Lily) Colored buds.
Narcissus spp. (Daffodil) Goose neck stage.
Orchids 3-5 days after opening.
Cattleyas 3-4 days after opening.
Cymbidiums Almost fully opened flowers.
Dendrobiums When 50-75% of the flowers open.
Oncidiums 3-4 days after opening.
Phalaenopsis
Rosa hybrida (Rose) First 2 petals beginning to unfold.
Red and Pink cultivars Slightly earlier than red and pink.
Yellow cultivars Slightly later than red and pink.
White cultivars
Strelitzia reginae First floret opens.
Polianthes tuberose Buds fully developed but unopened.
Single Maximum florets open.
Double
Tulipa spp. (Tulip) Half coloured buds.
Source: Nowak and Rudnicki, (1990)
Although there are well defined harvesting stages of different flowers, yet some of
the flowers can be harvested at bud stage and are successfully opened by using bud
opening solutions. Harvesting of flowers at bud stage is always advantageous as the
bud continue to open over a long time and hence, possess long vase life. Besides,
the buds are less sensitive to ethylene, easy to handle during storage and transport,
economical to transport and are less prone to damage by diseases and pests. The
bud harvested flowers are easier to handle and less susceptible to adverse handling
conditions. Successful opening of flowers in cut stems harvested at tight bud stage
has been reported by Kavita (2016) in chrysanthemum, Kuiper et al. (1995) in rose
and Han (1992) in liatris.
Time of Harvest: Optimum time of harvest is one of the most important factor
influencing flower longevity. Morning harvesting has advantages in terms of better
turgidity; but at same time, flowers which may be still wet with dew are more
susceptible to postharvest fungal infection. Evening harvesting has advantages in
terms of higher carbohydrate concentration in flowering stems. Morning harvest is
recommended for flowers which lose water quickly after picking, as in case of roses.
Flowers are at full turgid in the morning, and transferring them after harvest to a floral
preservative solution and then to cold storage prevents water loss and helps to preserve
their quality. If, however, harvested flowers are precooled and placed directly in a
floral preservative solution containing sugar, the time of harvesting is not important.
Mode of Harvest: Sharp tools should be used for removing flowers from the mother
plant. The angle of the cut should be slanting, and the cut should be smooth, particularly
in flowers with hard, woody stems which absorb water only through the cut surface.
The harvested stems should immediately be transferred to the bucket of water to
prevent air entering the cut end. The crushing of a stem at the cut should be avoided as
this causes the exudation of sugar containing sap which encourages the development
of micro organisms which may in turn cause stem plugging. Flowers are usually cut
close to the soil to provide the longest stems possible. This is often associated with
decreased water absorption by the hardened lower part of the stem, resulting in a
shorter vase life. It is better to cut flowers in the less hardened portion of the stem.
Air embolism occurs when small bubbles of air are drawn into the stem at the time of
harvesting. These bubbles cannot move far up to the stem, so the upward movement of
water to the flower is restricted. Emboli can be removed by recutting the stems under
water by ensuring that the rehydration solution is acidic (pH 3 or 4).
III. Post Harvest Factors Influencing the Quality of Cut Flowers for
Export
Temperature: The high respiration rate of cut flowers, as an indicator of their rate of
growth and senescence generates heat as a by-product. As in all biological systems,
the respiration of cut flowers increases logarithmically with increasing temperature.
The optimum temperature for storage of most of the cut flowers is 2-5 o C, just above
freezing. In contrast, some tropical crops such as anthurium, bird-of paradise, some
orchids and ginger show chilling injury at temperatures below 10o C.
Light: Light is essential for long distance transport or prolonged storage in alstroemeria,
chrysanthemum, dahlia, gladiolus and other flowers. Similarly, high light intensity is
essential for opening of tight bud cut flowers. Flowers like carnations can be stored
in darkness for a longer period without affecting quality. Chrysanthemums should be
illuminated during storage with a light intensity of 500-1,000 klx to protect the plants
from yellowing of leaves.
Humidity: Cut flowers should be kept at 90-95 per cent relative humidity for
maintaining turgidity. Flowers start showing wilting symptoms when they have lost
10-15 per cent of their fresh weight. During pre-cooling and shipment of cut flowers,
the relative humidity level of the air should be maintained at 95-98 per cent. Higher air
humidity reduces water loss and petal wilting.
Water Supply: Cut flowers, especially those with leafy stems, have a large surface
area, so they lose water and wilt rapidly. They should be stored at relative humidity
above 95 per cent, particularly during long-term storage. Water loss is dramatically
reduced at low temperatures, another reason for prompt cooling. Air embolism,
bacterial plugging, and poor water quality can reduce solution uptake. Water quality is
very important as hard water contains minerals that make the water alkaline. Alkaline
water does not move readily through stems and can substantially reduce vase life.
Such water can be treated by removing the minerals using a deionizer or by making the
water acid. Excessive loss of water in cut gerberas leads to bending where the flower
bends from neck region and is beyond correction.
Ethylene: Some flowers especially carnations and some rose cultivars, perish rapidly
if exposed to minute concentrations of ethylene. A wide range of flowers are affected
by ethylene, with showing of some typical symptoms such as sleepiness of carnation
and kalanchoe petals, fading and in-rolling of the corolla of ipomoea, fading and
wilting of sepal tips in orchids tec.
Growth Tropism and Mechanical Damage: Negative geotropism often reduces
quality in spike-flower crops like gladiolus and snapdragon because the flowers and
spike bend downward when stored horizontally. These flowers should be handled
upright whenever possible. While considering the aesthetic appearance of flowers,
damaged flowers are not desirable.
Diseases: Flowers are susceptible to diseases, not only because their petals are fragile,
but also because the sugar solution secreted by their nectarines, which is an excellent
nutrient supply for even mild pathogens. The most common fungal infection during
post harvest handling is gray mold (Botrytis cinerea). Proper greenhouse hygiene,
temperature control, and minimizing condensation on flowers all reduce losses caused
by gray mold.
Post-Harvest Handling Chain of Cut Flowers
Post-harvest Handling includes all the activities carried out until the flowers reach end
user which is referred to as post-harvest chain. The various steps are as follows:
Conditioning of Cut Flowers: Conditioning or hardening is a process where the
flowers are kept or made to stand loosely in a big container of water so the air circulates
around the stem. This treatment is done to restore turgidity of cut flowers as various
kinds of water stress during handling, storage and transport might have affected the
turgidity of flowers. Flowers can be conditioned in the dark so that their stomata will
close, reducing the amount of water loss by transportation. Conditioning is achieved
by treating flowers with demineralized water supplemented with germicides and
acidified with citric acid to pH 4.5-5.0 but with or without sugar.
Pre-Cooling: It is generally done immediately after harvest. Pre-cooling is done by
forced air cooling or cooling to bring down the temperature to 1oC in a short period.
Time between harvest and pre-cooling should be as short as possible. Forced air
cooling is most effective in removing the field heat from flowers. Packed or unpacked
flowers have to be pre-cooled before storage or shipment.
Impregnation: Impregnation of cut bases of flowers with high concentration of Silver
nitrate (AgNO3) or Nickel chloride (NiCl2) or Cobalt chloride (CoCl2) for 10-15 min
greatly improves longevity of several flowers. Since silver travels only a short distance
in the stem, bases of treated flowers should not be re-cut after treatment. Here, the
Ag++, or Ni++, or Co++ ions stay at the base and protect from microbial blockages.
Impregnation is better with carnation, rose, chrysanthemum, gladiolus, tuberose and
orchids.
Grading: It is an important operation that facilitates sorting of flowers with similar
attributes. The cut flowers are usually graded on the basis of various factors like bud
diameter, stem length, degree of bud opening and aesthetic appearance etc.
In the United States, the Society of American Florists has developed recommendations
concerning flower selection for various grades for some species of cut flowers only.
US Grading Standards for some important cut flowers are :
A. Anthurium
Grade Size of the Spathe (cm)
1. Extra Large >15
2. Large 13-15
3. Medium 10-13
4. Small 8-10
5. Miniature/Tiny <8
B. Carnation (Standards)
Grade Flower type Minimum flower Minimum length overall
Diameter (mm) (cm)
Blue(Fancy) Tight 50
Fairy Tight 62 55
Open 75
Red (Standard) Tight 44
Fairy Tight 56 43
Open 69
Green (Short) Tight None
Fairy Tight None 30
C. Chrysanthemum
Grade Minimum flower Minimum length
diameter (mm) overall (cm)
Blue 140 76
Red 121 76
Green 120 61
D. Gerbera
Grade No. Stem length (cm) Flower diameter (cm) Flower color
1. >60 >12 Pink
2. 50-60 11-10 Reddish orange
3. 40-50 10-9 Orange
4. 30-40 9-8 Red
5. <30 8-7 Yellow
E. Gladiolus
Grade Spike length (cm) Minimum floret number
Blue (Fancy) 107 & above 16
Red (Special) 96-107 14
Green (Standard) 81-96 12
Yellow (Utility) 81 & below 10
F. Roses
Grade Minimum Length overall (cm)
Hybrid Teas Sweethearts
Blue 56 36
Red 36 25
Green 25 15
Floral Preservatives: Once cut flowers are detached from parent plant they are
delinked from the supply of metabolic raw materials. Therefore, exogenous supply
is essential to keep its quality and usefulness. Water is the first and foremost essential
component for flowers. A source of energy deriving materials for respiration is also
quite important. A clear understanding of the course of senescence is immensely
helpful for establishing techniques to overcome ageing process.
Floral Preservatives are the chemical formulations used for extending the vase life
of flowers. Besides increasing vase life, floral preservatives help to improve flower
opening, flower size, shape and color. Many commercial formulations are now
available in liquid or powder form for extending flower vase life but their constituents
is not disclosed. These formulations are to be used as per the guidelines provided by
the manufacturer.
Floral preservatives have two basic constituents: sugar and biocide. Sugar provides a
source of additional food to the cut flower whereas the biocide checks the growth of
bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms in the vase water. Besides, floral preservatives
may also have other ingredients such as inorganic salts, growth regulators and anti-
ethylene compounds.
Types of Floral Preservatives
Floral preservatives can be applied as (i) pulsing solutions; (ii) bud opening solutions;
and (iii) holding or vase solutions.
(i) Pulsing solutions: Pulsing refers to short duration (16-24 h) pre-shipment or

pre storage treatment. It involves loading the flowers with high concentration of
carbohydrates (sucrose) to replenish the supply of food to the harvested stems.
The effect of such a treatment lasts throughout the entire vase life of the flower.
Pulsing is always done at room temperature.
(ii) Bud opening solutions: Harvesting the flowers at bud stage offers many
advantages. Besides reducing crop span, it makes handling and transportation
relatively very easy as compared to opened flowers. Immature buds of many
flowers can be made to open in chemical solutions, referred to as ‘bud opening
solutions’. The components of bud opening solutions are essentially the same
as those of pulsing solutions, but in case of bud opening solutions, lower
concentrations (2 to 5 per cent) of sucrose are used.
(iii) Holding or vase solutions: The holding or vase solution can be retained with
the wholesalers or retailers or the consumer to keep flowers fresh until they are
sold or for the consumer to use continuously in the vase. A holding solution
contains carbohydrates, germicides, growth regulators, ethylene inhibitors,
mineral salts and organic acid for prolonging the life and quality of cut flowers.
The level of sucrose in vase solutions is, kept very low (0.5 to 2 per cent).
Constituents of Floral Preservatives
The main constituents of floral preservatives are (i) water; (ii) sugar; and (iii) biocides.
Besides, mineral nutrients, acidifying agents, anti-ethylene compounds and growth
regulators are also used in floral preservatives. The brief account of these constituents
is given herewith:
Water: Water content of flowers after harvest affects vase life in terms of its quantity
as well as quality. Tap water can be harmful due to its high pH (alkalinity), presence
of total dissolved solutes (TDS) and toxic ions. High pH promotes the microbial
growth and hence, reduces vase life. Therefore, acidifying water to low pH (3.0-3.5) is
advantageous because it decreases microbial growth and considerably improves water
uptake by the stem. Sensitivity of different flowers to the presence of TDS in vase
water varies. Vase life of rose and chrysanthemum flowers decreases at low level of
TDS (200 ppm) in water whereas flowers like gladiolus show decline in vase life when
TDS in water is relatively high (more than 700 ppm). The presence of sodium ions in
vase water is detrimental for roses whereas fluorides are highly toxic to some flowers
like gladiolus, gerbera, freesia, chrysanthemum and rose. In such cases, it is always
advantageous to use distilled water.
Sugar: Sugar act as additional food source and also improves water balance of cut
flowers. Sucrose is the most widely used sugar in floral preservatives. Sugar in the
vase solutions act as food for the growth of detrimental fungi and bacteria, whose
growth can be enhanced by organic materials from the cut stem. Substances produced
by the bacteria, and the bacteria themselves can plug the water-conducting system.
For this reason, flower-holding solutions should contain germicides to prevent the
growth of micro-organisms. Acidic vase solutions not only improve water flow by
overcoming embolism, but also inhibit bacterial growth. The optimum concentration
of sugar required, however, varies from species to species.
Biocides or Germicides: Biocides are chemical compounds which are used to inhibit
microbial growth in vase water as well as on the stem surface. Important biocides
used for treating cut flowers are 8-hydroxyquinoline citrate, silver nitrate, aluminum
sulphate, citric acid, slow release chlorine compounds and quaternary ammonium
compounds.
8-hydroxyquinoline citrate (8-HQC) is very effective broad spectrum biocide. It
acidifies water and also induces partial closure of stomata. This compound is used
at the concentration of 200-600 ppm. Silver nitrate (AgNO3) is also very effective
biocide. AgNO3, at the concentration of 25 ppm completely inhibits the microbial
growth and also causes partial stomatal closure, thereby increasing vase life. High
concentration (1000-1200 ppm) of AgNO3, can also be used as short term (10 - 15
minutes) treatment AgNO3, has, however, very low mobility and remains concentrated
at the cut surface of the stem where it inhibits microbial growth. A lot of concern is
however, being voiced in the developed countries regarding the use of silver, as being
a heavy metal, it is considered to be an environmental hazard. Citric acid has been
reported to improve vase life of roses, chrysanthemum, gladiolus and carnation. It acts
as an acidifying agent, lowers pH of the solution and also prevents blockage of xylem
vessels.
Growth Regulators: Plant growth regulators considerably affect vase life of the
flowers. Growth regulators are broadly categorized in to five classes: i) auxins; (ii)
gibberellins; (iii) cytokinins; (iv) inhibitors and retardants; and (v) ethylene though
other compounds like salicylic acid, brassinosteroids and jasmonates are also included
in this category. Single growth regulator may not play a significant role in flower
senescence but interaction among different growth regulators is suggested to determine
the potential life of the cut flower. However cytokinins are most frequently used in
vase solutions. Cytokinins play an important role in delaying senescence of many
flowers. Endogenous cytokinin content shows a pattern consistent with its presumed
role in delaying senescence i.e. buds and young flowers contain high cytokinin levels,
which fall as the flower ages and commences senescence (Mayak and Halevy 1970;
Van Staden and Dimalla 1980). Endogenous levels of cytokinins decrease with
ageing of rose flowers. Not only this, some rose cultivars with short vase life possess
lower levels of cytokinins than those with long vase life. BAP in holding solution
also delayed senescence of tuberose flowers. Dip treatment with BA is also reported
to increase vase life of anthurium flowers, accelerates opening of buds of rose and
chrysanthemum and prolongs their vase life. BA also delays the yellowing of leaves in
chrysanthemum either in vase or after prolonged storage. The stems should be given
pulsing treatment with BAP (100 ppm) for one hour before storage or can be held in
BAP (50 ppm) solution during storage to prevent premature yellowing of leaves after
storage. Thidiazuron which is having cyrtokinin like activities can effectively be
used for delaying leaf yellowing in cut chrysanthemum (Kavita 2016).
Anti Ethylene Agents: The role of endogenous ethylene in causing senescence
has been well documented by a range of studies reporting the dynamics of ethylene
production, changes in activity of the biosynthetic enzymes (Bufler 1984, 1986), and
up-regulation of the genes encoding these enzymes (Woodson et al., 1992). The key
role of ethylene has been verified by studies with long-lived carnation cultivars (Wu
et al., 1991).
Ethylene, a hydrocarbon gas, and commonly known as a ripening hormone induces
senescence in many flowers. Ethylene is present in the atmosphere in minute quantities
(3-5 ppb) though its level varies with the season and the location. Internal combustion
engines, ripening fruits, vegetables, pollinated flowers, and senescing leaves, diseased
and damaged tissues are main sources of ethylene in the atmosphere.
The ethylene inhibitors like amino ethoxyvinyl glycine (AVG) and methoxyvinyl
glycine (MVG) at concentration of 0.7 to 0.13 mM are also reported to increase vase
life of carnation flowers. STS (silver thiosulphate) is a potential anti ethylene agent
frequently used in vase solutins. However, with increasing awareness about reducing
the use of heavy metal ions like silver a potential alternative to STS has been suggested
by Mukherjee (2003) in carnation and Manikrao (2007) in alstroemeria. Pulsing of
carnation in a solution containing Sucrose 10% + 8-HQC 300 ppm + BA 15ppm for
8 hrs. followed by placing the flowers in a holding solution containing Sucrose 2% +
8-HQC 150 ppm + BA 5ppm has resulted in better vase life of carnations over STS
based treatments.
Flowers like Alstroemeria, Carnation, Lily, Narcissus (Daffodil) and Orchids are highly
sensitive to ethylene. On the other hand flowers like Anthurium, Chrysanthemum,
Gerbera, Gladiolus and tulips are relatively insensitive to ethylene.
Table 2: Symptoms of ethylene toxicity in selected cut flowers
Flowers Toxicity symptoms
Alstroemeria Flower malformation,
petal darkening, petal abscission.
Carnation Bud sleepiness and petal wilting.
Chrysanthemum Slight hastening of senescence.

