Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of India

H.C.
SRIVASTAVA
MEDICINAL
AND
AROMATIC
PLAN
Medicinal
and
Aromatic Plants
H.C. Srivastava
Formerly Principal Scientist and Head of Division
Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, Indian Institute of Horticultural Research
Bengaluru
ICAR
DIRECTORATE OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN AGRICULTURE

INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH
NEW DELHI
First Published : June 2014
Director (DKMA) : Dr Rameshwar Singh
Incharge (English Editorial Unit) : Dr Aruna T Kumar

Editing : Reena Kandwal
Chief Production Officer : Dr V K Bharti

Assistant Chief Technical Officer : Kul Bhushan Gupta
All Rights Reserved

© 2014, Indian Council of Agricultural Research
New Delhi
ISBN : 978-81-910388-6-6
? 600
Published by Dr Rameshwar Singh, Project Director, DKMA, Indian Council of Agricultural

Research, Krishi Anusandhan Bhavan I, Pusa, New Delhi 110 012; Laser typeset by
M/s Xpedite Computer Systems, 201, Patel House B-l 1, Ranjit Nagar Commercial Complex,
New Delhi 110 008 and printed at M/s Chandu Press, D-97, Shakarpur, Delhi 110092.
Preface
Nowadays there is global interest and expanding market of plant based raw
materials for manufacture of drugs, pharmaceuticals, perfumery products,
cosmetics and aroma compounds used in food flavours and fragrances. This
demand in organized sector of industry has led to their introduction into
agriculture which beside meeting the demand at reasonable price, has also
enabled the producer to maintain standards on quality, potency and chemical
composition of the farm produce. A large number of medicinal and aromatic
plants have thus come under systematic research efforts through multi¬
disciplinary investigation in India in the last three decades. This has generated
a wealth of valuable information on several facets of agricultural productivity
like genetics and crop improvement, crop production and chemical composition
including faster instrumental analytical methods to keep pace with the
continuously updated standard laid out by user industry. This material is largely
scattered in research journals, proceedings of seminars and symposia and
technology papers. I have made an effort to bring all this information together
in a technical bulletin.
It presents an integrated account of contemporary status of agricultural
research and production technology for profitable cultivation of forty-one
medicinal and aromatic crops as commercial crop in India.
I believe that this technical bulletin will serve as a comprehensive
information on cultivation of industrial crops for growers, entrepreneurs,
researchers, students and user industries.
The medicinal and aromatic plants in India, hitherto are grown by marginal
farmers with low input in resources resulting in a wide gap between yield
recorded in research farms and individual growers. This book will primarily
serve these growers to raise their crop yield.
My objective extends further to reach elite growers and corporate
entrepreneurs with a promise of sustained high yields. Key references on each
crop have been cited to assist inquisitive entrepreneurs and through this process
have sought to project the work of Indian scientists as referral material to
outside world.
H.C. Srivastava
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2018
https://archive.org/details/medicinalaromatiOOOOsriv
Contents
Preface iii
Medicinal Plants
Aloe (Aloe vera Linn. Syn. Aloe barbadensis Mill.) 1
Periwinkle [Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don. Syn. 5
Vinca rosea Linn.]
Honeyplant (Ammi majus Linn.) 10
Ipecac (Cephaelis ipecacuanha Brot A. Rich. Syn: Psychotria 13
ipecacuanha Stokes)
Safed Musli (Chlorophytum borivilianum Santapau & R.R. Fern.) 17
Ergot [Claviceps purpurea (Fr.) Tulasne] 25
Guggul [Commiphora wightii (Amott) Bhandari] 30
Datura (Datura stramonium Linn. Syn: Datura tatula Linn.) 34
Foxglove {Digitalis purpurea Linn.) 37
Medicinal Yam (Dioscorea floribunda Mart. & Gal.) 41
Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn.) 46
Hops (Humulus lupulus Linn.) 51
Henbane {Hyoscyamus niger Linn.) 57
Jatropha {Jatropha curcas Linn.) 61
Opium Poppy (Papaver somniferum Linn.) 67
Long Pepper {Piper longum Linn.) 72
Isabgol {Plantago ovata Forssk.) 76
Aonla {Phyllanthus emblica Linn.) 83
Sarpagandha [Rauvolfia serpentina (Linn.) Benth. ex Kurz] 87
Khasi Kateri {Solanum viarum Dunal Syn. 92
Solanum khasianum Clarke)
Ashwagandha [Withania somnifera (Linn.) Dunal] 96
Aromatic Plants
Ambrette {Abelmoschus moschatus Medik) 103
Dill {Anethum graveolens Linn.) 108
VI MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS
Celery (Apium graveolens Linn.) 113

Davana (.Artemisia pallens Wall, ex DC.) 117
Lemon Grass [Cymbopogon flexuosus Wats] 121
Palmarosa [Cymbopogon martini (Roxb) WATS 126
French Jasmine (.Jasminum grandiflorum Linn.) 131
Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla Linn.) 139
Japanese Mint (.Mentha arvensis Linn.) 143
Champaka [Magnolia champaca (L.) Baill. ex pierre 149
syn Michelia champaca Linn.]
Sweet Basil (Ocimum basilicum) 153
Kewda (Pandanus fascicularis Lam.) 159
Scented geranium (.Pelargonium graveolens L. Her.ex Ait.) 163
Anise (Pimpinella anisum Linn.) 169
Patchouli [Pogostemon Cablin (Blaco) Benth. Sim P. 174
patchouli Pill]
Tuberose (Polianthus tuberosa Linn.) 181
Damask Rose (Rosaxdamascena Mill.) 187
Sandalwood (Santalum album Linn) 193
Aromatic Marigold (Tagetes minuta Linn.) 201
Mexican vanilla (Vanilla planifolia Jacks, ex Andrews) 208
MEDICINAL PLANTS
Aloe
(Aloe vera Linn. Syn. Aloe barbadensis Mill.)
Aloe is also called Gheekanvar. Its family is Liliaceae.
Origin and distribution

It originated in Africa and Mediterranean countries such as Greece and
southern Italy. It is also found distributed widely in Egypt, Greece, Italy, Africa,
USA, Europe, Cyprus, Malta, Sicily, Canary Cape, Cape Verde and naturalized
over arid tracts all over India (Farooqui and Sreeramu, 2001). The plant also
grows in Philippines, south east Asia including Malaysia, Tahiti, Japan and
Hawai. Also in China and West Indies aloe is found distributed (Anonymous,
1983).
Description of plant: It is a small, stem-less, herbaceous, perennial plant
with good root system. Leaves are lanceolate, sharp pointed, jagged edged,
Aloe
2 MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS
thick, fleshy and grows directly from ground in form of large rossete. The
base of the leaf is round with broad and flat upper surface. The fully-grown
mature leaves are greyish green to dirty white in colour. In certain types leaf
lamina has white streaks. Flowering stalk is erect, which is not branched. It
bears bright yellow flowers, which are arranged in axillary spike. The flower
is actinomorphic, perianth, arranged in two whorls of 3 petals each (Atal and
Kapur, 1982). It has 6 stamens in two whorls, the inner filaments are shorter
than those of the outer whorl. Ovary is superior, trilocular and has axile
placentation. In India out of 275 only 4 species are found of which Aloe vera
Linn. (Syn. Aloe barbadensis Mill.) is most widely naturalized.
Genetics and breeding