Gerbera Slight hastening of senescence.
Lily Bud blasting and petal abscission.
Narcissus (Daffodil) Smaller flower diameters, hastening of senescence.
Orchids (Cattleya, Dendrobium, Reddish flower color, hastening of senescence.
Phalaenopsis, Paphiopedilum, Vanda)
Rose Inhibition of bud opening, petal bluing, hastening
of senescence.
Tulip Bud sleepiness, petal bluing, hastening of
senescence.
Packaging and Storage

Packaging and storage affect the postharvest life of flowers, as appropriate packaging
of flowers along with pulsing may aid in keeping flowers fresh for consumer and
may also extend their vase-life. Bunch of flowers previously wrapped in paper or
cellophane when placed in corrugated fiber board cartons protect flowers against
water loss, physical stress, and various other external conditions that may damage the
flowers.
Most of the cut stems are bunched together before packaging e.g. rose, carnation,
chrysanthemum etc. However some flowers require specialized packaging e.g.
gerbera cut stems are individually put in polyethylene sleeves to avoid injury to the
petals. Similarly the soft and shiny spathes of anthuriums are packed individually in
polyethylene sleeves. The basal end of the cut stems of orchid spikes are immersed in
a vial carrying food material and a biocide which enhances the vase life of cut spikes
upto 15-20 days and ensures maximum opening of florets on the spike.
The flowers either bunched or individual are packaged in different materials. Some of
the most common packaging materials are:
Corrugated Fibre Board (CFB) boxes: Cut flowers are generally packed in CFB
boxes. Cut stems are first wrapped in materials like cellophane, polythene, newspaper
etc. and finally packed in CFB boxes with holes on sides for ventilation. Corrugation
can be single layered or double layered depending upon the distance of transportation.
Proper cushioning material is placed inside the boxes which help to reduce shocks
during handling.
Cellophane: Cellophane is generally used to wrap the cut flowers and then packed
in boxes. Freshness of florets remain for longer duration due to less water loss from
cellophane packed cut flowers, therefore, delaying the withering of flowers. Sisodia et
al. (2018) observed that longevity of cut flowers of gladiolus cv. ‘Punjab Dawn’ was
maximum when wrapped in cellophane sheets during storage. Wrapping cut flowers
of roses cv. ‘First Red’ in polyethylene and then packing in CFB boxes improved the
vase life (Bhasker and Rao, 2018).
Polyethylene: Packing of flowers is generally done in polyethylene bags of 200 gauge
thickness. Shelf life and lutein content of marigold flower was recorded maximum
when packed in low density polyethylene (LDPE) bags (Pal et al., 2016). Shelf life
of rose and Plumeria flowers was observed best in zip pouches of polythene (Kumar
et al., 2019). Karuppaiah et al. (2006) recommended packing of jasmine (Jasminum
sambac) flowers in 200 gauge thickness polyethylene bags for extending the shelf
life. Packaging of loose flowers of chrysanthemum in cardboard boxes lined with
polyethylene was reported by Sagar et al. (2019).
Newspaper: Newspaper is generally used as cushioning material in the CFB boxes as
this is cheap material.
Other Materials: Use of organic wrapping and packaging material is now recommended
as these are bio-degradable. Packing of loose flowers of marigold is generally done in
hessian cloth bags. Banana leaves is an alternative option for polyethylene packaging
of cut flowers in India. In a study, Roychowdhury et al. (2011) observed that spikes
of tuberose cv. ‘Calcutta Double’ wrapped with banana leaf exhibited maximum vase
life with maximum floret opening and least amount of floret wilting. For packing of
gerbera cv. ‘Yanara’ cut flowers, plastic sleeves with 20% ventilation and stored in
CFB boxes with bedding material as tissue paper as well as newspaper can be used
as best packaging materials for longer vase life (Prashanth and Chandrasekar, 2010).
Storage
Storage of flowers is also an important component in post harvest handling. It becomes
utmost important in situations where there is over production and availability of flowers
in the market. It ensures orderly marketing, reduced retailer’s hazards resulting from
unforeseen decline for demand, anticipating holidays, improved production efficiency,
saving energy and making possible long term shipment. Important factors which
determine the storage life of the flowers are quality of the flower to be stored, stage of
harvest, temperature and relative humidity during storage, light, ethylene production
and pathogens. The flowers to be stored should be of good quality. Flowers should
be free from any physical injury and incidence of pests or diseases. The injured and
diseased tissues are potential sources of ethylene and are also highly prone to infection
with pathogens. The flowers must be cut at an optimum maturity. Some flowers like
gladiolus, roses, lilies, narcissus and irises can be stored at bud stage as buds of these
flowers possess the ability to open after storage.
Temperature management during storage is an important component which determines
subsequent vase life of flowers. Temperature fluctuations in the cold room should be
avoided. Relative humidity inside the cold room should preferably be kept high (90-
95%). Low humidity may cause desiccation and browning of leaf edge with thin leaves
or leaflets. Sufficient air circulation is a must to block the bad effects of high humidity.
Cut flowers of rose stored at 90% relative humidity had the longest vase life, while
those one kept in 60% showed the shortest longevity (Chamani and Wagstaff, 2019).
Cold rooms should be kept clean to prevent the spread of pathogens as well as ethylene
accumulation by the decaying plant tissues and microbes. The storage may of flowers
is done by different methods including cold storage (wet and dry cold storage),
controlled atmospheric storage, modified atmospheric storage, low pressure storage,
etc.
Cold Storage
Cold storage is the common method of storing cut flowers. Flowers should be harvested
at the optimal stage of development, should be pre-treated with an appropriate floral
preservative and pre-cooled for fast packing. Low temperature treatment during
storage or shipment period reduces the entire metabolism in the tissue and slows
down the respiration.
It is necessary to maintain a stable and uniform temperature during storage. In general,
temperate flowers (rose, carnation and lilium etc.) are stored at 0-1°C whereas
subtropical (gladiolus, jasmines, proteas and gloriosa etc) at 4-7°C and tropical flowers
(anthurium, cattleya, vanda, euphorbia and bird of paradise etc.) are stored at 7-15°C.
In cold storage, flowers can be stored dry or wet, depending upon the requirement.
i. Wet storage
In wet storage, flowers are stored with their base dipped in water or preservative
solution for a short time. During wet storage, flowers are kept at 3-4°C temperature
slightly higher than that used for dry storage. The lower-most leaves are removed
from the stems in order to avoid wetting and subsequent decay. The vase water may
get infected by fungi, bacteria and yeast and can cause plugging of cut stem. So, water
disinfection with sodium hypochlorite should be practiced. Flowers like carnation,
chrysanthemum, gladiolus and gerbera are wet stored at 4°C, roses at 2-5°C whereas
anthuriums can be stored at 13°C (Singh et al., 2013)
ii. Dry storage
Dry storage method is used for long term storage. In this method, fresh flowers are
harvested in the morning, graded and sealed in plastic sleeves/ bags or boxes to prevent
the loss of moisture. Prior to storage, flowers may be pulsed with floral preservatives
containing sugar, anti-microbial and anti-ethylene compounds. Before packing in
polythene sacks or boxes these should be lined with butter paper bag or news paper.
Flowers should be wrapped in soft paper to absorb condensed moisture appearing on
the bloom. The optimum dry storage temperature for roses is 0.5-2°C, carnation 0.5-
1°C, chrysanthemum 1°C, gerbera 2°C and gladiolus 4°C (Singh et al., 2013).
Table 3: Cold Storage conditions for exotic cut flowers (Lutz and Hardenburg, 1986).
Cut flowers Temperature Relative humidity Duration range
(°C) (%) (days)
Alstroemeria 0-4 90-95 6-10
Anthurium 12.5-15.5 90-95 3-10
Carnation 0-7 90-95 3-42
Chrysanthemum -0.5-8 90-95 7-42
Cymbidium -0.5-4 90-95 7-14
Gerbera 1.5-4.5 90-95 2-14
Gladiolus 0.5-10 90-95 6-8
Lilium 0-0.5 90-95 4-28
Narcissus 0-2 90-95 7-21
Rose 0-5 90-98 4-14
Tropical Orchids 15 90-95 7-28
Tulip -0.5-2 85-95 3-42
Controlled Atmospheric Storage (CA)

The principles of controlled atmosphere storage for cut flowers are based on the close
regulation of three parameters viz. temperature, oxygen and carbon dioxide. It extends
storage life due to inhibited ethylene production and action, by elevated concentration.
Nitrogen enrichment storages have promising result in daffodils and roses (100% N2
and 99% N2 + 0.5-1% O2, respectively. The use of CA did not pick much in floriculture
industry due to high cost of application and inconvenient handling of various cut
flowers.
Modified Atmospheric Storage (MA)

MA storage is a less preferred storage technique in which the flowers are packed in
sealed bags which leads to reduction in O2 and increase in CO2 levels due to respiration
of the tissue. This increased level of CO2 reduces the biosynthesis of ethylene and
hence increases the flower longevity. It is a cost effective method of flower storage as
no special atmospheric conditions are required in this method of storage.
Low Pressure Storage (LPS)/ Hypobaric Storage
In this storage method, flowers are stored under reduced pressure, low temperature
and cooled moist air. In LPS, gaseous substances like CO2 and ethylene produced by
flowers through stomata and intercellular spaces much quicker under low pressure
than at normal pressure. The desirable effect of LPS is attributed to the reduction of
ethylene production at low O2 levels and other volatile compounds. Various reports
have indicated that LPS of 40-60 mm Hg pressure is helpful in prolonging vase life of
cut flowers. Cut roses at 180-210 mm Hg pressure can be stored up to 3 weeks with
retention of 63% of the original vase life.
Tinting of Flowers
It is a specialized technique where white flowers can be artificially altered into colours
according to our wish and desire. We see blue gladiolus and tuberoses in the market,
these are the tinted flowers since blue colour is not present in the natural gene pool. It
is done at retailers’ outlet.
Tinting is a value addition technique in flower crops like tuberose where colour
pigments are absent or in light colour flowers (Sowmeya et al 2017). Tinting can be
done with natural flowers by adding artificial colours or food colouring agents. In
this the basal ends of the cut stems are dipped in the food coloring/water mixture and
allowed to stand overnight. Sometimes splitting of stem lengthwise from the base is
also done. The stems and leaves will also turn colors over time, but the flowers are
usually the first to show the streaks, as they are in the fastest growing area.
Tinting or artificial colouring of tuberose may be a potential value addition venture
(Kumari and Deb 2018). Tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa L.) cv. Prajwal was tinted
using six different food dyes as tinting agent viz, Blue, Apple Green, Tomato red,
Orange red, Lemon yellow and Rose pink at a concentration of 1%, 2% and 3% for all.
The darkest shades of colours were obtained in 3% concentration while lightest shades
in 1%. In crops of Tuberose (cv. Suvasini) and Gladiolus (cv.White Prosperity), 5%
concentration of food dye with two hours of immersion showed a best colour shades.
Tinting the spikes of tuberose cv. Suvasini at the optimum stage of harvest (1-2 basal
florets open) where as in gladiolus cv.White Prosperity, harvest satge (1-2 basal florets
show colour) was found to be optimum. (Kumar and Kameswari, 2014). In Gladiolus
cv. ‘White Prosperity’ tinting was done with 5% food dyes for two hours at various
stages of harvest (Kumar et al., 2015). Successful tinting in gerbera, carnation and
gladiolus was also reported (Sneha et al., 2019).
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29
Dehydration of Flowers for Value-
Addition
Bharati Kashyap, Rajesh Bhalla, S. R. Dhiman, Puja Sharma
and Sangeeta Kumari
Flowers and various parts of the plant have been used for decoration and to commemorate
various religious, festive, matrimonial and social gathering events in day to day life.
The main drawback of fresh flowers and foliage is being highly perishable and delicate
which cannot retain their beauty for longer durations. Moreover fresh flowers are
not available round the year which can be overcome by the dehydration and drying
techniques. Since ancient times, in Egyptian pyramids, fragrant dried flowers and
herb garlands were encased along with mummified bodies. Japanese people created
“Oshibana”, the “preserved flower art” of enduring designs to retain the exquisite
beauty of the living plants centuries ago.
Later on, this craft making technique spread from Japanese to Victorian England
because of their beautiful long lasting appearance. During middle ages monks dried
flowers, foliage, and herbs for use in decorative motifs or for colouring their hand-
printed books.
Dried flower arrangements have been popular in Europe for centuries, and as early as
1700 AD, colonial Americans used dried flowers to brighten their homes, especially
during the dark winter months.
Earlier botanists practiced dried flowers in the form of herbarium for the purpose of
identification of various plant species. Though drying of flower was well known even
in the past but for the first time the flowers were dried commercially in Germany
(Sankari and Anand, 2014).
In present scenario, dry flowers are gaining popularity as they are inexpensive, long-
lasting and eco- friendly products that are available throughout the year. Dried and
preserved ornamental products offer wide range of unique qualities which includes
novelty, longevity, aesthetic values, flexibility and round the year availability (Joyce,
1996). Drying of plant material leads to reduced microbial activity in them so they
can be stored in moisture free atmosphere and becomes free from bondage of seasons
(Bhutani, 1995). Non-availability of fresh flowers and foliage round the year, while
the beauty and value of dried flowers can be kept for years and they can survive cold
of winter and heat of summer (Bhalla et al., 2006).
Dry Flower Industry