Studies on Aloe vera (Syn. Aloe barbadensis) showed that the somatic
chromosome number is 2n=14. A triploid plant (2n=21) has been reported
from Kanyakumari by Abraham and Nagendra Prasad (1979). Ramaswami
Ayangar and Sampatha Kumar (1976) carried out karyological studies of three
varieties found in India and came to a conclusion that some elimination in
chromatin content in the species was possibly the main method in the evolution
of these distinctive cytotypes in nature.
At Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru a research project
on evaluation of genetic diversity of Aloe vera for development of superior
variety is underway since 2002 (Srivastava and Vasanth Kumar, 2002). Varieties
should be developed to get more barbaloin yield and more yield of mucilage
having resistance to diseases and pests.
Varieties
The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, Delhi has identified EC
111267, 111269, 11127, 111279, 111280 and 111281 which are reported to
have more aloe. Other than the mentioned strains some other strains with
more pulp have been found, i.e. EC 111266, 111272, and 111277. Work on
varietal improvements is also being done at Indian Institute of Horticultural
Research, Bengaluru (Srivastava and Kumar, 2002). The spotted leaved Aloe
vera is found in Maharashtra. The leaves are comparatively greener, larger
and are dentate.
Chemical constitution
The pharmacopoeia recognizes aloe drug Curacao aloe - obtained from
Aloe barbadensis (Syn. Aloe vera). Its major chemical compounds are barbaloin
and isobarbaloin. B. aloin is the principal active constituent of aloe, which is
a mixture of glycosides. Some other chemical constituents are aloe-emodin,
aloetic acid, homonataloin, olesin, aloesome, emodin, chrysamminic acid,
chrysophanic acid, apoise, galacturonic acid, calcium oxalate, choline, choline
ALOE 3
salicylate, saponins, uronic acid, amylase etc. The main constituent of all
varieties of Aloe vera is the crystalline substance barbaloin.
Parts used: Leaf, pulp and juice.
Medicinal uses
• According to Nikta Shah, 2002 it is used as skin tonic in cosmetic
industry.
• The Aloe gel gives cooling effect and also acts as a moisturizing agent.
• It also has role in gerontology and rejuvenation of aging skin. According
to Anon. (1983) this property of Aloe is because of its biogenic material.
• Plant is anthelmintic, aperient, carminative, deobstruent, depurative,
diuretic, stomachic and emmenagogue.
• Juice is used in skin care medicines, dyspepsia, amenorrhoea, bums,
hyperadenosis, hepatopathy, splenopathy, constipation,
spanomenorrhea, abdominal tumours, dropsy, carbuncles, sciatica,
lumbago and flatulence.
• The elio, a product made by juice of this plant, is used for helminthiasis
in children and is a purgative, anthelmintic and emmenagogue. It is
used for treatment of painful inflammations, and chronic ulcers.
• Liquid Aloe vera is used as drink. It is an intestine regulator. It has
several vitamins and minerals.
• It improves arthritis and rheumatic pains.
• It improves blood and lymphatic circulation.
• It improves liver function and recommended as preventive of cirrhosis
• It is used for treatment of seborrhea, herpis, psoriasis, eczema and
mycosis.
• It diminishes wrinkles, cures acne, skin irritation, sun burn and reduces
inflammation.
• It accelerates removal of dead skin and renews growth of skin cells.
• Aloe vera is used in lotions, creams, shampoos, soaps, lipsticks,
moisturizers etc.
Cultivation technology
Root suckers or rhizome cuttings is used to propagate this plant. The plant
can be cultivated in dry climatic conditions in poor soils without much care
(Bentely and Trimen, 1992). It can be grown on variety of soil, though it does
well on the sandy and loamy soils with pH 8.5. The plants prefer warm but
can thrive in humid climate also. The root system of this plant is shallow and
does not penetrate deep into the soil. A mixture of 150 kg/ha nitrogen, potassium
and phosphorus should be mixed up in soil near the root system gently. Since
the plant is not water loving, water should not be allowed to lodge.
Under irrigation Aloe vera is usually cultivated between March and June.
Before cultivation land is ploughed twice and is cleaned. About 25 tonnes/ha
of farmyard manure is added. The plants are planted at a spacing of 60 x 30
cm or 60 x 45 cm. About 15-18 cm long root suckers or rhizome cuttings are
planted in such a way that two-thirds portion of the root- sucker or rhizome
cutting should remain under the ground. Interculture, weeding, irrigation, plant
protection should be attended.
Plant protection
The plant is not found to be attacked by pest and diseases. However in
India, it has been reported that sometimes Alternaria alternata and Fusarium
solani causes leaf spot diseases, which can be controlled by spraying proper
fungicide.
Harvesting
The harvesting is done after 8 months of planting. At the time of harvesting
the plants are either removed manually or can also be removed with the help
of tractor drawn disc harrow or cultivator. The broken rhizomes may result in
a new plant in succeeding years.
Yield
The commercial yield of plant starts from second year to five years of age.
The yield of the leaves on a fresh weight basis is around 10,000 - 12,000 kg/
ha (Singh et al. 1995).
Bibliography
Abraham Z and Prasad P, Nagendra. 1979. Occurrence of triploidy in Aloe vera Tourn.
ex Linn. Curr. Sci. 48 (22): 1001-2.
Anonymous. 1983. Aloes. BEPHA Bulletin No. 12, p 129.
Atal C K and Kapur B M. 1982. Report from Regional Research Laboratory. Council
of Scientific and Industrial Research, Jammu-Tawi, p 483.
Bentely and Trimen 1992. Medicinal Plants, p 18 Valley Offset Printer and Publishers:
Farooqui A A and Sreeramu B S. 2001. Aloe. Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic
Crops, pp 21-26. Universities Press India Ltd., Hyderabad.
Ramaswamy Ayangar K and Sampatha Kumar R. 1976. Studies on the cytology of
Aloe barbadensis Mill. (Aloe vera Linn.), Indian Sci. Congress (63rd session),
p 123.
Singh B M, Srivastava V K, Kidwai M A, Gupta Veena and Gupta Rajendra. 1995.
Aloe, Psoralea and Mucuna Advances in Horticulture (Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants, Volume 11), pp 513-8. Chadha K L and Gupta Rajendra (Eds). Malhotra
Publishing House, New Delhi.
Srivastava H C and Kumar T V. 2002. Annual Report, Indian Institute of Horticultural
Research, Bengaluru.
Periwinkle
[Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don. Syn. Vinca rosea Linn.]
Periwinkle (Family Apocyanaceae) is also called Sadabahar, Sada Phuli,

Nayantara.

Origin of the plant is from West Indies and Madagascar. It is distributed
mainly in India, China, Indonesia, Israel, Madagascar, Philippines, South
Africa, and USA. In India it is extensively cultivated in the states of Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Asom. Uttarakhand like low
temperature (winter) adversely affects its cultivation.
Description of plant
It is erect, perennial herb. It is highly branched and attains the height of
Sadabahar
about 100 cm. The leaves are oblong or obviate, opposite, short petiolated,
smooth with entire margin. The lower surface of leaf is light green coloured
with prominent veins. Flowers are normally pink, pink eyed or white coloured.
However Namdhari & Sons (a seed company in Bengaluru) sells Vinca rosea
of various interesting colours. Flowers are borne on axils in pair. The calyx is
linear-subulate. The corolla tube is cylindrical measuring about 30 mm in
length. Anthers are epipetalous present on a short filament. The bicarpellate
ovary is basally distinct with fused common style and stigma, which is ascribed
to post genital carpel fusion (Walken 1975). The fruit is dehiscent, it consists
of a pair of follicles containing upto 30 linearly arranged seeds with a thin
black tegumen.

Haploid chromosomal number of periwinkle was given as n = 8 by Furusato
(1943). Flory (1944) suggested the presence of two complementary genes for
flower colour, i.e. ‘R’ & ‘W\ Genotypes carrying dominant allels ‘R’ & ‘W’
bears pink flower, only ‘R’ pink eyed (oscillatus) flowers and recessive alleles,
i.e. Tr’ white flower. For induction of autotetraploid using seeds as well as
single nodes Krishnan (1995) studied the response of chromosome doubling
to morphological characters, yield and total root alkaloid content. Singh et al.
(1992) studied 27 germplasms and reported variation in air dried leaf and root
yield from 1067.67 to 3793 and 124.37 to 578.67 kg/ha respectively. Varieties
should be developed for higher yield of vincristine and vinblastin, ajmalcine
and serpentine and resistance to diseases and pests.
Varieties
(i) Nirmal: This variety of Catharanthus roseus was developed by the
Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow. It is found
to possess field resistance to die-back and collar rot diseases.
(ii) At Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru Dr. R. Krishnan
(1995) developed the strains M-153 and L-31, which were identified
with high total alkaloid content in roots. Root diameter was identified
as a character for selection of high root yielding plants. These two
lines were tested in All India Crop Research Project. Their roots
contained about 3% of total alkaloids.
(iii) Prabhat was released in 2002 by AICRP on Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants; CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar.
This plant has largest number of alkaloids in the plant kingdom (Hui-Lin
Li and Willaman 1972). Constable et al (1981) and Balsevich et al (1988)
detected 60 alkaloids from leaves by means of supercritical fluid
PERIWINKLE 7
chromatography and mass spectrometry. Most important are Vincristine and