Dry ornamentals include dried flowers, shoots, seeds, barks, fruits, nuts, cones etc.
However in modern days any plant material with aesthetic appearance can be used for
making a large number of value- added products like pot-pourries, incenses, fragrant
candles, greeting cards, dry flower sticks, arrangements, bouquets, wall-pictures,
floral designs, pomanders, floral wreath, paper weights, dolls, mirrors, handmade
papers, hangers, soap cases and other gift items. Due to the availability of diversified
agroclimatic conditions which offers wide varieties of plant materials in India, the
country is a leader in the world in dry flower export. Easy and wide availability
of raw materials from forests and cheap manpower, intensive craft making have
greatly contributed to flourishing of the dry flower industry in India. This business
can be a source of income generation to the unemployed youth, women and even
the handicapped persons. Indians are famous for their creativity and craftsmanship.
People can grow/ collect the material and prepare the handicraft/ floral craft in their
pastime. Export of dried flowers and plants from India is more than Rs 100 crore per
year. The industry exports 500 varieties of dried ornamentals to different countries.
Dry flower industry is a labor-intensive and can generate ample job opportunities to
thousands of unemployed men and women.
Indian Flower Industry
In India this industry is about 40 years old and was introduced by British in Calcutta
for its closeness to North-East regions where plenty of exotic and diverse blooms were
available in surroundings (Bhattacharjee and De, 2003).
The demand for dry flowers has increased manifold in the last decades and is
increasing at an impressive rate of 8-10% annually (Singh, 2009). Indian flower
industry comprises of commercial production of cut flowers, loose flowers, cut greens,
seeds, bulbs and landscape plants, their marketing and most importantly production
of value added products from them. Indian export of flowers is composed of 71%
dry flowers exported mainly to USA, Japan, Australia, Russia and Europe (De et al.,
2016). USA, Singapore, UAE, Malaysia and Germany are the major exporters from
India in terms of dried, dyed, bleached or otherwise prepared cut flowers and flower
buds for bouquets or for decorative purposes (Anonymous, 2019).
In India, Tuticorin has three major players like Fauna International, Ramesh Flowers
and W. Hogewoning while Minex in Calcutta are the largest player in dry flower
production. However in global market, Botanical Resources of Australia, Sumitomo
Chemical, Fauna International, KAPI, Valent, Fauna International, McLaughlin
Gormley King Company (MGK), Agropharm, Beaphar UK, Novartis Animal Health,
Sumitomo Chemical ,W. Neudorff etc are the major leading producers of value added
products.
The top ten cultivated dried flower genera as “Everlasting” are Helichrysum sp.,
Helipterum sp., Limonium sp., Nigella sp., Gypsophila sp., Delphinium sp., Amaranthus
sp., Papaver sp., Carthamus sp., Rosa sp. (Anonymous, 1989) and can be cultivated
easily in India.
Dehydration of Flowers for Value-Addition 429
Apart from these, the valleys and mountains of India harbour a large number of native
plants comprising of cones, ferns and grasses which are very unique and hold a great
potential to be utilized for dry flower production. Above all, the agricultural waste of
crops like maize, sesamum, pearl millet, sorghum, linseed, wheat etc can be utilized
for making dry flower products. Although ‘Dried flowers’ is a lucrative business, yet
lack of awareness could be another drawback in its expansion. The raw products from
the wild such as cones are still being harvested through illegal means and sent to
dry flower markets/ collection centres at very low rates from where the value added
products are exported to bigger markets at very higher rates.
NBRI Lucknow, UHF Solan, HPKVV Palampur, ANGRAU, Hyderabad, KAU
Vellanikkara are some of the institutes where work on dehydration of flowers has
been taken up.
The technology for dehydration and value-addition of a large number of cultivated
crops, native flora has already been standardized in the Department of Floriculture
and Landscape Architecture, Dr YSP UHF, Nauni, Solan and a laboratory for
demonstration of technology and the value-added products has been established which
is acting as a role model for the students, distinguished guests and the farmers. Many
NGO’s, SHG’s and farmers have shown interest in adopting the technology. A small
cottage industry/ entrepreneurship can be started in the field of dried flowers with the
minimum amount of rupees 10,000/ only. The dried flower products fetch good returns
in the market and a single person can earn from rupees 200 to 1000/ day. Moreover, the
dried flowers do not require very large area for cultivation. Farmers with limited/small
landholdings can adopt this technology. The dried flowers do not have the problem of
storage unlike fresh flowers which are perishable commodities. APEDA, GOI has also
identified dry flowers as a potential item for export. With the sustainable utilization of
all family members, farmers can easily generate 1.5 times to 5 times profit by the value
addition of dry flowers and the rate of different dry flower products varies from Rs. 15
to Rs. 2000 and similarly the B:C ratio varied from 1.5 (for paper weight making) to
5.0 (for making finely designed scenery, Singh, 2018).
Techniques of Flowers Drying
In general, preferably selected species should be naturally dried along with retention
of natural colour for long period of time. Deduction of moisture while retaining the
unique shape, colour and texture of plant material is the goal of drying techniques. The
flower dehydration technique involves reducing moisture content of flowers to a point
at where microbial activity and the ageing effect come to a standstill and biochemical
changes are minimized thereby cell structure, pigment level and flower shape are
maintained as such. The stage of harvesting for different flower varies according to the
species and the form of flower desired. The quality and appearance of dried flowers and
other ornamental plant parts is greatly influenced by both the method and techniques
being followed. Following table describes the optimum stage of harvesting of flowers
for drying as reported by various workers (Lourdusamy et al., 2002), (Jauron, 2003),
(Safeena et al., 2006).
Crops Optimum harvesting stage

Helichrysum Harvest when outermost 1-2 layers of ray florets are
bracteatum perpendicular to the centre while the center is still tightly closed.
Gomphrena globosa Both half bloom and full bloom stages are ideal.
Celosia spp When flowers are at peak stage of bloom.
Limonium sinuatum Harvest the flower stalk when all the cup like calyces have
opened. The cream coloured petals wither and drop during the
drying process, whereas bright colour calyces remain.
Gypsophila paniculata Flowers are picked up when majority of flowers are fully opened.
Nigella spp Harvest when the pods are firm and papery to touch.
Mollucella laevis When the tiny flowers inside the green persistent calyx appear
and becomes slightly firm.
Lagurus ovatus When colour changes from greenish to whitish and pollens are
visible
Bromus spp When colour of spikes become green and tip of ear/inflorescence
not turned prickly.
Briza minor Colour changes from greenish to whitish
Zinnia elegans Full bloom stage
Rosa spp Half bloom stage
There are different methods of drying of flowers which can be broadly divided into
two groups
A) Old Methods of Drying
Natural Drying
It involves the process where plant parts are allowed to dry on the plant itself naturally.
In Himalayan regions, naturally dried plant parts, with beautiful fruiting shoots are
Aegle marmelos, Bambusa spp, Bauhinia retusa, Cassia fistula, Clematis grata, Rosa
moschata, Pinus roxburghii, Picea smithiana, Sapindus mukorossii etc while Abrus
precatorius, Aesculus indica and Sapium sebiferum have beautiful seeds (Desh Raj
and Gupta, 2002).
Press Drying
One of the oldest methods of drying and was first reported in 1820. In press drying
the selected flowers and foliages are placed between the folds of newspaper sheets or
blotting papers giving some space among flowers. These sheets are kept on one above
another and corrugated boards of the same size are placed in between the folded sheets
so as to allow water vapour to escape. Press drying in hot air oven at 35-39°C for 48
hours found optimum for pansy, 24 hours for drying the leaves of Grevillea robusta
Thuja occidentalis, adiantum, nephrolepis and flowers of hibiscus, Cassia biflora
calliandra and marigold (Kher and Bhutani, 1979) while in case of rose, carnation and
helichrysum time required reported to be vary from 120, 132 and 2 hours, respectively
(Gill et al., 2002). Press drying in shade or oven also found suitable for maintaining
two dimensional view of Ixora spp, Mussaenda spp, Meyenia erecta, and petals of
Bauhinia pupurea flowers. Viola tricolor, Pelargonium spp, calendula and buttercup
with soft petal stuff were amenable to press drying and highly suitable for two
dimensional products like portraits, greeting cards and sceneries (Nazki et al., 2012).
Vertical Hang Drying
It is the ordinary and the cheapest method where desired plant material is hung
upside down with the help of rope or wire and tied to a stand. Entire process of air
drying depends upon the relative humidity, air velocity, pressure, moisture in plant
material and type and shape of the flowers. However the main drawback is its weather
dependence and petal/foliage shrinkage which may subsequently lower down the
aesthetic value of plant material.
Nigella, gypsophilla, Achania malvaviscus, santolina and lavender spikes can be dried
by inverted vertical hanging inside room conditions away from direct sunlight (Nazki
et al., 2012).
Embedding Drying
It is the most efficient method of drying of plant materials in which different
desiccants like silica gel, boric acid, river bed sand, saw dust, alum powder, corn
granules, separately or in mixture can be used. In order to avoid shrinkage and other
morphological changes which may occur due to air drying, the flowers and foliage
can be embedded in drying material like; sand and silica gel (Datta, 1999). Embedded
plant material can be dried in microwave oven, hot air oven, solar drier, sun drying
and vacuum drying or under room conditions. For embedding drying the qualities of
desiccant is very important. The desiccant should normally have the ideal size of 0.02-
0.2 mm. It should be heavy to keep the plant material in its original shape, neither
sticky nor costly.
Sometimes borax being hygroscopic bleaches flower petals if embedded for a
longer time (Datta, 1997, Sangeeta et al., 2017a). Silica gel (60-120 mesh) is the
best absorbent for removing moisture from flower and foliages followed by boric
acid (granules) (Desh Raj and Gupta, 2003). Flowers like rose, carnation, zinnia,
chinchirenchi, gomphrena, chrysanthemum, larkspur, geranium etc. are dried well in
silica gel (Smith, 1993; Chandrasekhar et al., 2008; Singh et al., 2004; Sharma et al.,
2016, Sangeeta et al., 2017b).
Plant material embedded in deep containers accommodates without disturbing its
shape and forms in crops like bougainvillea, candytuft, chrysanthemum, dahlia,
gerbera, marigold and roses etc. (Bhutani, 1990 and 1995). Drying was faster with
silica gel and borax in comparison to sand due to the strong hygroscopic nature of
silica gel and borax which lead to rapid removal of moisture from flowers (Singh et al.,
2003). In case of rose, carnation, fern and silver-oak embedding in silica gel produced
good results while combination of silica gel and sand combination was satisfactory
(Gill et al., 2002).
B) Modern methods of drying
Hot Air Oven Drying

Flowers and foliages embedded in desiccants/medium are kept in hot air oven at
controlled temperature (40-500C) for appropriate time which vary from plant to plant.
Standardization of drying time and temperature of some of ornamental crops has been
done at NBRI, Lucknow.
The effect of embedding media, temperature and duration on drying of cut flowers of
Rose cv.’First Red’ in hot air oven revealed maximum moisture loss on embedding in
silica gel and dried at 45°C for 72 hours while
0
maximum anthocyanin content recorded
when embedded in borax and dried at 35 C for 36 hours (Dilta et al. 2014).
Colour and structure of floral parts exhibits no change, whereas total chlorophyll
content significantly reduced in the dehydrated parts as compared to the control
without any change in length and diameter of chrysanthemum flowers when dried in
hot air oven dried at 40°C for 30-35 hours in sand as embedding media (Pandya et
al., 2001). Peonia suffruticosa and Zinnia elegans dried in hot air oven for 30 min. at
50°C and 40 min. at 50°C, respectively found as the suitable method of dehydration
(Nazki et al., 2012). The effect of dehydration treatments on overall parameters with
maximum score in acroclinum flowers obtained on hot air oven embedding in silica
gel as compared to others as suggested by Katoch et al. (2010).
Dehydration of Rosa hybrida cvs ‘Lambada’, ‘Skyline’, ‘Ravel’ and ‘First Red’ in
hot air oven at 40°C with silica gel were more acceptable for colour, appearance and
texture (Safeena et al., 2006). In terms of quality parameters like colour, texture,
brittleness and shape retention, the silica gel embedded flowers of Gomphrena globosa
‘Magenta’ and Gomphrena globosa ‘White’ recorded maximum visual when dried for
24 hours at 50°C in hot air oven acceptance. Longer the drying duration less is the
capacity of the flowers to retain its shape (Sangeeta et al., 2017a)
Microwave Oven Drying
It is quickest and efficient technique of drying of flowers. Non- metallic containers
where various plant parts are embedded in different desiccants are kept in microwave
oven for 2-5 minutes. This technique is based on the principle of liberation of
moisture by agitating water molecules present in organic substances with the help of
electronically produced heat (Bhutani, 1990).
Chrysanthemum flowers embedded in silica gel and dried in microwave oven gives
the best results in terms of colour and shape retention (Bhalla et al., 2006). Rose buds
dried in microwave oven for 4 min. exhibited good colour and shape retention against
3 and 5 min. treatments (Dhatt et al., 2007). Similarly flowers of Calendula officinalis
cultivars ‘ Red Orange’ and ‘Yellow’ embedded in silica gel and dried in microwave
oven (30 sec) appeared best in terms of colour, shape and texture in both the cultivars
(Biswas and Saha, 2010).
Chrysanthemum cv. ‘Button Type Local’ microwave oven dried with silica gel as
medium accepted best in terms of texture and shape while for display quality flowers
dried at 80% micropower level for 120 seconds (Arvinda and Jayanthi, 2004). Zinnia
dried for 2 min. in microwave oven for setting time of 30 min. exhibited best results in
terms of colour, shape and size (Misra et al., 2009).
Nazki et al. (2012) evaluated the different dehydration techniques for product
diversification in floral craft in some plant genera of Kashmir valley revealed
microwave time of 90 sec, 240 sec, 60 sec, 30 sec, 40 sec, and 60 sec for Rosa hybrida,
Peonia suffruticosa, Dendranthema grandiflora, Hypericum spp, Narcissus spp and
Zinnia elegans, respectively for silica gel embedded dehydration with respect to
ornamental or aesthetic values.
Maximum moisture loss and size reduction observed in flowers embedded in silica
gel and dried in microwave oven for 90 seconds durations while maximum carotene
content in those flowers which were dried in silica gel for 30 seconds durations (Bhalla
et al., 2006).
In chrysanthemum (Dendranthema grandiflora Tzvelev.) cv. ‘Button Type Local’,
microwave drying of flowers with silica gel as embedding medium recorded maximum
score in terms of texture and shape while colour and overall acceptability in oven
drying with white sand as embedding medium (Arvinda and Jayanthi, 2004).
Vethamoni and Nanthakumar, (2003) observed the higher percentage of moisture loss
in oven drying method with a mean value of 41.4 % as compared to other methods
of drying. Furthermore the percentage of moisture loss recorded greater in hydrangea
flowers under oven drying methods followed by sun drying. Since the flower petals
of Hydrangea hortensis are soft, the rate of moisture loss is greater irrespective of
the situation conditions. Embedding of Gomphrena globosa ‘Magenta’ in silica gel in
microwave oven for 3 min. and for 72 hours as setting duration reported best method
which scored the maximum for quality parameters like colour, texture, brittleness and
shape retention whereas, in case of Gomphrena globosa ‘White’ the highest score
obtained in silica gel and dried for 3 min. with 24 hours setting duration (Sangeeta et
al., 2017b).
Maximum quality score in terms of colour, texture and brittleness to the flowers
of chincherinchee embedded in silica gel and dried at 50 °C for 24 hours duration
(Sharma et al., 2016).
Freeze Drying
It was introduced by William Hyde Wollaston in London. Freeze drying relies on
the Principle of Sublimation, whereby flowers are held under conditions of partial
vacuum and low temperature will evaporate on heating without going through a liquid
phase (Dubois and Joyce, 1989a). Rapid dehydration, particularly at low or ambient
temperature, tends to result in better- coloured products (Chen et al., 2000).
The main advantage of freeze drying is that, the products are fresh like original.
During the process, freezing the flowers at (-10 0C) for at least 12 hours a vacuum
pump slowly pulls the water out of the flowers as the vapour condenses as ice in
another chamber. Because of this process the shape and natural colour of the flower is
maintained (Murugan et al., 2007).
Several cultivars of Dianthus caryophyllus are successfully cryo-dried and remained

naturalistic in appearance after being placed in freeze drier (-20 0C) for 7 days
(Bhattacharjee and De, 2003).
Rosa hybrida cvs ‘Tineke’, ‘Golden Gate’, ‘Saphir’, ‘Roulette’, and ‘Rote Rose’ were
freeze dried for 14 days and in terms of shape and colour, the shrinkage observed in
freeze drying but colour remain similar to a fresh rose (Sohn et al., 2003).
In Rosa hybrida cv. ‘First Red’ maximum moisture loss and maximum sugar content
noticed in flowers dried in freeze drier (Bahera, 2009).
Glycerine Drying
Being an osmotic reagent, glycerol is also used in drying process. Camelia, Ivy and
Eucalyptus are good for drying with glycols (Deepthi and Santhosh, 2008). Cut stem
ends are dipped or soaked in a mixture of glycerine and water where the time period
of treatment varies from plant species to species. The average time taken for glycerine
uptake was 2-3 weeks for foliages like magnolia and ligustrum. Genera like hedera,
Mahonia aquifolia , magnolia, cherry laurel (Prunus laurocerasus) and Sophora mollis
found suitable for glycerine drying for 2-3 weeks (Nazki et al., 2012).
Glycerol and microwave preservation of annual statice maintained the flexibility,
without the greasy feeling often involved in glycerol preservation (Paparozzi and
McCallister, 1988).
Hiroaki et al. (2010) developed a protocol for the preparation of preserved flowers
retaining natural color and texture of ‘Moondust Velvet Blue’ carnation. The three-
step process consists of soaking flowers in ethyl alcohol, then soaking them in
polypropylene glycol, followed by a rinse with ethyl alcohol. Some kinds of flowers
processed in this manner retained their natural color and texture for at least 6 months.
Leaves preserved through glycerine are less prone to shattering and mechanical
damage and are more natural in appearance. The leaves of Peltophorum ferrugineum
and Buxus sempervirens treated in 40% glycerine solution by full dip method
articulated minimum change in leaf area, minimum percentage of leachate, maximum
score on textural quality, shape retention, brittleness and overall acceptance (Yadav et
al., 2018).
Dyeing
The natural colour of the plant materials may be intensified or artificial colour may
be introduced by dyeing or colouring, which helps in providing the uniform colour
and appearance and thus increases the saleability. Dyes are the molecules which
absorb and reflect light at specific wavelengths to offer human eyes the sense of
colour. Dyes can be obtained from natural substances like plants, animals or minerals
or may be synthetically prepared such as Acid dyes, Basic dyes, Direct dyes, Azoic
dyes, Disperse dye, Sulfur dye, Fiber reactive dye, Oxidation dyes, Mordant dyes,
Developed dyes, Vat dyes, Pigment brighteners, Optical/ flouorescent brightener and
solvent dyes (Kulkarni et al., 2011).
In comparison to direct and acid dye colour, vat colour group of dyes scored the
highest values in terms of visual aesthetic qualities and also exhibited low level of
colour fading on storage (Lourdusamy et al., 2002).
Dyeing of Lagurus ovatus where bio-colours, turmeric and lilium pollen are
satisfactory, whereas henna powder, gulmehndi (wild henna), coffee, butea, punica,
beet root are very poor in performance, thus cannot be recommended for dyeing
Kashyap et al. (2016).
Fabric dyes such as Yellow fabric are suitable based on different quality parameters
on dyeing of Gomphrena globosa L. ‘White’. Indicator dyes such as Crystal Violet
and Eosin Yellow gives good results with the addition of mordants such as aluminum
sulphate on addition to indicator dyes (Sangeeta et al., 2017c). This proved that dyeing
can be improved by adding mordants to improve the contact between the dye bath
solution and the plant materials as opined earlier by Joyce (1996) and Agarwal et
al. (2007). Fastness properties viz. rubbing, washing and light fastness considerably
improve involving mordants which could be attributed to affinity of mordant with dye
and the plant tissue Visalakshi (2013), Samanta and Agarwal (2009).
Bleaching
In bleaching both oxidative or reductive bleaches can be used on the plant material;
while former tends to break down coloured compounds, the latter tends to modify
them to colourless compound (Dubois and Joyce, 1988). Oxidative (Hypochlorite,
chlorite and peroxides) and Reductive bleaching chemicals (sulphite and borohydride)
are used for bleaching flowers and foliages (Arulmurugan, 2007). Sodium chlorite
is an excellent bleaching agent because it is relatively selective for lignin without
damaging the fibre.
The L value and whiteness index of botanicals for super whiteness fixed as White
Group Standard-NN-155-D as per RHS colour chart indicates maximum whiteness
index in Sesamum indicum followed by Luffa acutangula, Gossypium hirusutum and
Aegle marmelos when bleached under 30% sodium chlorite+ 5%HCl + 30% of first
dip, 40% Hydrogen Peroxide Visalakshi, (2013).
Storing and Packaging
Dried products are made up of cellulose material of plant origin and are also
hygroscopic and thus absorb moisture readily, thus problem of pest infestation will
occur. So they should be treated with suitable biocide and packed in a water proof
container (Murugan et al., 2007).
Dehydrated plant parts may be arranged aesthetically and covered with plastic or
transparent glass to protect them from atmospheric humidity, wind and dust. (Datta,
1997; Bhattacharjee and De, 2003).
Pot-pourris are normally designed in a glass bowl or a ceramic jar or stored in colourful
satin or muslin sachets, while other arrangements are designed in beautifully coloured
or shaped pots (Datta, 1999).
Dried plant materials absorb atmospheric moisture and lose their shape, therefore,
should be stored immediately in moisture proof containers. Different containers like
glass desiccators, tin boxes, cartons, wrapped with plastic sheets or wax paper and
herbarium vasculums fitted with cork sheet are used for storage of dried ornamental
plant material. Small quantity of silica gel also placed at the bottom to absorb moisture.
Store separately different dried ornamental plant material and fix proper label outside
with complete description of the product kept inside.
Bhalla et al. (2006) carried the experiment to standardize the suitable drying
temperature, media, techniques and storage of flowers of chrysanthemum
(Dendranthema grandiflora Tzvelev.) cv.’Nanako’. Keeping quality of dried flowers
was assessed under open and covered conditions from 0 to 180 days.
Hot air oven dried flowers when embedded in silica gel and kept at a temperature of
600C for 24 hours and microwave oven dried flowers after embedding in silica gel and
kept for 90 sec exhibited maximum presentability score under covered conditions.
Maximum score (7.93) and (7.40) out of a total of 10 allotted to the two strains of
Gomphrena globosa L. when dried in microwave oven thereafter covering with
newspaper and observed after 120 days of storage duration followed by cellophane
sheets covering compared to open conditions. Hence, it concluded that for aesthetic
qualities and longer presentability, flowers should be dried in microwave after
embedding in silica gel for 3 minutes with 72 hours setting durations (Sangeeta, 2015).
Different Value Added Products from Dried Flowers
1) Pot pourries Pot pourri is a sweet smelling dried floral arrangement which
is a mixture of dried flowers, petals, fruit, pod, leaves, spices, seeds, root and
distilled essential oil which are filled in pillows or transparent sachets. It consists
of an attractive mixture of dried plant materials of different shapes, size, texture
and color which makes it as a decorative item as well. The important dried
ornamental plants used for making pot-pourries are roses, lilacs, lavender,
pinks, hyacinths, lilies, violets, wall flowers, marigold, salvia, helichrysum,
gomphrena, craspedia ( bora flowers), acroclinum, rosemary and geranium etc.
We can use also use fruits of koelreuteria, jacaranda, nicandra, cotton, walnut,
casuarina, birch, almond, rose, acer, luffa, lotus, arjun, michelia, coix, wood
roses and maize cob & citrus slices in making pot-pourries.
2) Dry flower sticks: Beautiful dry flower sticks can be made from dried
flowers of helichrysum, statice, acroclinum, craspedia, lagurus, briza, bromus,
gomphrena, fruits of tithonia, bixa, lagerstroemia, jacaranda, moti dana(Coix
lacyrma jobi) bell cups, lotus, acacia, luffa, michelia, badam, pine cones
and spongue mushroom. Elegant sticks can also be prepared by shola sheath
(Aeschynomene aspera), maize sheath, coconut husk, cyperus, bamboo
(bamboo flowers, bamboo sheath flowers, bamboo leaf triple, bamboo mat,
curly coils and ting tings etc) and palms (palm spears, coco five fingers, dried
palm leaves, palm lavender, palm leaf weaving, palm male chakra etc). Some of
the natural materials from natures trove with long sturdy stems can directly be
used as dry flower sticks such as millet, pearl millet, statice, wild tobacco, flax,
hydrangea, leek, typha, sesamum etc.
3) Pomander: Pomander is derived from a French word, ‘Pomme d ambre’
meaning an apple of amber, a ball made of perfume. In general, we make a ball
from floral foam which can be covered with gomphrena, tithonia, acroclinum,
helichrysum, rose hips, nicandra berries, samara of acer etc. Usually pomander
is carried in a vase and may be hung down from the collar through chain or
belt. Though, pomander is a decoration product but can be used to modify bad
smells. We can make it perforated and add perfume sachets in it.
4) Collages: Collage is derived from French word, ‘Coller’ and literally means
glue. It is an artistic floral handiwork containing pieces of coloured papers,
texts, photographs, natural objects, in addition to dried flowers, leaves, roots,
bark, etc. It is a typical art of novelty.
5) Greeting cards: Dried foliage and flowers pressed in one dimension are used
to prepare greeting cards to present to friends and relatives on some social
occasions. To prepare a dry flower card skeletonized leaves, pressed flowers
and leaves, small thin sticks and twigs, grasses, fern and paper etc. are required.
6) Flower arrangement: These are used to decorate tables, shelves, corners of
offices and home. To make a flower arrangement we need a vase/ bamboo
basket, floral foam, dried flowers, leaves, grasses, cones, fern, twigs and pods.
Helichrysum, acroclinum, gomphrena, molucella, rose, statice, chrysanthemum,
achillea, ornithogalum, cocks comb, flax, hydrangea, anaphalis (buke flowers),
celosia, lagerstroemia, millets, rice panicles, celastrus and abrus fruit and
grasses like lagurus, briza, bromus, setaria, saccharum and leaves of cycas,
peepal, magnolia,fern and oaks etc.
7) Flower bouquets: A flower bouquet is a collection of flowers in a creative
arrangement and is normally used to decorate homes and present to greet
the dignitaries. Dry flowers and grasses can be used naturally or can be dyed
with various colours. Statice, hydrangea, ornithogalum, gypsophila, roses,
helichrysum, anaphalis, pearl millet and grasses like lagurus, bromus, briza can
be used to make a good flower bouquet.
8) Wall pictures: To make wall pictures we need dry flowers, fern, leaves, grass
and small thin twigs. We can also frame the wall picture to maintain their
beauty.
9) Dry flower wreath It is an assortment of flowers, foliage, twigs, grasses,
fruits, cones and various other construction materials which resemble to a ring.
Dry flower wreath is used to decorate doors, empty walls and for Christmas
celebrations. However, fresh flower wreath is used only for paying homage to
the departed soul.
10) Dry flower ornaments: Different ornaments like bangles, ear rings, garlands
and pendants can be prepared from dry flowers. Flower bearing crops like
helichrysum, gomphrena, Abrus precatorius, Coix lacyrma and rose hips can
be used for this purpose.
Apart from these, products like wall hangers (gomphrena, anaphalis, millet, cones,
helichrysum), dolls (maize sheath, gomphrena, ornithogalum), birds (cones), rakhi
(lagurus, briza, gomphrena), mirrors (gomphrena, helichrysum), garlands (gomphrena,
rose hips) and bandhanvaar (rose hips, lagurus) can also be prepared from dry flowers.
Conclusions
Dry flower industry is the major component of Indian floriculture. Owing to the
availability of large variety of flora in nature which can be properly utilized from waste
to useful value added products. These products are inexpensive, imperishable and
eco- friendly so are gaining popularity among consumers. There are different methods
of drying the flower crops. Microwave oven drying using silica gel is considered to
be efficient, fastest and high reliable method for producing dried flowers. However
on small scale business, air drying and press drying is also efficient method. Freeze
drying is used for drying of high value crops like roses, carnation etc. which is helpful
in preserving the natural colour. Value –addition in dried ornamentals adds in the
quality and variation of products and thus increases the saleability which leads to the
generation of employment to rural people particularly women.
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30
Importance of Cut Foliage and Fillers in
Floriculture Industry
Vanlalruati, Ritu Jain, Prativa Anand, Babita Singh
and Gunjeet Kumar
Floriculture has flourished with a considerable growth and a useful crop diversification
option, particularly for small farmers over the past three decades. The commercial
production of the cut greens has started in India in recent years and has huge demand
in the market. They are suited for year round production with low investment and
less care and maintenance.Cut greens or fillers are an important component of the
floricultural industry and their commercial value depends on vegetative characters,
such as stem length, leaf colour, density and side branching. Cut foliages (leaves and
stems), which are attractive in form, colour and freshness, are lasting and in great
demand. They have various other uses in making attractive fresh floral designs and
floral arrangements, such as bouquets, wreaths, decoration of house interiors, etc.
Evergreen plants with green, silver or variegated leaves are usually used and species
with berries are now also becoming popular.Fillers are critical components in most
arrangements as the flowers themselves,used to increase the volume and size of the
bunch and provide colour contrast.These floral produce have various other uses in
making attractive fresh floral designs and floral arrangements, such as bouquets,
wreaths, decoration of house interiors, etc. Colour, freshness, stem length, freedom
from pests, fragrance and vase life are important quality aspects of fillers.
In the International market, fillers accounts for about 16 percent of the total trade
by volume with an annual turnover of more than Rs 800 crores including selling of
ornamental leaves, filler flowers, dry and dyed flowers along with berries and capsules.
On the contrary, fillers representvery less quantum with poor quality in the domestic
market and are unsuitable for cut flower bouquets. Their share in the market is very
low and fetches nominal rates.
Floriculture Industry World Trade and Role of Cut Greens
In India, since earliest times, use of leaves and foliage has played an important part
during folk festivals, religious ceremonies and public celebrations of all kinds. In the
western world and the Netherlands in particular, the floriculture industry is one of the
oldest and most prosperous.The present day floral industry (with inclusion of greens)
is growing fast i.e. over 10 per cent year on year. The Netherlands is trade hub for cut
flowers and foliage in Europe with approximately 60% of all EU imports entering
via the Netherlands. It imports greens (excluding flowers) worth around USD 250
million per year. Or in volume terms, it imports around 5 billion leaves or 15000
shipping containers of forty feet size per year. Foliage demand, however, is increasing
as it gives a tremendous business opportunity since demand always exceeds supply.
To meet this increasing demand, production of greens has continued to move from
countries that have traditionally been consumers and growers to other relatively
new producing countries such as Israel, Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala, Costa Rica,
Kenya, and Ethiopia.
Strength of Cut Foliage Industry In India
In production and export of foliage, India has certain competitive advantages in
comparison to other countries:
i. Majority of cut foliages are tropical in origin. India’s diverse topography with
minimal temperature variations and right humidity is ideal for healthy growth
of foliage plants. India can be at the forefront of cut foliage industry in the
world provided farmers/growers are facilitated access to advanced technologies,
innovative techniques and well developed infrastructure.
ii. The availability of wide range of inputs, coupled with low labour costs, offers
India a natural advantage in growing ‘greens’. It is also well suited to the
economic and social conditions prevailing in the country.
iii. International logistics facilities like - availability of sea ports, availability of
reefer containers, vessel frequencies, transit times, ocean freight rates to Europe
base ports – are comparatively better compared with other countries.
iv. There is huge market demand for cut greens and fillers with growing
urbanization, rising income and adoption of western styles by the middle
class households and even small cities. Evolving domestic market will lead to
increasing domestic demand.
v. India’s progress in the field of Information Technology will facilitate cut foliage
industry in various ways. It will make all the information instantly available on
screen with a press of button and encourage exports of ‘greens’ to developed
countries like USA, Germany, the Netherlands, France, Japan etc.
vi. Our economy is far more stable and growing much more rapidly than other
countries. Self sufficiency in pre-harvest, post-harvest chemicals, irrigation
systems, packing materials, etc. is the added advantage.
Uses of Fillers
Fillers are essential addition to any bouquets, vases, wreaths, flower arrangements and
landscape etc.The types of fillers needed by the florists and arrangers are categorised
as below:
i. Display Flower Fillers: These are the large flowers which are not used as
main flower but used as fillers to create variation in colour e.g. Protea, Banksia,
Waratah and Blandfordi.
Importance of Cut Foliage and Fillers in Floriculture Industry 443
ii. Focal Fillers: Some specific filler like rice flowers, wax flowers, Thryptomene
serves as focal point in flower arrangements.
iii. Small flowers: Small flowers which increase size of the bunch, provide colour,
contrast are also used as fillers. It may include seasonal/annual flowers. e.g.
Achillea, Ammi majus, stock, delphinium, gypsophilla, statice, bells of Ireland
etc.
iv. Foliage Fillers: Foliage adds contrasts and backdrop to the other flowers in
bouquets and arrangements. This bulk up them with low cost materials like
leaves of Asparagus, Anthurium, Cordyline, Ivy, Leather Leaf Fern, Monstera,
Philodendron, Sword Leaf Fern, Tree Fern, etc.
v. Tree Foliage Fillers: Some of the trees have beautiful, exquisite foliage, which
is used as fillers to provide contrasting background to the arrangements. e.g.
Silver Oak, Myrtle, Eucalyptus etc.
vi. Berries as Fillers: Some of the plants (mostly shrubs) have very attractive
berries which are used to add colour and contrast to the flower bouquets and
arrangements. e.g Holly, Hypericum.
vii. Dry Fillers: Some flowers which are small in size, dried naturally and stays for
a long time are used as fillers and have long lasting effect.e.g. Ammobium sp.,
statice.
viii. Grass Fillers: Thin and sharp grass leaves gives better filling look when
arranged with small flowers like Briza maxima, Lagurusovatus,Anethum and
Asclepias in bouquets have long lasting effects.
Popular Flower Fillers
Filler flowers can either enhance or reduce the beauty of arrangements depending upon
its usage, as they alone are not very attractive but when used with other flowers they
can make enormous difference. These fillers are available in wide variety of shapes,
sizes, form and colours. Adding even the simplest of filler flowers can make a bouquet
look more sophisticated. Some of the popular flower fillers which can be used for
flower arrangements, bouquets and decorations are mentioned below:
1. Alstroemeria: Also known as the Peruvian lily, originated in South Africa. The
inner petals of this flower have stripes that create texture and diversity when
added to bouquets. They come in a range of colours from white, yellow, pinks
and purple.
2. Astilbe: Astilbe chinensis, a member of family
Sexifragaceae, is native to Korea, China, and Japan
and is mostly recognized by their feathery plumes of
airy, dense blooms. They are available in red, white,
pink, and assorted colours. It is used as flower for
centrepieces, boutonnieres, and filler for wedding
bouquets.
3. Baby’s Breath: Botanically known as Gypsophilla