Vinblastin. Root is found to have ajmalcine and serpentine. Four alkaloids
possessing antibacterial activities are extracted from leaves. Moreover there
are also two glycosidal principles, urosolic acid, leurosine, isoleurosine,
previne, mitaphylline, lochnevin and perosine (Chatterjee, 2000).
Parts used: Whole plant is used for medicinal purpose.
Medicinal uses
• Root alkaloids Ajmalcine and Serpentine are used for allopathic

medicines for cure of hypertension and other diseases.
« Leaf alkaloids Vincristine and Vinblastin are used in allopathic medicine
to treat blood cancer.
• Leaves are used for curing diabetes, menorrhagia and wasp stings.
© Roots are used as tonic, for stomach ache, sedative and tranquilizer.
• There was a discovery of anti-neoplastic activities of a leaf alkaloid by
Nobel etal (1958).
• Insect sterilants have been identified from Periwinkle
(Sukumar and Osmani, 1981 and Deshpande etal 1988). Patel etal (1987)
and Deshpande et al. (1988) have reported about its inhibiting properties
towards insect growth and development.
Periwinkle is sensitive to lower temperature and also it does not grow well
in water logged or high alkaline soils. Otherwise it can be cultivated in variety
of soil. The seeds collected by harvesting are soon sown since they are viable
for short period.
The seed may be sown either directly or may be raised in nursery. Vegetative
propagation of the plant is also possible. In case of direct sowing 2.5 kg of
seeds/ha are sown. Later, thinning is done to maintain the distance to 45 x 45
cm. But in case of nursery 500 g of seeds are used/ha. After 10 days, the seeds
germinate and after 60 days the plant becomes ready for transplantation. For
transplanting Dahatonde (1985) reported 30 x 30 cm as an optimum spacing
for all the three coloured flower plants, i.e. pink, white and pink eyed. But
experience show that 45 x 45 cm spacing is ideal for the crop. Seed germination
and growth of seedling was found to be good in sandy soil following treatment
with liquid cowdung (Kamick, 1977). Bharath Kumar et al (1985) reported
higher seed germination when the pre-soaking of seed was done and the farm
yard manure (FYM) and soil mixture was used as the medium for germination.
In vegetative propagation, the cutting of about 10-15 cm length, with 5-6
nodes of softwood or hard-wood or semi-hard wood from lateral shoots are
considered ideal. Although the softwood cutting is considered to be better
than the hard or semi-hard wood cuttings. The percentage of rooting is 90% if
the cuttings are soaked in NAA solution of 50 ppm concentration for a night.
Plant protection
• Dieback disease or Twig blight caused by Pythium butleri, Pliytophthora
nicotianae, Pythium debaryanum, Alternaria tenuissima and
Colletotrichium dematium. They are checked by spraying Dithane Z-
78 at an interval of 10-15 days.
• Little Leaf disease due to mycoplasma sometimes occurs and can be
controlled by uprooting and destroying the affected plants.
Harvesting is done when yield and alkaloid content becomes optimum.
According to Karnick (1977) three growth phases exist, ie. Pre-flowering
having 1.51% of root alkaloid; flowering having 2.57% of root alkaloid; and
post-fruiting having 1.37% of root alkaloids. Therefore, flowering period was
recommended for collection of roots with high alkaloid content. Many other
reports for harvesting have been given, by which it is proven that in south
India, where winter is mild and short the harvesting of crop for roots is done
after six months of plantation. According to Farooqui and Sreeramu (2001)
the crop is harvested after 12 months of sowing for roots. According to them
in case of the demand of leaves, two strippings can be done. The first is done
after 6 months and second after 9 months of sowing; also the third leaf stripping
can be obtained when whole plant is harvested.
Yield has been reported by Khan (1977) as 3.6 tonnes of air dried leaves
(cumulative of three harvests at 6, 9 and 12 months) and 1.5 tonnes of air
dried root/ha. He also suggested that under large scale cultivation about 50%
of yield can be expected. Vitkare and Phadnawis (1988) reported dry root
yield 660 kg/ha and the total alkaloid content 2.6% under Akola conditions.
Hegde (1988) reported 800 kg/ha of root yield and 1800 kg/ha of leaves yield.
Processing
Roots are dug out carefully, washed in water and dried in sun and stored at
room temperature. Leaves are harvested, collected and dried under shade then
are stored at room temperature. Flowers are picked, shade dried and stored at
room temperature.
Bibliography
Balsevich J, Hage L R, Berry A J, Games G E and Mylchreest I C. 1988. Analysis of
indole alkaloids from leaves of Catharanthus roseus by means of supercritical
fluids chromatography/mass spectrometry. Journal of Natural Products 51: 1173—
77.
Bharath Kumar H, Krishnan R and Srinivasan V R. 1985. Factors influencing seed
germination in Catharanthus roseus (L.) G Don. South Indian Horticulture 33:
276-8.
PERIWINKLE 9
Constabel F, Rambold S Chatson, K B, Kurz W G W and Kutney J P. 1981. Alkaloid

production of Catharanthus roseus. VI Variation in alkaloid spectra of cell lines
derieved from one single leaf. Plant Cell Reporter 1: 3-5.
Dahatonde BN. 1985. Effects of non-monetary inputs on the yielding performance of
periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus). Ancient Sci. Life 5: 65-7.
Deshpande S G, Joseph M and Sharma R N. 1988. Insect growth and development
inhibition properties of Periwinkle. International J. Bio. Sci. 9: 16-24.
Farooqui A A and Sreeramu B S. 2001. Periwinkle. Cultivation of Medicinal and
Aromatic Crops, ppl91-8. University Press India Ltd, Hyderabad.
Flory W S. 1944. Inheritance studies of flower colour in periwinkle. Proc. Amer. Soc.
Hort. Sci. 44: 525-6.
Hedge D M. 1988. Response of periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus (L) G. Don) to
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilization. Agric. Res. J. Kerala, 26: 227-
33.
Hui-Lin Li and Willaman J J. 1972. Recent trends in alkaloid hunting. Econ. Bot. 26:
61-7.
Karnick C R. 1977. Studies on Indian medicinal plants - Cultivation trials on Vinca
rosea L. J. Res. Indian Med. Yoga and Homeopathy 12: 101-8.
Khan M N A. 1977. Cultivation of vinca. (In) Cultivation and Utilization of Medicinal
and Aromatic Plants pp 139-40. Atal C K and Kapur B M (Eds.). Regional
Research Laboratory, Jammu- Tawi.
Krishnan R. 1995. Periwinkle. Advances in Horticulture (Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants, Volume 11, pp 409-23). Chadha K L and Gupta, Rajendra. Malhotra
Patel H B, Thaker N A and Muralidharan C M. 1987. Periwinkle in the management
of root knot nematode disease. Madras Agric. J. 74: 230-1.
Singh B M, Pareek S K, Mandal S, Maheshwari M L and Gupta R. 1992. Variability
in periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus). Indian J. Agric. Sci. 62 (1): 47-50.
Sukumar K and Osmani Z. 1981. Insect sterilants from Catharanthus roseus. Curr.
Sci. 50: 552-3.
Vitkare D G and Pandnawis B N. 1988. Performance of Vinca and Solanum viarum
under Akola conditions. Annals of Plant Physiology 2: 104-6.
Walker D B. 1975. Postgenital carpel fusion in Catharanthus roseus (Apocynaceae)
I. Light and scanning electron microscopic study of gynoecial ontogeny. Amer. J.
Bot. 62: 457-67.
Honey Plant
(.Ammi majus Linn.)
Honey plant (Umbelliferae) is also called Madhugid.

It originated in Egypt and grew in the Nile Valley especially Behira and
Fayoom. It is found distributed in the basin of Mediterranean sea in Syria and
Palestine. It is also found in some regions of Iran and the mountains of Kohaz
(Ramadan, 1982). It is found wildly in Abbottabad, Mianwali, Mahran, Lahore
and also in Europe, West Africa and Abyssinia. In India it is cultivated on an
experimental scale in the places like Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.
In India with the courtesy of UNESCO in 1955, 2 species, i.e. Ammi majus
and Ammi visnaga were introduced in the Forest Research Institute, Dehradun,
Uttarakhand.
Honey Plant
HONEY PLANT 11
It is an annual herb of 0.80 to 1.2 m height. The plant stem is erect and
solid. The leaves are compound, light green, alternate, pinnately divided having
lanceolate to oval segments. The plant has axillary and terminal compound
umbels of white flowers. The fruits are ribbed, ellipsoid, green or greenish
brown when immature, but turn to reddish brown at maturity. The seed tastes
bitter and extremely pungent. Its odour is characteristically terebinthinate,
which becomes strong on crushing. The plant has a long tap root. Two varieties
are found, ie Ammi majus L. var. Sutton’s Monica and Ammi majus L var.
Horticulture.
Genetics and Breeding

Ammi majus L. was found to have 2n=22 chromosomes. The varieties are
phenotypically different just because there is difference in the secondary
constriction (Hore, 1979). Breeding should be done to develop high yielding
varieties resistant to biotic and abiotic stress.
Variety
Researches should be done to improve the variety yielding high amount of
seeds and producing high percentage of xanthotoxin. In addition to it, the
variety should have resistance to diseases and pests in field and during storage
so that the xanthotoxin amount is not reduced.
Fahmy and Abu-shady in 1947 isolated ammoidin. It was reported to have
xanthotoxin, bergapten isopimpinellin, isoimperatorin, oxypeucedanin,
heraclenin, oxypeucedanin hydrate, This species is one of the richest known
sources of linear furocoumarins. This furocoumarins when activated by sunlight
acts as bactericidal, fungicidal, mollscicidal, larvicidal, nematicidal,
insecticidal, ovicidal and viricidal, so it is considered as a natural pesticide.
The fruit contains 1% of amorphous glucosidal principle, 0.45% tannin, 4.76%
oleoresinous products, 3.2% of an acrid oily liquid, 12.92% fixed oil, 0.2%
glucose, 13.83% proteins and 22.43% cellulose (Fahmy and Abu-Shady, 1947).
Parts used: Flowers and fruits.
Medicinal uses
The yellowish brown powder of fruit is prepared for use in the treatment of
leukoderma (vetilago). In Atharva Veda (1400 BC) it is known for treating
vetilago. Also in 1982, the FDA (USA) approved it as a treatment of severe
cutaneous psoriasis.
The plant can either be raised by sowing seeds or by growing in a nursery
and then transplanting it. About 1.5-2 kg of seeds should be sown in one
hectare of land. The most favorable time for sowing of seed in north India is
between third week of October to first week of November. The seed sown
later gives lower yield. After sowing, the seed is covered with thin layer of
soil. The germination of seed occurs after 10-12 days of sowing. For planting
the spacing of 45 cm x 60 cm is recommended. Requirements of interculture,
irrigation and manuring are normal.
Plant protection
A disease is caused by the fungus Aspergillus orchraceus. Also some damage
is caused by Aspergillus niger, A. flavus and Fusarium oxysporum. All these
fungus are found to affect the xanthotoxin content and can be controlled by
spraying proper fungicides.
Harvesting and thrashing

Harvesting of the crop is extended for a longer duration due to discontinuous
maturation of fruiting umbels. If primary umbel matures and is not harvested
soon, leads to the shedding of seeds. The shattering of seeds in this way in
India is mainly responsible for the low yield. In the case where primary umbels
matured and were harvested at an interval of two to four days, very good yield
was assured. Therefore, it is believed that primary umbel and the early maturing
secondary umbels are the major contributors towards good yield. (Ajit Singh,
1995).
The harvested crop is then stored for a couple of days and then, the seeds
are thrashed. The collection of seeds in its green stage yields maximum amount
of xanthotoxin from the fruits.
Yield
The average crop yield varies from 900 -1200 kg seed per hectare. The
timely harvest ensures at least 25% increase in the yield.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fahmy I R and Abu Shady H. 1947. Pharmacognostical study and isolation of
crystalline constituent ammoidrin. J. Pharm. Pharmacology. 20 (3): 281.
Hore A. 1979. Structure and behaviour of chromosomes as an aid to the study of
phylogeny of Umbelliferae with special reference to the tribe (Ammneae) and
Saniculeae. Cytolgia 45 (3): 389-402.
Ramadan S. 1982. Ammi majus Plant. Hamdard. 25 (1-4): 32-35.
Singh Ajit. 1995. Ammi majus. Advances in Horticulture (Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants Volume 11), pp 527-33. Chadha K L and Gupta Rajendra (Eds). Malhotra
Ipecac
'r crv-av-
(Cephaelis ipecacuanha Brot A. Rich.
Syn: Psychotria ipecacuanha Stokes)
Ipecac (Cephaelis ipecacuanha (Brot.) A. Rich) of the family Rubiaceae is