elegans, is a member of family Caryophyllaceae.
It is one of the most popular white filler flowers,
available in single or double varieties. The flower
is delicate and soft, just like a baby, and symbolizes
innocence. It’s also referred to as angel’s breath.
Tiny white flowers look finest when grouped in
bunches, but it also comes in other shades like light
pink. It looks best in bouquets and centrepieces, but
can also be included in floral crowns. White baby’s
breath flowers are a familiar choice for adding mass to floral arrangements, but
the flowers are easy to tint in any colour, increasing their versatility. Though
traditionally used as a filler, this flower can also be used alone to create fluffy,
cloud-like arrangements.
4. Bells of Ireland: Molucella laevis, commonly known as Bells of Ireland. It
has a long stem lined with clusters of bell-shaped blooms which are soft green
in colour. This green is perfect for adding height and texture to bouquets and
centrepieces. The stems of the bells of Ireland are hollow and can be easily
broken and can be ideally used for vase arrangements.
5. Bouvardia: It is great filler flower having clusters of star-like flowers that have
a delicate scent and comes in shades of pink and white. Each stem resembles a
small bouquet. It last longer in vase arrangements and makes a wonderful filler
flower. Since, it is a fragrant flower, therefore, often used in wedding bouquets
and corsages.
6. Delphinium: It is commonly known
as Larkspur. It has beautiful purple and
blue coloured closed flower buds which
resembles to the nose of a dolphin,
hence derived the name delphinium. The
delphinium has multiple blooms on long
stems that are similar to snapdragons. They
are perfect for adding a dramatic look to
any bouquet or flower arrangement.
7. Dianthus: Dianthus, commonly known as
the carnation, is an extremely popular flower
available in a plethora of vibrant colors.
Mostly two species Dianthus chinensis and
D. barbatus are used as fillers. The name
dianthus comes from the two Greek words,
“dios” and “anthos.” Dios refers to the
Greek god, Zeus, and anthos means flower.
Thus, they are known as the “flowers of
God.” As regal and beautiful as they are,
dianthus flowers look best as statement fillers in bouquets.
8. Eustoma: Eustoma sp., commonly known as lisianthus is a wonderful filler

flower that features anywhere between two to six budding flowers per stem.
Eustoma flowers are either single-flowered or double-flowered. Both types of
flowers can be found in all shades of pink, purple, white, and blue. They are
usually one to three feet tall, although there are dwarf varieties that only grow
up to eight inches in height.
9. Feverfew: Botanically it is known as Tanacetum parthenium. It is a medicinal
plant but also act as perfect filler flower for just about any sort of flower
arrangement. It has long, flimsy stems that blossom into tiny bunches flowers
resembling daisies. The feverfew is a modest flower with tiny white petals that
pair nicely with bright coloured flowers.
10. Golden Rod: Botanical name of Golden rod is Solidago canadensis. The
variety ‘Golden Baby’ is an easy to grow hardy perennial that bears flat-topped
clusters of golden-yellow plumes.
11. Lily of the Valley: Convallaria majalis is not a true lily. It belongs to family
Asparagacreae. It has very delicate flower with tiny bell-shaped blooms and
broad basal leaves. This white flower symbolizes purity, humility, happiness
and sweetness. It is a perfect filler flower for delicate and elegant wedding
bouquets.
12. Medagascar Jasmine: Madagascar Jasmine (Stephanotis floribunda) is a
member of the family Apocynaceae. It is another plant with fragrant flowers
and gorgeous foliage. It is a climber, which grows upto 10 feet height. Its
flowers are also referred to as bridal veil, bridal wreath, and bridal bouquet for
their popularity in wedding flower arrangements. The blooms represent marital
harmony in the language of flowers, and as a filler flower, blooms contribute a
significant amount of fragrance to bridal bouquets. Due to their small stems of
flowers, special wiring may be required for design work.
13. Queen Anne’s lace: Ammi majus, also
known as Queen Anne’s lace, is wonderful
white bouquet filler. This elegant little
flower with its lacy heads of pure white
complements any colour scheme in the vase
with its long sturdy stems and large full
flowers. It can be used to create a perfect
wedding bouquet with sweet peas, roses,
berried eucalyptus. Queen Anne’s lace
symbolizes magic, trust, and healing.
14. Rice Flower – Botanical name of Rice flower is Ozothamnus diosmifolius
previously known as Helichrysum diosmifolium, belongs to family Asteraceae
and is native to Australia. It is also known as white dogwood, pill flower and
sago bush. It has woody stem and small flowers occur in clusters of up to 100 at
the ends of the branches and are usually white, but light to dark pink forms are
also known. Rice flowers make a nice filler flower for garden-style designs and
other arrangements.
15. Snapdragons: Antirrhinum majus,commonly known

as Snapdragon is a member of family Scrophulariaceae,
is possibly one of the most unique flowers. Its name
represents the face of the flower that opens and closes
like the mouth of a dragon. It has long, slender stalks that
blossom from bottom to top in a variety of colours. They
are most often used in bouquets to add height and diversity.
The snapdragon is a popular filler flower, good for adding
height and colour to arrangements. It is available in variety
of colours such as pink, purple, yellow, orange, white, and
burgundy. Snapdragons make a wonderful addition to any
bouquet or centrepiece.
16. Statice: The statice flower, also known
as the Sea Lavender. Botanically, it
is known as Limonium sinuatum and
belongs to family Plumbaginaceae. It is a
beautiful flower available in white, blue,
pink, purple and yellow colours, and the
blooms are smaller than the stock. It is a
simple yet elegant flower that symbolizes
remembrance. It has long, thin stems that
branch out into dense flower bunches and
look best in bouquets. Statice is sometimes called the tissue flower, because of
their tissue paper-like blooms. Each main stem has a spray of smaller branches
with several of these tiny funnel-shaped flowers. They have a long vase life and
require very little maintenance, making them popular for both fresh and dried
arrangements. The meaning of statice is lasting beauty and success; however, it
is also symbolic of remembrance and sympathy.
17. Stock: Matthiola incana a member of family Asteraceae is one of the most
fragrant flowers. Its scent is described as both sweet and spicy. Stock flowers
bloom from spring to fall and flowers range in colour from basic shades of
white, pink, lavender, and rose as well as coming in deeper jewel tones of red,
purple, and blue. They develop small blooms that are perfect for adding a pop
of colour to any bouquet. There are dwarf varieties that only grow to be eight to
twelve inches tall and larger varieties that can grow two to three feet.
18. Sweet Pea: Lathyrus odoratus, a member of family Fabaceae is a plant with
very sweet scented flowers of white, red, pink, lavender and purple colour.
Sweet Peas can be used in arrangements to add mass or as filler. Commonly used
alone in a simple spring vase arrangement. These flowers symbolize delicate
pleasures and make a great addition to any arrangement. These wonderful
blossoms with their delicate petals and soft fragrance are suitable for wedding
and corsage work.
19. Thryptomene: Most commonly two species of Thryptomene are used as a filler
i.e. Thryptomene calycina and T. saxicola. It belongs to the family Myrtaceae and
is native of Australia. T. calycina blooms in winter and the branches bear hundreds
of tiny white flowers and small spear-shaped leaves having pleasant scent. In
good seasons the flowers are so numerous that they can almost completely cover
the branches, whereas, T.saxicola bears fewer pink flowers in spring season.
20. Wax Flower: Geraldton wax flower, botanically known as Chamelaucium
uncinatum, a member of family Myrtaceae is native to Australia. The tiny five-
petaled blooms of wax flowers often sport a contrasting throat, packing a big
style punch into a myriad of little blossoms. The blooms have good vase life and
these lasts for 3 weeks in vase. Although the white, pink, or lavender flowers
have little scent, the needle-like leaves have a resinous fragrance when bruised
or cut. It is ideal as an accent flower, hand-tied bouquets, vase arrangements,
wreaths and garlands, plus wedding designs including hair crowns, pomanders,
buttonholes, etc.
21. Winged everlasting: Ammobium alatus, a
member of family Asteraceae, commonly
known as Winged Everlasting is native
of Australia.It has small, paper-like white
petals with a yellow/gold centre and stems
that are silver/grey-green in colour. This
simple and unique flower makes excellent
filler, but can equally and effectively stand
alone. Wonderful for boutonnieres, flower
crowns and large centrepieces.
22. Yarrow: Achillea millefolium commonly known as Yarrow belongs to the
family Asteraceae. It is perfect filler for bouquets and arrangements as the
vaselife is more than 2 weeks. These native wild flowers have clustered flower
heads of tiny white flowers. This flower comes in a natural bright yellow, and
gorgeous painted colours, perfect to add brightness to creations.
Popular Foliage Fillers: Cut greens are generally less expensive and have longer
vase life compared to the other floral components. They lend design elements and give
arrangements a lush, full, balanced appearance, often add background colour, and tie
together all the blooms. The quality ‘greens’ mainly depends on the visual appearance.
The foliages of different shades, hues, gloss and texture are used in order to create
mobility which is represented by leaf colour and absence of the damage.The foliage or
cut greens which are used as fillers are described as follows:
1. Anthuriums: Anthurium andreanum, commonly known as Anthurium,
Tailflower, Flamingo flower, and Laceleaf, belongs to family Araceae. It is of
two types’ flowering and foliage type, later is used as fillers in different flower
arrangements.
2. Asparagus Fern: Asparagus densiflorus and A. sprengeri, the member of family
Asparagaceae are commonly used fillers due to their very fine foliage. It is a
tender evergreen perennial with bright green, ferny foliage is commonly used
as an outdoor or indoor plant. Asparagus fern valued as an ornamental for its
bright green, arching stems and airy foliage. Its fine foliage gives a soft or fluffy
appearance and can be used to good effect for textural contrast in combination
with plants having medium or coarse-textured foliage or very large leaves. The
foliage is incorporated as filler with cut flowers in arrangements.
3. Boston Fern: Nephrolepis exaltata, known as the sword fern or Boston sword
fern, wild Boston fern, Boston Blue Bell Fern, tuber ladder fern, or fishbone
fern, is a species of fern in the family Lomariopsidaceae native to tropical
regions throughout the world. It can be used either as ‘filler’ in the container
combination, depending on the height and form of the other plants used in the
container planting. It is also used as filler in the flower arrangements to give
greenery and delicate look to the arrangement.
4. Bracelet Honey Myrtle: Melaleuca armillaris, commonly known as bracelet
honey myrtle, is a plant in family, Myrtaceae, and is native to South Australia,
Victoria and Tasmania in south-eastern Australia. It is a hardy, commonly
grown species, often used as a fast-growing screen plant. The honey bracelet
has long stems that are decorated with soft, thin leaves. Its thin stem is easily
molded into any shape and can be used for just about anything. However, it is
most frequently used to create flow in floral arrangements because of its long
drooping stems.
5. Cast Iron Plant: It is also known as Bar
Room Plant, Barroom Plant, Iron Plant,
Parlor Palm, Variegated Cast Iron Plant.
Botanically, it is known as Aspidistra elatior,
and is a member of family Asparageae. It
is a good specimen for planting in dense
shade; and slightly tolerant to salt. Prefers
partial to full shade, drought tolerant, grows
well on rich, well-drained soil.Its leaves are
erect, long-petiolate, solitary, gigantic, ovate
to lanceolate, acute, entire, glabrous with 16-20 parallel veins, dark green to
reddish-purple to variegate. Leaves are used in cut flower industry as green
filler in flower arrangements. Leaves should be harvested near soil level, but
avoid harvesting many leaves from single plant at the same time.
6. Chinese Fan Palm: Livistona chinensis a member of family Arecaceae. This
tree does best in full sun to partial shade. It prefers to grow in average to moist
conditions. Chinese Fan Palm has attractive dark green foliage. The glossy
lobed palmate leaves are highly ornamental and remain dark green throughout
the winter. It is good filler for containers arrangement as well as flower
arrangements.
7. Cider Gum Tree: Eucalyptus gunnii, a member of family Myrtaceae is a
small to medium tree. The silvery-blue, rounded young leaves that give way
to glaucous lance-shaped to egg-shaped adult leaves and smooth whitish-green
bark. The juvenile stage heart-shaped, silvery-blue leaves are used as filler in
floral bouquets and the juvenile foliage can easily be perpetuated with regular
pruning. The eucalyptus “Baby Blue” is denser than its silver dollar cousin,
with smaller leaves. Its color changes as it matures and morphs from a smooth
blue to a rich green. It’s great for adding texture to bouquets and as an accent in
floral wreaths.
8. Dracena: Dracaena reflexa, or Song of India,
a member of family Asparagaceae, is an ideal
house plant for cooler areas but grows well
under shade when kept outside. It has a stunning
variegated foliage and popularly used as fillers
to sparkle and beauty in floral arrangements.
9. Dusty Miller: Jacobaea maritima, commonly
known as silver ragwort or Dusty Miller is a perennial plant species in the
family Asteraceae, native to the Mediterranean region. Representing happiness
and delicacy, dusty miller is a popular green filler flower. It’s often used in
soft, garden-like bouquets, tablescapes and wedding arrangements. It’s velvety,
frosted sage green leaves will be the perfect complement to petal heavy, romantic
blooms like garden roses, ranunculus, and peonies. The gray and white color of
the dusty millers leaves pair nicely with pastels and look great in bouquets.
10. Good Luck Plant: Cordyline terminalis is a tropical shrub belonging to the
family Asparagaceae and commonly known as ti plant or good luck plant.
The leaf colour ranging from variegated pale pink and green to purple or deep
red. The shrub can reach an adult height of 10 feet. The leaves are broadly
elongate, 30 inch long and 2-4 inch wide born at the top of a woody stem. In
cooler climates, it grows well in container under indoor conditions.
11. Holly: Ilex verticillata commonly known as Holly or winter berry is a member
of family Aquifoliaceae. It is native to eastern North America in the United
States and southeast Canada. Mainly used in winters as bunches of bright red
berries against fresh greenery add a fresh, natural look to wedding bouquets
and arrangements. Holly traditionally symbolizes deference and domestic
happiness.
12. Hypericum: Florist hypericum, Hypericum androsaemum, is prized for the
beauty of its brushy habit and colorful berries. It is also called “coffee berry” in
the floral industry because of the fruits’ resemblance to coffee beans. Depending
on cultivar, berries may ripen to green, white, yellow, peach, orange, scarlet
or purplish colors, finally maturing to darker hues with some looking almost
black and make wonderful accents. Hypericum berries are popular filler flowers
used to complement floral arrangements, bouquets, centerpieces, and outdoor
decorations at parties, weddings and other special venues. They are popular
throughout the year and especially during the winter season. The stem with
berries is used as filler and in boutonniere provides a pop of color against a dark
background. They can easily be incorporated to most of the designs, providing
texture to bouquets, centerpieces etc.
13. Italian Ruscus: Ruscus hypoglossum a member of family Asparagaceae,
is native to Italy. Its small, glossy, tear shapely leaves grown in multi lateral
directions make it gorgeous filler. Great focal or back drop green and adds
elegance to any arrangement. It can be used in garland, bouquets, arrangements,