also called Ipecacuanha.
Distribution
Natural distribution of Ipecac is almost exclusively localized in the central
American Tropical Forests (Bentely and Trimen, 1992). It is cultivated in Brazil,
Malaya, Nicaragua and India. In India it is found in the foothills of Darjeeling,
near Mungpoo, Rongo, Munsong and Latpanchor.
Ipecac is perennial, evergreen, herb growing upto 60 cm in height. The
main stem is hard, branched, green when young and becomes brown when
Ipecac
mature. The plant is succulent at young stage. Leaves are rich green, simple,
opposite, decussate, entire, ellipto-ovate, acute. Flowers are stipulate,
interpetiolar, bilobed, lobes are imbricate and persistent. Inflorescence has
cymose head. The flowers are interspread with involucres of bracts which are
foliacious and arranged in two or more rows. The outer bracts are larger. The
root is fully grown measuring 40-45 cm in length and in diameter 0.4 - 0.6
cm. It has a tap root system. Ipecac is a Portuguese name meaning “a creeping
plant causing vomitting” (Hebis and Markiss, 1969).
Varieties
Varieties are:
• Rio: It is commercially known as Brazilian variety and grows in the
moist, dense and tropical forests in Brazil.
• Cartagene: It is also known as Nicaraguan or Penamme variety growing
in the dump and dark forests of Colombia, Nicaragua, Panama and
Venezuela.
The principal alkaloid of Ipecac is Emitine. Some other alkaloids of Ipecac
are Cephaeline, Psycotrine, O-methyl Psycotrine and Emetamin.
Parts used: Roots are the economic part of Ipecac. Stems and leaves are
also used for alkaloid preparations.
Medicinal uses are:
• The Emitine is principally used for the treatment of amoebiosis; the
dose is given as an injection of emetine hydrochloride. Its salt kills the
Entamoeba histolytica (causal organism), particularly when it gets
embedded in intestine.
• In large doses, it directly acts on the vomiting reflex center in the brain
causing vomiting thus removing all the indigestible food from the
stomach.
• Its small doses are used in cataracts, chronic bronchitis, asthmatic
emphysema, tuberculosis and disorders of lungs and early stages of
whooping cough.
• Now emetine hydrochloride is being pre-eminently used in cancer
chemotherapy. Correct dosage of emetine hydrochloride can prove to be
one of the safest therapeutics in certain types of cancer (Fisher, 1973).
• It is used for the preparation of tinctures.
Ipecac is sensitive to high as well as low temperature and is a shade loving
IPECAC 15
plant. The nursery beds are divided into the compartments of 2.7 m x 1.2 m
under shade. The beds are built on slopy area to avoid water stagnation and
usually raised 15 to 20 cm above the ground level. They require moist climate
and temperature ranging from 18 to 38°C with the annual rainfall of 150 to
500 cm.
Propagation of plant can be done either by direct seed sowing or by
vegetative method. Also it can be propagated through tissue culture.
(i) By seed sowing: The favorable season for seed sowing is middle of
February to early March (Farooqui and Sreeramu, 2001). Before sowing
the seeds are soaked in water for 24 hours. They are then sown in the
raised seedbeds under artificially provided shade at the rate of 100 gm
per bed of 2.7 m x 1.2 m. Proper care is required. Seed germination is
effected by the factors like temperature, light, pH and moisture of the
medium. The germination of seed is slow and takes 80-90 days, due to
which the incidence of weed growth increases. For controlling the weeds
and to facilitate the early germination mulching of beds with perforated
black polyethylene sheets is generally practiced. Due to black
polyethylene, the temperature as well as the moisture level increases,
leading to the early germination of seeds. Most of the weeds get killed
due to lack of light under black polyethylene sheets. The young growing
plants are then transplanted into the main field at the spacing of about
15x15 cm and are then allowed to remain there for next three years.
(ii) Vegetative propagation: In this, the leaf or root cutting are rooted using
soil and sand mixture in the ratio of 1: 3. Tissue culture is considered
to be highly beneficial method since by this large number of plantlets
are produced in short time. It is kept in shady place for two months and
then transplanted in field.
Irrigation, interculture, organic manuring and plant protection are followed
normally.
Plant protection
Ipecac plants are hardy. However two diseases are found to affect it, which
are:
• Leaf blight: Caused by Alternaria alternata (Bharati et ah 1984)
• Root Rot: It is caused by Fusarium sp. Chetia and Baruah (1963)
reported this type of wilting.
Harvesting is generally done in January-February. The roots should be
dried in shade. Age of plant determines the amount of alkaloid extracted from
it. About 0.5% of alkaloids extracted in six months of age and about 2.5% in
three-years-old. Generally the plant is harvested at the age of 3 years, though
they can be maintained till the age of 5 to 6 years (Chatterjee et al. 1995). It
has been reported that with the increasing age of plants the amount of alkaloid
emetine or cephaeline reduces. During harvesting the plant is dug out, the
root portions are separated by cutting at 6-7 cm above the root - stem transition
region, since alkaloids are also present in the lower region of stem. They are
then dried in shade till the moisture content reaches to 10-12% and then are
stored in dry cool place, usually packed in gunny bags.
Yield
Yield of dried roots is about 88 q/ha. These dried roots are sold at about
^610 per kg depending on their alkaloid (emetine) contents and the leaves
cost around ^ 125 per kg.
Processing
After harvest and wash, the roots are spread out and are dried as rapidly as
possible under sun, but are protected from heavy dew during nights. After 2 -
3 days of drying, the roots are cut into pieces of few inches length. These
pieces are then shaken in a sieve to separate any remaining adherent earth.
Finally they are packed in polythene bags for marketing and export.
Bibliography
Bentely and Trimen 1992. Cephaelis ipecacuanha. Medicinal Plants, Vol 2, p 145.
Valley Offset Printer and Publishers.
Bharati P, Sharma P and Chatterjee S K. 1984. Leaf blight disease of Cephaelis
ipecacuanha. Indian Phytopathol 37: 374-5.
Chaterjee S K, Bharati P and Yonjan B. 1995. Ipecac, Advances in Horticulture
(.Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Volume 11, pp 345-54). Chadha K L and Gupta
Rajendra, Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi.
Chetia M and Baruah H K. 1963. Fusarium wilt of ipecac. Sci. Cult. 29): 366-7.
Farooqui A A and Sreeramu B S. 2001. Ipecac. Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic
Crops. Universities Press India Ltd., Hyderabad.
Safed Musti
(Chlorophytum borivilianum Santapau & R.R. Fern.)
Safed musli (Family Liliaceae) is also called Khairua. Demand of this medicinal
plant is increasing much more than its supply. As per the estimate the world
over supply of safed musli is only 5000 tonnes whereas its demand has
increased to 35,000 tonnes. This demand can be only fulfilled by its more and
proper cultivation. Cultivation of safed musli in India is in Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, southern Rajasthan, north Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Odisha,
Haryana, Delhi and Andhra Pradesh. It can be also tried in Karnataka and
Tamil Nadu. This important medicinal plant is found in the forests but because
of indiscriminate removal, this plant is now endangered. This situation has
necessitated people to cultivate it. Outside India it is found distributed in Burma.
Safed Musli is a small perennial herb full of leaves appearing over ground
with the advent of summer rains (Santapu and Fernandes 1955)). It has a fleshy
root. The roots are fascicled, cylindrical, 1-8 in number; brown to black but
when skin is taken out it becomes white in colour. On maturity, the root tubers
are 5-10 cm long. Leaves are radical, 6-13 in number, spirally imbricate at the
base, sessile, linear ovate, acute apex and lightly narrowed at the base. The
leaves have parallel venation. It spreads horizontally. Its lower surface is rough
and margins are wavy. Scape is solitary, unbranched and 15-30 cm long.
Three-fourth of the scape bears flowers. The flowers are white bracteate,
pedicellate, usually arranged in alternate clusters each consisting of 3 flowers.
The flowers at the edge are closely packed. The bracts are linear, papery and
purplish 1-1.5 cm long. Pedicel looks whitish, pointed and 6-10 mm long.
Perianth are 6, linear acute and 3-4 nerved. Stamens are six, and as long as
perianth. Its filaments are glabrous. The anthers are yellow linear, and dehisces
by longitudinal crack. Its style is slightly longer than stamens and swollen at
the apex. Ovary is trilocular. Fruits are capsule, green to yellow and almost
equal in length and width. Seeds are onion like, black in appearance with
angular edges.
Varieties
Two types are found, i.e. Black type and White type. White type is more
popular. Bordia et al. (1995) reported the varieties RC-2, RC- 3, RC- 4, RC-
16, RC-20, RC-23, RC-24, RC- 33, RC-37 in white type. These strains showed
high content of saponins.