wreaths, boutonnieres, corsages. Besides this Ruscus hypophyllum (Israeli
ruscus) is also used as filler as its foliage is dark green with fine texture, stiff
stems, and long vase life.
14. Ivy: Hedera helix, a member of family
Araliaceaeis a climber. The dark green or
variegated foliage with a twisting ability
due to soft stem makes it a perfect choice
for filler in head crowns, wreaths, floral
baskets and outdoor decorations.The
leaves of ivy are unique in their triangular
shape. Ivy has a longer lifespan than most
types of greenery; it lasts for months, so it
is an ideal choice for home decor during holiday months or celebrations.
15. Lacy Tree Philodendron: Philodendron selloum commonly known as Lacy
Tree Philodendron or Tree Philodendron belongs to the family Araceae. Tree
philodendron is a tropical plant with large, showy leaves. It can tolerate deep
shade but prefers bright, indirect light and moist soil. It does not tolerate salt
build up so flush soil regularly or used distilled water for irrigation. It can
produce aerial roots that absorb water and nutrients.
16. Leather Leaf Fern: Ruhmora adiantiformis, is a member of family
Dyropteridaceae. This plant grows year-round and can lasts from 7 to 21 days.
The leather fern is thick and stem is strong yet flexible, extends out on the sides
in a unique way. The frond branches out creates a triangular shape, can stand
alone in a vase as a centerpiece or add a tropical flair to a floral arrangement.
With tufted, rich green leaves that fan out triangularly, this fern provides a
dramatic backdrop to the flowers in bouquet.
17. Leucadendron Safari Sunset: It is tall wonderful filler for accenting larger
floral centerpieces and arrangements. This variety bears elongated, oval-shaped
green leaves that may have some burgundy on the tips. It is highly resilient that
many find easy to arrange and work with. It works well for weddings, parties,
and many other events.
18. Leyland Cedar:Cuprocyparis leylandii is a fast-growing, evergreen conifer
with a dense, broad-columnar to narrow-pyramidal habit. This evergreen
foliage is thick and lush with an attractive green hue. Dark green color foliage
with subtle blue tips makes it an excellent choice for fillers. Leyland Cedar can
be used in wreath or mixed in with other greens in a garland. Leyland Cedar
looks especially elegant when paired with white flowers.
19. Monstera: Monstera deliciosa commonly known as Swiss Cheese Plant,
Monstera, Mexican Breadfruit or Delicious Monster is a member of family
Arceaee, and is wonderful decorative filler. The juvenile leaves have full leaves
while the cuts begin to appear as the plant gets older, when the conditions
are right. It is used alone or in combination with flowers to create unique and
tropical wedding bouquets, table centerpieces or flower arrangements.
20. Myrtle: Myrtus communis, the common myrtle or true myrtle, is a species of
flowering plant of family Myrtaceae. It is an evergreen shrub native to southern
Europe, North Africa, western Asia, Macaronesia and the Indian Subcontinent.
Myrtle is one of the most popular types of greenery because of the variety of
ways that it can be used. It has long stems which are lined with glossy leaves.
The thick foliage used as filler in floral centrepieces and also in wedding
bouquets and home decor due to sweet fragrance of leaves.
21. Silver Dollar Eucalyptus: Eucalyptus polyanthemosis a member of family
Myrtaceae. It has one to two inch circular leaves that resemble silver dollars. It
has alluring matte gray and blue foliage, making it a great pair for whites and
pastels. Its thin, flexible branches similar to the ivy’s make it ideal for using in
wreaths and displays. The silver dollar eucalyptus is often used fresh, but can
also be dried out and dyed to different colours.
22. Silver Oak: Grevillea robusta, commonly known as the Southern silky oak,
Silk oak or Silky oak, Silver oak or Australian silver oak, is a flowering plant
in the family Proteaceae. It has a unique type of decorative greenery with red
stems that branch out into multiple green leaves. The branches vary in their
length causing them to add depth to floral decor. They look best when adding
accents to a bouquet or centerpiece.
23. Sword Leaf Fern: Polystichum munitum a member of family Dryopteridaceae,
is a lush evergreen ground cover known for its bright green, sword-shaped
fronds. The foliage is of bright green color so it really pop up in floral
arrangements. It is highly suitable for line arrangements but also look great
in round arrangements. It can last up to eight days with proper care. It’s also
available year-round.
24. Tree Fern: Sphaeropteris cooperi, synonym Cyatheacooperi, also known as
lacy tree fern, scaly tree fern, or Cooper’s tree fern, is a native to Australia.
It is one of the easiest types of filler to use because of its extremely thin stem
like ivy. The tree fern has thin, wispy branches and leaves that are often
used in corsages and boutonnieres. The tree fern also works well as a solid
background in a colorful bouquet.
25. Umbrella Plant: Cyperus alternifolius , a member of family Cyperaceae, is a
very popular both as a house plant and pond plant. The bracts are symmetrically
arranged in an umbrella formation and held atop elegant stems that sway with
the breeze, giving a tropical touch to the garden. They are excellent when used
in fresh or dried floral arrangements.
26. Variegated pittosporum: Pittosporum tobira “Variegata”is a member of
family Pittosporaceae. It is a fast-growing shrub to small tree grown for its
attractive white-edged, oval leaves. . It’s beautiful variegated leaves makes it
different from other greens. They are available year-round, long-lasting and can
maintain its shape out of water. Variegated pittosporum is commonly paired
with flowers like roses, kale, dahlias and hypericum berries. It is also available
in a miniature size perfect for boutonnieres or corsages.
27. Xanadu: Philodendron bipinnetifidum xanadu

belongs to the family Araceae. This plant is ideal
as filler or a mass plant and can also be used to
make garden borders. It is an ideal plant to grow
in subtropical and tropical regions. They are very
easy to grow and do not need much maintenance.
These are large compact plants that offer attractive
looking foliage. The leaves are deeply dissected
and are lobed. These leaves are glossy in nature.
Each leathery leaf will have about 15 to 20 lobes
that appear distinct. Their foliage is neat and tidy
and looks attractive as they mature. The best light condition for its growth is
medium indirect light, but if exposed to sunlight, then its leaves will turn pale
and loose its shiny green.
Grasses as Fillers: Both flowers and leaves used as
fillers to add bulk to the arrangements or to the landscape.
There are few ornamental grass species which are used
to add beauty to the bouquets, flower arrangements and
centerpieces. Few of these species are described as under:
1. Bunny Tail: Lagurus ovatus commonly known as
Hare’s Tail, Bunny Tail grass is a member of family
Poaceae is native to the Mediterranean Basin and
nearby regions. It is probably the most appealing of
all the ornamental grasses. The name ‘Hare’s Tail’ perfectly accurately describes
the creamy-white flower heads, which are hare’s tail-shaped, fur-like and soft to
the touch. It is very good filler for dry bouquets and floral basket arrangements.
2. Quaking Grass: Briza maxima, a member of family
Poaceaeais commonly known as Quaking Grass. Briza
maxima has blue green leaves and flower heads that hang
like scaly little heart shaped lockets that are tinged with
pink from late spring to mid summer. It is good for dried
arrangements. This plant has open, puffy, overlapping,
scale-like seeds and is reddish-brown or tan, touched
with green.It also pairs well with any type of berries,
such as Hypericum Berries, Hanging Pepper berry and
Red Ilex Berry Branches.
3. Whorled Milkweed: Aesclepias verticillatta is a member of family
Aesclepiaceae. It is easy to grow in average, moist to dry, well-drained soils
and flowers best in full sun but will tolerate some shade. It is resistant to deer,
drought and dry soils. Seed pods are sometimes used in dry flower arrangements.
Cycad palm and statice Chinese fan palm and Asparagus

used as fillers used as fillers
Post Harvest Treatment

Some florist greens and fillers also benefit from the floral preservatives which
include boxwood, leather leaf fern, ivy, Podocarpus etc. In addition to the floral
preservatives solutions, special solutions are also used by the growers, wholesalers
or retailers. Pulsing solution containing 10-20% sugars are used prior to packaging
and transportation to extent the shelf-life and to aid in freshness and swimming.Floral
preservatives solution that contain 1.0% sugar and biocide (200 ppm 8HQC or HQC)
and acidifiers viz., 20 ppm citric acid or Al2SO4(10-20ppm) is recommended.
Packaging and Transportation
The bunches are tied or bundled loosely to avoid damage. They are wrapped in
moisture resistant paper or placed in clean plastic sleeves. Florists greens are
sometimes packed in ice, in wax-impregnated or poly ethylene film lined in the fibre
board boxes. Wet newspapers or waxed paper are use to provide humidity. The society
of American Florists and the Produce Marketing Associations have recommended
standard fibreboard boxes to provide better staking and utilisation of pallets in transit
to increase the overall efficiency in distribution and are presented below :
Industry standards packaging for fillers and florists greens
Products/sizes Outside Dimension (2 X W X H)
Inches Centimeters
Standard 41 X 5 X 7* 104 X 12.5 X 18
Florists Greens 30 X 14 X 9** 76 X 35.5 X 23
Fillers, greens 30 X 14 X 15 76 X 35.5 X 38
Gypsophylla 13 X 13 X 24 33 X 33 X 61
*Quarter Boxes
**Half boxes, centimetre dimensions are approximate
Most of the florist greens and foliages are shipped without refrigeration thereby
hampering shelf-life. Use of protective packaging, precooling before loading, co-
ordination at origin and destination airport and utilisation of cold storage facilities near
the airport is required to minimising product loses. Refrigerated vans and containers
are used for export of filler greens with adequate pre-cooling which can withstand the
transit time of 2-3 weeks.
Storage
The fillers and greens if stored at higher than the recommended temperatures will lead
to yellowing of leaves and bending of berries and fall-off in presence of ethylene.The
recommended temperatures and approximate transit storage period for cut greens is
given below:
Cut greens/ Fillers/ Storage (0C) Temperature (0F) Approx. storage period
Foliages
Adiantum 0.4 32.40 2-3 weeks
Asparagus plumosa 2.4 35.40 2-3 weeks
Asparagus sprengeri 2.4 35.40 2-3 weeks
Buxus (box wood) 2.4 35-40 -
Cedar 0 32 -
Chamaedorea 7 45 2-3 weeks
Cordyline 7-10 45-50 2-3 weeks
Croton 7-10 45-50 2-3 weeks
Dracaena 2-4 35-40
Eucalyptus 2-4 35-40 1-3 weeks
Hedera 2-4 35-40 3-5 weeks
Leather Fern 1-4 35-40 2-4 weeks
Palm 7 45 -
Philodendron 2-4 35-40 -
Pittosporum 2-4 35-40 2-3 weeks
Podocarpus 7 45 -
Pothos 2-4 35-40 -
Salal (Lemon leaf) 0 32 2-4 weeks
Staghorn Fern 13 55 -
31
Flower Arrangement: Principles &
Methods
Yeshpal Singh, Kumari Lata and P. K.Yadav
Flower arrangement is the art of using plant materials and flowers to create an eye-
catching and balanced composition or display. Among all art forms, flower arrangements
today take as prominent a place. The art engages ones personal involvement in
welcoming guests and bringing cheer to the surroundings. It is rightly said, “Flowers
are the music of the ground. From earth’s lips spoken without sound.”Professionally
designed floral designs, arrangements or artwork incorporate the elements of floral
design: line, form, space, texture, and color, and the principles of floral design: balance,
proportion, rhythm, contrast, harmony, and unity.
Composition of Arrangements
There are a few compositions of flower arranging that should be considered. Once
we understand these we can create so many different styles and our floral designs will
have that professional look.
1. Materials: Would be the base for one’s expression that makes a flower
arrangement.
2. Form: This includes design, scale, balance and rhythm.
3. Colour: This accentuates the design and harmonizes materials with environment,
helping to build the form that would be apparent in the arrangement.
1. Materials
a. Flowers and Foliage: These are the primary material. These come in markedly
varied shapes, sizes and colour. Longer treatment before use any leaves, flowers
and stems may be combined, though some need a longer treatment before use.
b. Containers: They must be carefully chosen. The choice of a container, which
would actually compliment the arrangement and not distract from it.
c. Pin Holders: Help to contain the primary material in the form that is visualized
by the arranger. Along with this, wire mesh could also help in holding difficult
branches together.
d. Accessories: They accentuates the form and highlight the beauty of the flora
and leaves used. E.g. Lamps, shells, stones, candles, earthenware etc.
e. Bases: A base can actually enhance the aesthetic appeal of an arrangement.

Beautiful bases cut out of ordinary wooden planks, marbles or stone, may be
carefully designed in various shapes to compliment the actual size and form of
the arrangement and add to all important three-dimensional effect.
2. Forms
a. Design: It decides the structural pattern of the floral arrangement. It is a
visualized plan about the size and shape of the floral arrangement. The design
is essentially determined by the location, occasion and the materials available.
b. Proportions: The size of the flowers, foliage and containers should be in
proportion to each other. For e.g.: a tall arrangement of long stemmed roses
would be out of proportion arranged in a small vase. It would not only look top-
heavy, it would be in danger of toppling over. At the opposite end of the scale
short-stemmed flowers should not be placed in a large urn or they will appear
lost.
c. Balance: This principle means that the arrangement of flowers should be
symmetric like if any side of flower cluster in vase looks heavier than the other,
then there is still need to do some rearrangement in cluster. We can manage
this symmetry by not only adding the even things but also can use some other
element of equal weight.
Eg:- one bloom on one side and a cluster of small ones on other side or two
different kinds of flowers of similar size.
After finishing the arrangement, it should be confirm by rotating the arrangement
to check from all angles.
d. Harmony and Unity: This principle takes care of the appropriate use of flowers
for the occasion. It also takes care of the blending of colors of the flowers used
in the floral arrangement and that of the container such that they contrast each
other.
It is essential that a pleasing balance and harmony be obtained between materials
and containers.
e. Rythem: It emphasizes on directing the viewer’s eye along the main line of
arrangement so that the whole shape of the composition is properly followed
and understood. Imperfectly balanced material will not play a rythem.
f. Accent and Focal Point: The central portion of the floral arrangement from
where the flowers and foliage of the arrangement appear to be emerging from
is known as the focal point of the arrangement. Hence, larger and dark colored
flowers are usually used in the focal point of the floral arrangement. A focal
point could be beautiful leaves, flowers or the accent may totally be shifted to
candles, birds, statue, stones, or just beautiful twigs.
g. Texture: Flowers and foliage are differ in texture, so we should used different
textures that go well together to give variety to our design.
Flower Arrangement: Principles & Methods 457
3. Colour
a. Analogous: Schemes where two neighbouring colours of colour wheal
e.g. Yellow and orange, blue, green and mauves, beige and brown are
characteristically used to complement each other.
b. Monotone: The colour choice may even be monotone where many hues of a
particular colour are utilizes in a gamut of subtle hints ranging from a rich shade
to the palest of its shades.
c. Contrasting: The combination of primary colours or secondary colours
individually on colour wheal is known as contrast colour. Contrasting colours
lend brightness to drab areas. In this yellow, red and blue are contrast to each
other and green, orange and purple are contrast to each other.
d. Complimentary: The two opposite colours on colour wheal is known as
complimentary to each other. Eg: red-green, orange-blue, yellow purple etc.
Colour Wheal Colour combinations
General rules of flower arrangement

 Measuring of containers: the flower stem height should be one and a half to two
times of the height of container.
 Centralize stems: in some case the middle flower is centralize to enhance the
beauty in flower arrangement and also create balance and harmony in flower
arrangement,
 Vary your stem lengths: sometimes-different length of flower stem is used
in flower arrangement when done in cluster to enhance the beauty of flower
arrangement with different texture of foliage.
 Avoid crossed stems: in transparent vase the crossed stem is not appears good
and crossed stem also decrease the effective length of flower stalk.
 Avoid a tangled look
Cut Flower and Foliage Care

 Always pick the material late in the evening or early morning
 Carry the material in a heads down position to prevent sap from escaping and
stem from drying up.
 Plunge the flowers into a bucket of cool water for 15 mins to 1 hr before use.
 A long drink of water will make the flowers/foliage last long.
 If possible, plunge material in tepid water the night before, for conditioning.
 Flowers and foliage should be separately soaked after removing 2" of the
foliage from the ends as it reduces the rate of transpiration.
 One can substitute suitable foliage other than the flowers own that may wilt
quicker.
 Cutting off ½" of the lowest part of the stem must be done before arranging to
prevent algae formation.
 Keep the cut material in a dark place away from draft.
How To Keep Varied Stems
• Bruise or crush woody stems before plunging in water.
• Cut between joints of hard stems to make them absors water.
• Hollow stemmed flowers should be upended and force-fed with the aid of a
dropper, after which its end must be sealed with cotton.
• All foliage should be removed from bleeding stems. e.g. of poinsettias and
dahlias before use.
• Push a broken twig or a hard stem through the centre of a bloom to prevent
drooping.
How to revive drooping flowers and prolong their lives?
• Use sprays on arrangements morning and evening to prolong freshness.
• Some delicate house plant leaves e.g. Begonias may be revitalized by laying
them flat on the floor.
• Wilted flower stems may be revived by plunging them in hot water and quickly
giving a subsequent cold water, drink for revival after chopping off ½" of lower
stem.
• To keep water fresh copper compounds, sugar, charcoal, salt may be added to
it. The best treatment however, is to change the water daily after cutting ¼" of
the stem ends.
Bud Vases Arrangements

For dresser tables/ bathrooms/ writing tables/ restraunt tables
etc.
1. Single Flower/Rose Bud
The thumb rule for arranging this type of arrangement:
 Leaves remain only top of the rim of the vase.
 All leaves from below the twigs that remain in water,
should be removed.
 Trim off all other leaves except for one cluster behind
the rose away from the vase, and one in front of it
slightly covering the vase.
2. Three Flowers/Rose Buds
Carnation may be used with ferns in this picture. One twig
of asparagus frames the flowers at the back to show depth,
another, on the side of the flowers, and one stem in front, to
complete the picture.
3. Five Flowers/Rose Buds
Notice the descending order in which the buds have been
arranged. These may be from back to front or from one side
to another.
The leaves, whether the flowers own, or any other, should
support the flowers at the back, on one side and in front of
vase.
Note: only smaller flowers are used in bud vases, annuals or
perennials, from the twig of a large tree or a shrub. Branches
have to be trimmed to comp lement these flowers.
Arrangements for Counters
Lobby counters/ restaurant counters/ piano top/ side board tops
etc.
1. Triangular Arrangements
The tallest stem is placed in the centre, others are arranged on
the sides. The last stem is lying almost horizontally pointing
downwards.
The fillers below the principle “one in the centre of the two
behind” e.g. Asparagus is used as the green filler and tube roses
whilst glades from the effective background.
The top and lower flower are the two points of the triangle, the third point being almost
rounded off.
Notice the tallest stem tilting to the left and the rest getting shorter as one descends,
towards the point at the base. The last bud lies horizontally pointing sideways. The
fillers are one in between two, flanked by asparagus.
2. Ovals
Oval arrangement are used for long, rectangular tables or longer counters where low
arrangements may be placed in front of a picture, alongside a statue, in between lamps
etc.
3. Round Bowls
A round arrangement is required to be placed in the centre of a table.
This is visible from all around the room.
Ovals Round Bowl
Arrangements For The Banquet
1. The Fan Type Triangular Arrangements

These are one sided arrangements required to be placed against a wall, raised on the
main display of chaffing dishes. Notice the two shades of peach gladiolii with their
own leaves used as fillers. White and pink
contrasting gladiolii are used effectively in
a green vase, with green ferns forming a
beautiful background. One may repeat the
pink in the two front rows, or just about any
two colours may be combined to make an
effective display.
However, colours that pick-up the colours
in carpets/walls/table frills used in the hall,
look the most effective.
4. Round Arrangements
This traditional round arrangement of tube roses and roses with asparagus covering the
front of a common bowl can be effectively placed in a central display.
For formal sit down meal on round individual tables;
a round table arrangement in any bowl may be used.
The ferns at the base of the bowl, all around will hide
the bowl.
If its container, the ferns may be eliminated to show-
off the bowl.
5. Eastern Style
This style commonly known as Japanese style
of follower arrangement. This style of flower
arrangement is not symmetric. It is asymmetric.
This style impress more by the beauty of individual
material not by the mass effect of flowers. In this
style the materials never touch the rim of the vase. In
this style the accessories like interesting brances, drift
wood, pieces of bark, shells etc., are used to imitate
the nature.
This is an eastern arrangement with an accent on the
line. However, one must ensure that the arrangement
is really not just one sided.
It has exactly the same oriental style with an equal
emphasis on the shapely vase, and can be used
effectively both on individual round/rectangular
tables or a long table set for a larger number.
6. Hanging Arrangements
A flower basket or two hung from
the ceiling in a corner; or at different
heights all over the hall can be
irresistibly beautiful. These provide
an unusual display and give a festive
look.
The number of baskets will depend on the type of function and the size of the room,
and the flowers used are essentially those that can withstand a long evenins without
the stems being in water.
7. Oriental Arrangements
These are frontal arrangements designed to be viewed
mainly from the front, as they are always placed with their
back on the walls on corner tables, buffet set ups, consoles,
etc. The emphasis being on a definite line design that has
been devised out of the ikebana concepts of “heaven, man
and earth” fewer fillers are used in these arrangements,
compared to the western style.
They are three dimensional arrangements and unlike
western arrangements, they do not confirm to a rigid,
conventional norm. Eastern arrangements are, therefore
informal imaginative and sensitive forms of emotional
expressions, and are symbolic of the varied times of the
day, seasons of the year and often depict natures forms to
enhance the arrangements.
8. Upright Style
A single long branch with shorter branches and flowers at
the base arranged in a tall upright vase are characteristic of
the nageire style.
Notice the completely different flowers, foliage and
accessories in the two pictures, although they both from an
upright arrangements. These are vertical forms symbolic
of spring.
9. Diagonal Style
The slanting form has an essentially oriental line. Main stem is placed diagonally
upward and the second stem has a downward sweep and is much shorter, placed in
almost a reverse direction in a delightful bend. These symbolize a natural pouring
movement of water denoting peace.
10. Crescent Shape
This shape is a semi-curving incomplete circle and can be equally effective when
arranged in a tall stem vase or a low bowl.
The long stems, symbolic of a new moon in the sky.
Diagnal Style Crescent Shape

(Courtesy by http://floral.selbermachendeko.com)
11. Free Style Triangular Arrangements

This is the easiest shape to execute. The three basic lines are symbolic of “heaven, man
and earth” and form the basis of most arrangements.
12. Dry Arrangements
When fresh flowers are not available, all dry materials may be used with any accessory.
E.G. Bamboo, tar coal pieces and dry leaves.
Free style arrangement Dry flower arrangement

Some other flower arrangements
References
https://www.floral-art-school.com.au
http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/horticulture/horti_Landscaping_freshflower.html
https://www.architecturaldigest.com/story/3-pro-florists-arrangements-you-can-do-at-home
http://floral.selbermachendeko.com for photo
www.cityflowers.co.in
32
Essential Oils in Ornamental Plants
Ashish S. Ghormade, Kumari Lata, Parag Sable and
Sumed Thorat
All higher plants have some kinds of aroma or flavor in their various parts, which
includes roots, stems, leaves, flowers and fruits. This flavor and aroma in a particular
plant part due to the presence of some specific essential oils present in special glands
in it (Chadha and Choudhury, 1989). Essential oils arethe concentrated liquid, which
is highly concentrated and water insoluble liquid (hydrophobic) and it is also known
as ethereal or volatile oils, which are fragrant oily liquid that are extracted from the
various parts of the plants. Generally they are organic compounds like hydrocarbons
likealcohols, aldehydes, esters, ketones and phenols. An essential oil is “essential”
in case that it contains the essence of the different fragrance, and the properties of
the plants from which they are derived. All though all ornamental plants have some
aroma but only few of them are used commercially in perfumes, flavor and cosmetic
industries. The essential oil demand by fragrance industry is 60%, flavour industry 20%
and pharmaceutical industry 20%. In all the perfumes, rose oil is one of the best and
costliest perfume. The first recorded reference of rose perfume is in CharakSanghita.
The credit for discovery of rose perfume was given to Queen Noor Jehan mentioned in
the book written by Md. Achem of King Jahangir’s regime.
The volatile oils showed the different kinds of biological activities including the
antibacterial, antioxidant, antiviral, insecticidal, etc. These oils are also used for cancer
treatment, while some other has been used for the food preservations, aromatherapy,
and in the perfumery industries. Thus, in the day to day life a large spectrum of usage
the essential oil and aroma industry has a bright future. Yet the known applications of
essential oilsare opening up ofmore areas which will benefit the industry.
Essential oilcontains on average 100 chemicals components and have myriad funcions.
Some are antiseptic, antibacterial and digestive while the others are antidepressant. On
the behalf of industry sources the known essential oils are more than 3,000. Some
300 out of these are usedon a regular basis for commercial purposes. The flowers
commercially used for oil extraction are rose, jasmine, marigold, tuberose, plumeria,
champaka, magnolia, millingtonia etc.
The essential oils production ofworld is growingannually at more than 10 per cent and
at present it is estimatedat over 11 billion US dollars at about 1,10,000 tonnes valued.
India is the third largest producer of essential oils in world after Brazil and USA.
Among the whole jasmine oil export in the world India contributes 40% of total world
export and with this share India is the second largest exporter of jasmine oil in world.
The largest importer of India’s floriculture produce is Europe.
History
Before knowing anything deeply regarding essential oil, we should know and
understand a very good history. In the beginning, ancient Egypt was the true birthplace
of essential oils, or ‘aromatherapy’ as they only cultivated plants for their oils and
used them extensively in their religion, in cosmetics as well as for medicinal purposes.
Egyptian people have been found distillation “pots” dating back about 3,500BC
and most essential oils, they were produced by a type of solvent extraction method
(enfleurage) using animal fat. Around the same time, China and India were exploring
herbs and aromatic plants too, which would become an integral part of the Indian
Ayurvedic medical system.The wisdom of the Egyptians was absorbed by the ancient
Greeks; the most well-known physician of thattime, Hippocrates (c.460-377 BC) was
a firm believer in treating a patient holistically and included massage in many of his
therapies. Romans in turn adopted the Greek’s knowledge and were great believers in
hygiene to promote health –aromatic baths being especially popular. But some time
went as a dark time for essential oil and after that rebirth of interest caused. A great
Physician at the time, Paracelsus (1493-1541) proved his ability to his contemporaries
by having great success “curing leprosy” with plant extracts. The term “aromatherapy”
was originated by the French chemist and perfumer Rene Maurice Gattefosse in 1937.
One incident happened with himin1910, he burnt his hand badly in his laboratory, and
being the first compound available, he treated hishand with pure undiluted lavender
oil and result found immediately that eased the pain as well as helped heal the hand
without any sign of infection or scarring. After that, since the late 70’s and early 80’s
a boom in the interest in Modern Aromatherapy.
Status of Floral Essential Oils in India
Damask rose is widely cultivated in Ajmer, Udaipur and in Rajasthan, Palmpur and
Kullu district in Himachal Pradesh and Aligarh, Kannoj, Lucknow in Uttar Pradesh.
The rose petals are also used to prepare rose water and gulkand.
India imports around 84,237 tonnes essential oils (March, 2008). India ranks 26th as
Importer and 14th as Exporter of essential oil.The turnover of all perfumes in India is
around Rs. 300 croreannually. Market size of Indian cosmetics is about Rs. 4500 crore
(Bhattacharjee and De,2005).
Different Floral Essential Oils
Lavender oil Lotus oil
Geranium oil Marigold oil
Tuberose oil Salvia oil
Rose oil Carnation oil
Jasmine oil Champak oil
Chrysanthemum oil Plumeria oil
Some Popular Plant’s Parts and Constitutes
Essential Oils in Ornamental Plants 467
Common name Botanical name Plant part used Constitutes