The variety Jawahar Safed musli 405 was released in 2004 under AICRP
on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, JNKVV, Mandsaur.
Safed Musli contains albumin. The glycoside 1.9 -3.5% is reported in Safed
Musli by Trivedi (1991). Gupta et al. (1979) reported the presence of
galactoglucan in the fruits of C. arundinaceum. Bordia et al. (1990) and Seth
et al (1991) reported that the major constituents of Safed Musli are carbohydrate
(42%), proteins (8-9%), root fibres (3 - 4%) and saponins (2-17%). Saponin
is considered to be medically important constituents of the root. The amount
of saponins is around 0.17 mg/10 g of dry seeds, though it may vary in different
genotypes. The higher content of saponins was observed in RC -2, RC - 16
(17.0%), RC - 36 (16.6%), RC - 24 and RC - 33 (10%). The mucilaginous
extracts of Safed Musli are used as an emulsifying agent in relatively lower
concentration.
Medicinal uses
Roots are used for:
• Safed Musli is useful in diabetes and post gynaeconological problems.
• It is also used to enhance lactation in ladies.
• It has property of rejuvenation of physical weakness. It is also an
important muscular tonic. The dry roots of Safed Musli are an excellent
tonic and aphrodisiac drug given to cure general disability (Sivaraman
and Balchandran, 1994).
• It improves complexion and is useful in general cough, asthma, piles,
skin diseases, impotence, jaundice, urinary diseases, leucorrhoea and
menorrhagia.
• It is used to prepare the tonic chayavanprash.
• It is supposed to be equal to Panax ginsing and Shilajit. Therefore safed
musli is a high value crop in India.
Tuberous roots of safed musli grow in the soil. Therefore the soil should be
soft and porous. Loam soil having sufficient organic matter and good drainage
is the proper soil for its good cultivation. But if the soil is too porous then the
roots become thin which is an undesirable feature.
Water: For good yield of safed musli sufficient water is required. The crop
is planted in June with the advent of rains, which may continue till September-
October. So during these months irrigation may not be required. However
care should be taken that till safed musli is not dug out the soil should remain
moist. After rainy season the field should be irrigated at interval of 10 days
SAFED MUSLI 19
for proper growth and development of roots. After the leaves dry out till the
crop remains in field, light irrigation should be continued at 10 days interval.
Water stagnation must be avoided. For irrigation any source will be good.
Sprinkler or drip system or any other system may be followed.
Nutrition: Five types of nutritions - farm yard manure, fertilizer, green
manure, bone meal and soil conditioners are required for safed musli as
mentioned below:
• Farm Yard Manure: It is very important nutritional requirement. Five
to seven trolleys of this manure per acre should be given. It should be
applied before sowing and mixed uniformly with the soil.
• Fertilizer: Though addition of fertilizer increases yield, it should be
avoided as far as possible particularly for those crops grown for export
market.
• Green Manure: After safed musli is harvested in January-February, the
field remains vacant until May-June. During this time a short duration
crop such as sun hemp or dhatura or any vegetable should be taken up.
After harvesting it, the green should be ploughed and mixed in the
soil.
• Bone Meal: Application of bone meal has been found to be very
beneficial. Amount of bone meal to be applied depends on the financial
capacity of the farmer. But at least one to two tonnes of bone meal per
acre should be applied.
• Soil Conditioner: Experiments have revealed that with application of
soil conditioner the soil gives more yield of safed musli. “Mycimil”
produced by M/S Hindustan Antibiotics has been found to be quite
effective.
The field should be ploughed by mould board plough. If there is any green
manure crop, it should also be ploughed well. Afterwards 5 to 10 trolleys of
farm yard manure should be uniformly mixed well with the soil. Deep
ploughing should be done once more followed by cultivator, harrowing and
levelling.
Preparation of bed is essential for good crop. A raised bed of 91.44 to
106.68 cms. wide and 9" to 12" should be prepared. Along with this, channels
should also be made. For movement, some space should be left lining the
beds.
Planting
Planting material of safed musli is the fingers (tuberous roots). The fingers
can be collected from the harvested crop. One thing is important that the fingers
must have disc or some part of crown, otherwise there may be some problem
in germination. Second important thing is that the fingers outer covering should
not be damaged. In fact after harvesting the well developed fingers should be
separated and should be scrapped and dried for marketing. Other fingers, which
are small, should be used for sowing. Seed tubers should weigh between 2 g
to 5 g. Planting material of high quality should be obtained from reliable firm.
Care should be taken that if the sprout is smaller than 1 cm, they should be
collected by cutting a small stem disc along with an individual fleshy root
(Anonymous, 1989-90), (Boardia and Jat, 1991) and (Anonymous, 1990-91).
According to Boardia and Jat, 1991, on the top of ridges of 6" to 8" height and
a row distance of 12" is adequate for obtaining commercial yield.
Approximately, 250-300 kg of fleshy roots are required for planting 1 hectare
land. Propagation by root result in a plant population true to the mother plant.
Propagation can also be done successfully by tissue culture.
Flowering
Plants of safed musli at about 2 months age produce flowers which later on
produce small black coloured seeds, germination varies from 11 to 24% (Jat
and Bordia, 1990) after 12 to 16 days of sowing. Dalai et al. (1987) reported
13% germination in 1 year old seeds. Hence use of seed is not advised for
commercial purpose.
As mentioned earlier fingers weighing 2 g to 5 g are used as planting
material. These fingers are planted at a spacing of 6" x 6". Hence in 1 acre
80,000 tubers having crown are required. Total weight of these fingers may
be 3 to 4 quintals per acre.
To enable the crop free from diseases it is advised that before sowing fingers
must be dipped for 2 minutes in 2% solution of the fungicide bavistin. Seed
treatment can also be done organically by dipping in cow’s urine.
After preparation of the field, beds measuring 3 to 3.5 ft. wide and 9" to
12" wide are prepared by beginning of the rainy season and 2" holes are made
at a spacing of 6" x 6" in the bed. To make the holes special equipment can be
developed. One thing is essential that the field should have sufficient moisture
at this time. In every hole 1 finger is sown. In case the fingers are very small
then 2 can be sown per hole. If the tubers are 5 g in weight then the spacing
can be increased. The fingers should be sown about 1" deep. Care should be
taken to see that while sowing the crown should be up and lowest end of
fingers should be down. After sowing, the holes should be closed by hand. In
the sowing process one person makes holes in the bed and other person does
sowing of the fingers. If irrigation facilities are available then safed musli can
be sown in mid May.
Roots of safed musli should be prominent so that after scraping the outer
covering sufficient saleable material will be obtained. If the fingers become
thin then less amount of saleable material will be obtained. To avoid thin
fingers we should avoid to prepare the field extra porous because then the
roots penetrates still down and so become thin. On harvesting if some thin
SAFED MUSH 21
fingers are obtained then it should be better to use them as planting material.
After a few days of sowing the fingers sprout and the plant grows. By
August the plant flowers which later on forms seeds. By October-November
leaves automatically dry out and tubers remain in the ground.
Plant protection
No major disease has been recorded in safed musli. Hence there is no need
to spray plant protection chemicals. Because the roots remain in the soil
therefore, natural calamities such as hail storms don’t affect the roots. Water
must not stagnate in the field otherwise safed musli is almost free from plant
protection problems.
During storage the fleshy roots get infected by Aspergillus sp. and Fusarium
sp. The treatment of fleshy roots with thiram and captan at 4 g/kg reduced
rottening of fleshy roots during storage and also it enhanced its sprouting
percentage (Anon, 1991 - 92).
Harvesting
After 90 to 95 days of planting when the leaves dry up some people think
that the crop is ready to harvest. It is absolutely wrong. In fact after one to two
months after this stage the crop should be left in the field. The soil should be
kept moist with light irrigation. Initially, colour of the fingers is white.
Gradually the colour changes to blackish brown. This colour is the stage of
maturity and an index for harvesting. During January the finger should be dug
out. The fingers having crown should be used for planting material. The fingers
may also be cut singly, scraped and dried for sale.
Sometimes due to non availability of labour or due to any other reason the
farmer may be unable to dug out the fingers. In that case nothing much to
worry. In rainy season these fingers will automatically sprout and grow in to
new crop. On maturity the crop will be only 50 to 100 percent more than the
original crop. Whereas the yield would have been 4 to 5 times more when the
fingers would have been planted in normal way. But if the farmer is unable to
dig out the fingers then every year there will be some increase in the yield.
But after 7 years there will be no further increase in yield.
Processing
The dug out fingers have some soil. This has to be washed out before
scraping the outer cover. For washing purpose the fingers should be kept in
basket. This should be placed under falling water. After washing the outer
covering of the fingers must be scraped out.
After leaving the fingers for use as seed material all other fingers should be
scrapped to remove the outer covering. Scrapping is a simple activity. Unskilled
labourers and children can also do this work. It is labor intensive work. So it
takes long time. There are two methods of scrapping:

(a) Rubbing the fingers on stone: Safed musli dug out from field is generally
scrapped by rubbing on stone. But it results in three problems:
(i) Occasionally more pulp gets removed leading to economic loss.
(ii) Occasionally some skin remains which lowers the quality of the
produce.
(iii) The produce scrapped by rubbing on stone has less acceptability in
market.
(b) Scrapping by knife: but success has not been obtained so for.
This method is easier and also better for scrapping fingers of safed musli.
This results in product of high quality. The method is very simple. Even children
can attend this work satisfactorily. Each labour can scrap out 2 to 3 kg of
tubers per day.
In order to avoid this labour intensive work of scrapping, experiments are
underway to remove the outer covering of the tubers by chemical treatment.
After scrapping, safed musli is dried out in sunlight for 2 to 3 days so that
fingers are dried completely.
Scrapping and drying out experiments has shown that only 20 to 25% of
dug out weight is obtained finally after scrapping and drying it.
Yield and Price

Yield of safed musli depends on several factors. One of the important factors
is finger size. From fingers weighing upto 5 g on harvest weight of the product
is 4 to 5 times more. From fingers weighing more than 5 g generally 3 times
more produce is formed. Weight of fingers have been seen to range from 2 g
to 270 g but normally weight of finger is 20 to 25 g. Similarly the number of
fingers per bunch has been found to vary from 2 to 65 but normally per bunch
10 to 12 fingers are seen. In this way it can be assumed that yield of safed
musli will be 5 to 10 times more than the amount of planting material (fingers)
used. In other words the yield may vary from 20 to 40 quintals per acre. A
yield of 1 tonne of fleshy roots per acre has been reported (Anonymous, 1989-
90). After processing and drying it reduces to 200 kg of dry safed musli per
acre. The sale price of dry safed musli is around Rs 1000 to 1200 per kg.
Packing
Before marketing, safed musli is packed in polythene bags. In polythene
bags, it remains for a long time and does not get damaged by outside moisture.
Good quality safed musli should be fully white on drying and should not have
any coloured spot.
Conservation of seed
To conserve the fingers for seed in January, after digging out the produce
SAFED MUSH 23
all big size fingers should be broken, washed scrapped and dried for sale. The
remaining small sized fingers having crown should be used for seed. Sowing
time is mid June. So seed has to be stored for about five and a half months.
Cold storage can not be recommended because it will reduce the sprouting
viability of the seeds. In fact, for the storage of safed musli planting material,
there should be special chambers having 70 to 80% humidity. But it will be a
costly affair for individual farmer. Therefore, a low cost technique of
preservation is that a pit should be dug in a shaded place. The seeds (fingers)
of safed musli are placed in that pit and covered with soil. In June, the soil
covering should be removed. The tubers are taken out and sown in the field.
Safed musli can also be successfully cultivated as an intercrop. Some
companies are cultivating safed musli as intercrop in teak plantation. In a
crop, which takes a long time to give returns, safed musli can be cultivated as
an intercrop. Thus, good income can be generated without much investment.
In papaya plantations, intercrop of safed musli can be taken up very profitably.
Training
Training for cultivation of safed musli is available with:
1. Director, Mittal Musli Farm, Jalgaon Jamod, District Buldhana,
Maharashtra 443402.
2. Director, Shanti Herbal Agro Farm,206, Silver Arcade 56,1 NewPalasia,
Indore - 452001
Availability of planting material from these places is possible.
Economic viability
As mentioned earlier there are 80,000 plants per acre. Out of this 70,000
plants survive. From each plant about 30 gm of safed musli is obtained.
Therefore, from 70,000 plants 2100 kg safed musli is obtained. After scrapping
and drying this will reduce to 400 kg only (20 to 25% of the fresh weight).
Beside this, planting material for one acre will be obtained. According to
experts, per acre yield of dry safed musli varies from 3 to 5 quintals.
According to prevailing market rate of ? 1,000 to 1200 per kg of dry safed
musli, four quintals of dry safed musli will value rupees four lakhs. Beside
this, planting material valued at ^ 50,000 to ^ 1,00,000 also will be obtained.
Studies on expenses and sale of safed musli have indicated that a net profit of
as high as ? 2,50,000 can be obtained. There is no problem in marketing. The
agro-climate of large part of India is suitable. Further research is needed on
improvement in seed germination, development of higher yielding varieties
which have resistance to disease and pests.
Bibliography
Anonymous. 1990. Development of suitable culture of safed musli (Chlorophytum
borivilianum) for root yield and acceptable medicinal quality. Annual Progress
Report of Cess Fund Scheme (ICAR), Rajasthan College of Agriculture, Udaipur.
Anonymous. 1991. Development of suitable cultures of safed musli (Chlorophytum
borivilianum) for root yield and acceptable medicinal quality. Annual Progress
Report of Cess Fund Scheme (ICAR), Rajasthan College of Agriculture, Udaipur.
Anonymous. 1992. Progress Report. ICAR All India Coordinated Research Project
on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Rajasthan College of Agriculture, Udaipur,
pp 65-6.
Bordia P C and Jat R D. 1991a, Role of stem disc in vegetative propagation in safed
musli (Chlorophytum species). Paper presented in the National Symposium on
Advances in Plant Sciences, Current Status and Emerging Challenges. Sukhadia
University, Udaipur, 21-23 September. Abstract, pp, 54.
Bordia P C and Jat R D. 1991b. Comparitive performance of transplanted seedling of
safed musli (Chlorophytum species) from sexual and asexual means. Crop Br.
Res. Newsletter, 1 (1-2): 14-5.
Bordia P C, Sethi P and Simlot M M. 1990. Exploration of safed musli (Chlorophytum
species) in the Aravali region and preliminary observations. Paper presented in
the National Symposium on Conser\>ation and Management of Living Resources.
University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore 10-12 January, Abstract,
p.4.
Bordia P C, Joshi A and Simlot M M. 1995. Safed Musli, Advances in Horticulture
(.Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Volume 11), Chadha K L and Gupta, Rajendra,
Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi pp. 429-48.
Dalai K C, Patel D H and Hirpara B V. 1987. Information on floral biological aspects,
improvement and propagation of Chlorophytum borivilianum from Gujarat. ICAR
VII Workshop Report. All India Coordinated Project on Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants. Rajasthan Agricultural University, Udaipur, 2-5 November, pp 45-8.
Gupta Ragani, Gupta O C D, Gupta P C and Pandey C S. 1979, New galactoglucan
from the fruits of Chlorophytum arundinaceum. Planta Med. 37 (1): 94-5.
Jat R D and Bordia P C. 1990, Propagation studies in safed musli (Chlorophytum
species). Paper presented in the National Symposium on Advances in Plant
Sciences Current status arid Emerging Challenges. Sukhadia University, Udaipur,
21-23 September, Abstract, pp. 46.
Sanatapu H and Fernandes R R. 1955. A new selection of Chlorophytum from Salsette
Island. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 52: 897.
Sivaraman V V and Balchandran Indira. 1994. Ayurvedic Drugs and their Plant Sources
p 314. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt Ltd.
Seth P, Sharma M K and Simlot M M. 1991. Saponins in Chlorophytum species.
Paper presented in Diamond Jubilee Annual General Body Meeting of Society of
Biological Chemists of India. Institute of Chemical Biology, Kolkata 27-30
December Abstract no. 028.
Trivedi K C. 1991, Assessment of Chlorophytum borivilianum germplasm during the
year 1987-88 to 1990-91. IX Workshop Report. All India Coordinated Project
on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (ICAR). ND Agricultural University, Faizabad,
12-15 December, pp 81-83.
root
[Claviceps purpurea (Fr.) Tulasne]
Ergot (Claviciptaceae) is also called Ergot of Rye, Spurred Rye and Homed
Rye. It is largely produced in Spain, chiefly Galicia and in southern and central
Russia. To some extent it is found distributed in Germany, France, India and
other countries (Atal and Kapur, 1982). In India it is found distributed in the
states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh
and Jammu and Kashmir.
Plant description
Ergot are hard curved brownish or black bodies measuring about 15 -20
cm in length and 0.2 - 2 cm in width. The sclerotia is more pointed towards
open end than at the bottom end (Bentely and Trimen, 1992). These hard
Ergot
curved, black bodies are in fact the resting stage of the ergot fungus and are
given popular name as ‘sclerotium’. If these bodies get mixed with food grains,
may infect man and animals and the infection is called ‘ergotism’.
Varieties
The ergot fungi are grouped broadly into two types of categories, ie. (a)
clavine type (b) eryoline or lysergic acid type. According to Atal and
Kapur (1977) strains of ergot fungus are R-38, R-40, R-55, R-56, R-56a,
R-56 b, R-56 c, R-56e, R-57, R-58. Out of these R-38, R-58 and R-40 are
ergotoxin strains and R-57 are ergometrine strain while all others are
ergotamine strains.
Chemical constituents
The ergot sclerotia contains over one hundred chemical compounds falling
in 10 different groups. The ergot alkaloids are grouped under three categories:
• The ergotamine group containing ergotamine, ergosine and
corresponding isomers.
• The ergotoxine group consisting of ergocornine, ergocristine and
ergocryptine and their isomers.
• The ergometrine group consist of isomers and a pair of water-soluble
bases. They are simple hydroxypropyl amides of lysergic and isolysergic
acids.
The types of alkaloids produced by ergot are ergoscaline, ergoscalinine,
ergotamine ergotaminine, ergosine, ergosinine, ergocristine, ergocristinine,
ergocornine, ergocorninine, ergokryptine and ergokryptinine. Some other
alkaloids are festuclavine, pyroclavine, castoclavine, lysergene, lysergol,
agroclavine, triseclavine, setoclavine, isotriseclavine, isosecoclavine,
elymoclavine, peuniclavine, sopenniclavine, molliclavine, secaclavine and
chanoclavine.
Parts used: Sclerotium (compact mycelium or spawn).
• At present the plant is used in hastening the childbirth, stoppage of
bleeding and also for expulsion of placenta.
• In obstetrics the ergot alkaloid can be administered intravenously after
the appearance of the anterior or posterior foetal shoulder, which results
in almost immediate childbirth besides expulsion of placenta in less
than 20 min in almost all the cases. Therefore, the post partum
hemorrhage is now no more a problem
• In migraine dihydroergotamine in combination with caffeine and
methylsegide have been found to be very effective drugs by blocking
servtonin, ultimately resulting in relief due to migrane headache. The
ERGOT 27
methylsevgide acts as a prophylytic drug as well as it helps in the control

of migraine.
• Some new derivatives such as 2- bromo- derivatives of ergokrypine,
d-6-methyl-8-cyaomethylergoline, d-6-methylergolinyl-1 -acetamide, n-
(d-6-methyl -8-isoergolenyl)-n, ‘n’- diethlurea, 9-10- dyhydro
derivatives, d-2- chloro- 6- methyl-8-b- cyanomethylergoline have
been reported as active prolactin inhibitors. For treating human prostrate
and breast cancer in their initial stages 2-bromoergokrytine, d-2-chloro-
6-methyl-8-cyanomethylergoline, d-6-methylergotinyl -1-acetamide
and n-(d-6- methyl -8- isoergonyl)-n-ndiethylurea are used in the drug.
• For parkinsonism bromokryptine and lergotrile are used as reported
by Liberman et al (1975) and Shaw et al. (1976). It is also found to be
effective in treating galactorrhea, amenorrhea, acromegaly and some
other hormone dependent disorders.
• In general the alkaloids lead to the rise in blood pressure, contraction
of blood vessels and also contraction of uterus. But it was found by
some workers that derivatives of hydrogenated alkaloid had just reverse
action to the above effect
Development of ergot sclerotia on rye plant
The favorable conditions for the growth of ergot are slow temperature
(average is 15-16°C) and moisture (humidity in the atmosphere is above 60%).
The yield of ergot is lower if the atmosphere is dry with higher temperature
(ie. more than 22°C) or if heavy rainfall and hailstorms occurs. The infection
of ergot on rye plant takes place under two steps - first infection is called
primary infection which is found as a ‘honey dew’ formed at infection sites on
the inoculated rye spike within 12-18 days following inoculation, when the
temperature is 15-18°C. In low temperatures, the growth is delayed. The
secondary infection takes place with the help of honeybee and other pollinating
insects, which carries the infection from ‘honey dew’ to the other spikes in
many different fields.
Plant protection
Since ergot is grown on rye, the plant protection of rye plant should be
undertaken so as to keep the growth of plant as well as that of ergot healthy. It
was recommended to use 0.226 kg. 2,4- D/ac. for the control of mostly annual
and broad-leaved weeds. Even a suggestion has been made to spray some
herbicides for post-emergence weed control in this crop, out of which MCPA
- Sal, 2,4- D- Amine and 2,4-D-Esters at 24 Oz. 20 Oz. and 10 Oz/ac.
respectively can be easily used in crop of rye.
Harvesting
The collection of ergot is done after 8-10 weeks after the last inoculation
or two weeks prior to the ripening of the rye grains. The mature sclerotia
become liable to get dislodged from the spikes with slight wind or rain and so
need early harvest (Sastry, 1995). Therefore, these well developed sclerotia
needs to be harvested 15-20 days earlier than the rest of the harvest.
Harvesting is done by hand picking by individuals and also spikes can be
cut to collect the ergot. After harvesting the spikes are dried for 1-2 days.
They are then dislodged. The small ergot is picked either manually or by any
mechanized equipments.
Yield
About 4 to 10 kg of ergot is collected from every 100 kg of rye grains. The
average yield of 150 kg per hectare under large scale cultivation is seen in
India under optimum weather conditions. Though the yield highly fluctuates
with weather condition both at time of inoculation and also during development
of ergot.
Processing
Processing includes drying, packing and storage of ergot. During high
temperature there is possibility of transformation of 1- form (active) of the
ergot alkaloid to d- form (inactive). So the drying is carried out under shade.
Initially the harvested material is spread thinly on a clean cemented floor or a
canvas and are stirred 3-4 times so as to avoid any petrification of the moist
ergot. For packing care should be taken that the moisture content of ergot
does not exceed 6%, since more moisture can make it susceptible to infection.
The packing should be done in polythene bags so as to prevent it from any
moisture reabsorption. While packing, before storage, 15 g of powdered
camphor is added to every 10 kg of package or a cotton dipped in chloroform
is kept inside. It prevents the ergot from pests.
Further studies on claviceps can open some other path in the field of
fermentation, fermentor designing, enzyme technology, genetic engineering,
applied mycology and industrial microbiology. Large scale production of ergot
would help in producing drugs and pharmaceuticals at a cheaper and more
efficient manner.
Bibliography
Atal C K and Kapur B M. 1977. Regional Research Laboratory, Council of Scientific
and Industrial Research, Jammu - Tawi, p 93.
Atal C K and Kapur B M. 1982. Regional Research Laboratory. Council of Scientific
and Industrial Research, Jammu - Tawi.
Bentely and Trimen. 1992. Medicinal Plants, Vol 4. Valley Offset Printer and
Publishers.
Lieberman A, Miyamoto T, Battista A F and Goldstain M. 1975. Studies on anti¬
parkinsonian efficacy of largotrile. Neurology, 459-60.
ERGOT 29
Sastry K S M. 1995. Ergot. Advances in Horticulture (Medicinal and Aromatic Plants,

volume 11, pp 467-88). Chadha K L and Gupta, Rajendra (Eds). Malhotra
Shaw K M, Lees A J, Hays S, Ross E J, Stem G M and Thompson B D. 1976. Growth
hormone response to bromocryptine in parkinsonism. Lancet 194-5.
Guggul
[Commiphora wightii (Amott) Bhandari]
Guggul (Burseraceae.) is also called Indian Bdellium. It originated in Africa

and Asia and the genus is widely distributed in tropical regions of Africa,
Madagascar, Asia, Australia, Pacific Islands, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan.
Atal et al. (1975) reported the distribution of Commiphora wightii in India
over Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Maharashtra and Karnataka states. Of these the
main Indian commercial source of gum guggal is Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Outside India, it was reported to be in Sind and Baluchistan provinces (Farooqui
and Sreeramu, 2001). The occurrence of guggal was less in the areas where
heavy rainfall is received.
Guggal is a shrub of 3-4 m height. The branches of plants are crooked,
knotty and have sharp spines. From the older parts of the stem the papery
barks peel off. Leaves are sessile, alternate or fascicled and 1-3 foliate. Leaflets
Guggul
GUGGUL 31
are glabrous, sessile or subsessile, obvate, serrate (sometimes serrate only

towards the apex), 1-5 cm long and 0.5 to 2.5 cm broad.
The plant is dimorphic, one having bisexual and male flowers, and the
other having female flowers with stamminodes (Abedin and Ali, 1972; Kumar
and Shankar, 1982), a third category is also there in which plants have only
male flowers (Rao et al. 1984).
Variety named Marusudha evaluated in Anand, Gujarat has higher yield.
The oleo-gum-resins are mixture of resin, gum, volatile oil and sometimes
with some other substance. The oleo-gum-resin has ketonic and non-ketonic
fractions. The ketonic mixture has around 12% of ethyl acetate soluble neutral
part. It constitutes of 8 compounds, which belong to class “steroid” and two
of them, ie. z and e - guggalsterone, contains around 2% of the gum resin,
which is responsible for the lipid lowering activity of guggal.
The non-ketonic compounds exert a synergistic action on the biological
activity of the ketonic fraction. During standardization, it was found that ethyl
acetate which is also named as “guggulipid” when extracted from guggal
contained 4.0 g of z and e-guggalsterones per 100 g. Estimation of these steroids
is readily done by high pressure liquid chromatograpy.
Parts used: Tree bark, gum root, leaves and bark’s resin are used.
• The oleo-gum-resin of guggal is an indigenous drug and is effective in
the treatment of obesity, arthritis and several other diseases mentioned
in ayurveda.
• The resin is largely used as incense and as a fixative in perfumery and
in medicines.
• In medicines it is used as an astringent, antiseptic, stomachic,
carminative and digestant.
• The oleoresin causes an increase of leucocytes in the blood and
stimulates phagocytosis.
• It also has the property of being diaphoretic, expectorant and diuretic
and is said to be a uterine stimulant and an emmenagogue as well.
• It is highly effective in obesity, arthritis, indolent ulcers, weak and
spongy gums, pyrrhoea, alveolaris, chronic tonsillitis and pharangyitis,
ulcerated throat and chronic dyspepsia.
• Inhalation of the fumes of burnt guggal is recommended in hay fever,
acute and chronic catarrh, chronic laryngitis, chronic bronchitis and
phthisis.
• It is a constituent in ointments for ulcer.
It can be propagated vegetatively by stem cutting or by seed. The soil needed
for the plant should be sandy to silty-loam, poor in organic matter but rich in
several other minerals, with some moisture retaining capacity. The climate
for plant should be warm and dry (Atal and Kapur, 1982). Two to three
ploughing should be done. Plant to plant spacing of 3 to 4 m in rows is
recommended. The pits (30 x 30 x 30 cm) are filled with a mixture of FYM
and soil. The mixture is mixed with aldrin (5%) to prevent the plant from
termites.
• Propagation by seeds: The seed have a hard seed coat due to