Rose Rosa damascene Flower petals Phenyl ethyl, citronellol
R. centifolia
Jasmine Jasminum sambac Flowers Methyl jasmonate,
J. grandiflorum cis-jasmone
J. auriculatum
Tuberose Polyanthus tuberosa Flowers Geraniol, nerol
Geranium Pelargonium Leaves Geraniol, citronellol
graveolens
Lavender Lavandula Flowers Linalool,
officinalis Linyal acetate
Salvia Salvia sclarea Inforescene Linalool,
and leaves Linalyl acetate
Marigold Tagetes erecta, T. minuta Flowers Tagetone,
Linalyl acetate
Carnation Dianthus Flowers Eugenol,
Caryophyllus Phenylethyl alcohol
Magnolia Magnolia grandiflora Leaves Phenols,
Carbonyl compounds
These products are exported to the UK, France, Germany and Middle East countries.
Scope of Floral Essential Oils
a) Perfume industry: A fragrant liquid typically made from essential oils
extracted from flowers and spices, used to give a pleasant smell to one’s body
is called as perfume. Concreteand essential oil recovery of ornamental plants:
Species Concrete or essential oil recovery
% Kg/ha of flowers
J.auriculatum 0.28-0.36 13.44-28.24
J.grandiflorum 0.25-0.32 13.85-29.42
J.sambac 0.14-0.19 1.18-15.44
Tuberose (Single) 0.08-0.11 5.5-27.5
Marigold 0.5-1.5 50-60
Rosa bourboriana 0.04 0.75-1.25
Rosa damascene 0.057-0.058
Micheliachampaca 0.16-0.2
Carnation 0.2-0.3
Magnolia 0.03-0.16
Source: Singh et al., 2014
b) Pharmaceutical industry: There are the list of plants with their scientific
name, these plant’s essential oil is used to prepare different kinds of medicines
as listed below.
Theraptic properties Oils Botanical name

Sedative Sandal wood Santalum album
Lavender Lavandula officinalis
Chamomile Matricaria chamomilla
CNS stimulant Jasmine Jasminum officinale
Adaptogen Geranium Pelargonium graveolens
Antiseptic Geranium Pelargonium graveolens
Anti-stress Patchouli Pogestmone patchouli
Carminative Chamomile Matricaria chamomilla
Source: Singh et al., 2014
c) Flavoring agent:Many essential oils such as lemon, orange are commonly
used to flavor desserts, candies and chocolate. Other, more herbal oils, such as
rose and rosemary may be better suited to flavouring savoury dishes like sweets
and soups. Food grade essential oils are very concentrated and are safe when
used sparingly as flavouring, but should not be ingested undiluted.
d) Confectionary:Confectionery is a term that is generally used for those items
that are rich in sugar and often referred to as a confection. Usually, confections
are low in nutrient content but rich in calories. Confectionery refers to the
method of creating sugar based dessert items that encompass cakes, pastries,
toffees, chocolates, gum and many others. Confectioneries items are defined
by the presence of sweeteners. The confectionery items are mainly divided into
four main sections such as confectionery sugar, chocolate, confectionery gum
and cereal bars. Most of the confectionery industries are also using artificial
sweeteners as well. For the past few years, confectionary has gained huge
attention amid people. Salvia is an ornamental plant, which is used as artificial
sweeteners.
e) Soaps and lotions: Rose, jasmine, lavender essential oil etc. are the essential
oils which are in demand of soaps and lotions industry. Also used as solvents in
the paint and varnish industry
Essential Oils Benefits for Health
Stress and anxiety: It is estimated that approx. 43% people who have stress and
anxiety use some alternative therapy to help relieve their symptoms and some essential
oils can also work alongside the traditional therapy to treat the anxiety and stress.
Headaches and migraines: In the ’90s, two small studiesfound that massage a
peppermint oil and ethanol mixture on participants’ foreheads and temples helpful to
relieve headache pain (Gobel, et al.). Also observedthe recent studies, peppermint and
lavender oil also reduces headache pain after applying it to the skin.
Sleep and insomnia: Smelling lavender oil improvesthe heart disease of patients and
after childbirth also improves the sleep qualityof women.
Reducing inflammation: Essential oils may help fight inflammatory conditions.
Antibiotic and antimicrobial: The rise of antibiotic-resistant bacteria has renewed

interest in the search for other compounds that can fight bacterial infections. Test-tube
studies have investigated essential oils, such as peppermint and tea tree oil, extensively
for their antimicrobial effects, observing some positive results.
Popular Floral Essential Oils and The Health Claims Associated with
Them
Lavender: stress reliever
Rose: mood improver and anxiety reducer
Jasmine: helps in depression, childbirth, and libido
Various Method of Extraction
1. Steam Distillation
It is a type of distillation which is a separation or extraction process.This method is
suitable for temperature-sensitive plant which contains natural aromatic compounds.
It was a popular laboratory method for purification of organic compounds but has
become outmoded by vacuity distillation. It is one of the ancient and official approved
methods for isolation of essential oils from different plant materials. It is the most
popular method used to extract and isolate essential oils from plant materials for use in
natural products. This happens when the steam vaporizes the plant material’s volatile
compounds, which eventually go through a condensation and collection process.
2. Water Distillation / Hydro Distillation

Delicate flowers would clump togetherwhen introduced to steam distillation process
such as roses and orange blossoms, so it become more effective method to extract
oil in this situation is to submerge delicate plant material in the pure boiling water.
The water prevents the extracted oil from overheating. After condensation,liquids
cools down and separate from each other. The remaining water which may be fragrant
sometimes is referred by several names likeherbal water, essential water, hydrolate,

hydrosol, floral water, or herbal distillate. The extraction principle is based on the
isotropic distillation. Eg: Rose, Jasmine
3. Solvent Extraction
The other name of this is Liquid–liquid extraction or partitioning, is a method to
separate a compound based on the solubility of its parts. It assigns food grade solvents
like ethanol and hexane to segregate essential oils from plant parts. It is more suitable
for those plant parts which yield low amounts of essential oil, that are largely resinous,
or delicate aromatics unable to withstand the pressure and distress of steam distillation.
Solvent extraction method also produces a finer fragrance than any other type of
distillation method. Eg: Rose, marigold, salvia, rosemary, pink lotus absolute etc.
Vacuum
distillation:
Remove alcohol
Concrete Condenser
(wax and
oil solution)
Concrete + Alcohol
Solvent Absolute
Heat
4. CO2 Extraction
Essential oils derived from the supercritical CO2 extraction of herbs are similar to the
oils produced through distillation, which can be used in aromatherapy and natural
perfumery. Eg: German chamomile flower
Pump
PRV
(Pressure
CO2 tank reducing
(Liquid) valves)
Plant
Separator
material
and liquid CO2
CO2 brought
back to
natural
pressure
CO2 brought back to gaseous state

Collection vessel
5. Maceration
These oils are also referred to as infused oils. They are extracted when carrier oils
are used for solvents to extract therapeutic properties from plant material. The benefit
of macerated oil as compared todistilled oil is that more plant’s essence is hold in
the oil, because it captures heavier, larger plant molecules than the ones captured in
the distillation process. This keeps the product closer to retaining more of the plant’s
valuable offerings. Eg: Leaves of wintergreen
Solid residue is
pressed to recover
any remaining liquid
Filtered
through a
funnel
Solvent
Finely chopped
plant matter mixed
with solvent Strained and expressed liquids are
mixed and clarified
6. Enfleurage
Now a dayit is not commonly used, but it is the oldest methods of essential oil
extraction which implements the use of fat. By the end of this process, either animalor
vegetable fat becomes infused with the flower’s fragrance compounds. The used fats
in this process are solid and odorless at room temperature. The enfleurage process can
be done either ‘hot’ or ‘cold’. In both cases, the fat that is saturated with the aromais
called “enfleurage pomade Eg: Tuberose
Hot Enfleurage
The fats are heated in this process and it is the only difference in this process.
Heated vegetable fat
7. Cold-Press Extraction
It is also called Expression or Scarification and is suitable for citrus peels in particular.
The term cold pressed theoretically means that the oil expels at low temperatures and
pressure. Cold pressed method is one of the best methods to extract essential oils. It is
a method of mechanical extraction where heat is reduced and minimized throughout
the batching of the raw material. This method is also known as scarification method.
Plant which contains oil in their outer layer can be extracted by using this technique
and scrubbing. The whole plant is than pressed to squeeze the material from the pulp
and to release the essential oil from the pouch. The essential oil raised to the surface
of the plant material can be separated from the material by centrifugation (Rassem et
al., 2016).
The fruit descends down

the conveyor
The emulsion
is treated in a
centrifuge where
essential oil being
lighter is separated
from water
The fruit's oil The whole fruit is spray

sacs are pierced washed
References
Afshar M.K.,Moghadam Z.B., Taghizadeh Z., Bekhradi R., Montazeri A., Mokhtari P. 2015.
Lavender fragrance essential oil and the quality of sleep in postpartum women.Iran Red
Crescent Med J.17(4):e25880
Aziz, Zarith & Ahmad, Akil & Mohd-Setapar, Siti & Karakucuk, Alptug & Azim, Muhammad
& Lokhat, David & Kamal, Mohammad & Ashraf, Ghulam. 2018. Essential Oils:
Extraction Techniques, Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Potential - A Review. Current
Drug Metabolism. 19. 10.2174/1389200219666180723144850.
Bhattacharjee,S. K. and De, C. L. 2005. Advanced Commercial Floriculture Aavishkar
Publishers.vol.1
Chadha, K. L. and Choudhury, B. 1989.Ornamental Horticulture in India.Indian Council of
Agricultural Research. Pp. 191-197
de Sousa D.P., de Almeida SoaresHocayen P, Andrade L.N., Andreatini R. A. 2015.
Systematic Review of the anxiolytic-like effects of essential oils in animal models.
Molecules.14:20(10):18620-60.
Göbel H, Schmidt G, Dworschak M, Stolze H, Heuss D. 1995. Essential plant oils and headache
mechanisms.Phytomedicine.2(2):93-102
Rassem, H. H. A., Nour, A. H. and Yunus R. M. 2016.Techniques for Extraction of Essential
Oils From Plants: A Review. Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences.10(16):
117-127
Sharma, Abhishek&Rajendran, Sasireka & Srivastava, Ankit & Sharma, Satyawati & Kundu,
Bishwajit. 2016. Antifungal activities of selected essential oils against Fusariumoxysporum
f. sp. lycopersici 1322, with emphasis on Syzygiumaromaticum essential oil. Journal of
Bioscience and Bioengineering. 123(3)
Singh Gurdip and MauryaSumitra. 2005. Antimicrobial, antifungal and insecticidal investigations
on essential oils: An overview. CSIR. 4(3):179-192
Singh, B., Sellam P., Majumder J. and Rai P. 2014. Floral essential oils: importance and uses for
mankind. HortFlora Research Spectrum,3(1): 7-13
I S B N 9789390591213
ISBN 939059121-X
9 789390 591213

Flower Production Gardening

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Flower Production Gardening

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I S B N 9789390591213

Prof. Raksha Pal Singh, a renowned agricultural scientist,

NEW INDIA PUBLISHING AGENCY

ISBN: 978-93-90591-21-3 E ISBN : 978-93-90591-83-1

ornamental horticulture for various uses including production technology of export

1. Importance and Scope of Ornamental Horticulture...............................1

31. Flower Arrangement: Principles & Methods.......................................445

Chapter 1: Importance and Scope of Ornamental Horticulture

Chapter 2: Principles and Elements of Landscape Design

Chapter 3: Styles of Gardening and Different Types of Garden

Chapter 4: Turfgrass Management: Princeples & Practices

Chapter 5: Cultivation and Management of Annual Flowers

Chapter 6: Shrubs and Their Management

Chapter 9: Indoor Plants

Chapter 10: Cacti and Succulents

Chapter 11: Bonsai

Chapter 12: Rose

Namita, Senior Scientist, Division of Floriculture & Landscaping, ICAR-Indian

Chapter 13: Carnation

Chapter 14: Chrysanthemum

Chapter 15: Cultivation of Gerbera

Chapter 16: Orchids

Chapter 17: Anthurium

Chapter 18: Gladiolus

Chapter 19: Aster

Chapter 20: Tuberose

Chapter 21: Bird of Paradise and Heliconia

Chapter 22: Dahlia

Chapter 23: Lilium

Chapter 24: Statice

Chapter 25: Jasmines

Chapter 26: Marigold

Chapter 27: Lotus

Chapter 28: Post-Harvest Handling of Flowers

Chapter 29: Dehydration of Flowers for Value-Addition

Chapter 30: Importance of Cut Foliage and Fillers in Floriculture Industry

Gunjeet Kumar, Principal Scientist-Floriculture, PME Cell, Directorate,

Chapter 31: Flower Arrangements: Principles & Methods

Chapter 32: Essential Oils in Ornamental Plants

Ornamental horticulture consists of floriculture and landscape horticulture. Each

State Area (‘000’ ha) Production of flowers

1. Major components of floriculture industry

Research is required on developing high-yielding varieties, year round production

a. Aesthetical Importance: Establishment of gardens helps in maintaining the

Nursery is consequently the basic need of horticulture. Plant propagation techniques

Commercial production of plants through micro propagation techniques has several

Principles of landscape design

2. Proportion and Scale

Symmetrical balance is a formal balance and also referred to as bilateral symmetry.

5. Order and Unity

6. Focal point or Emphasis

7. Rhythm and Sequence

Elements of garden design

c. Meandering lines: These

Forms (left to right) columnar, oval, vase, weeping, pyramidal, rounded

Fine Medium Coarse

Site and design

Based on Temperature Requirement: Selection of turfgrass species for a site is

Grasses from this group are commonly used on roadsides, industrial

environmental conditions and management practices during the germination period,

iii. Hydroseeding: Hydroseeding is a method of lawn seeding that has become

Care After Turf Planting

be observed more readily. Where lawn quality is unacceptable, complete renovation

Major insect-pests of turfgrasses are as under: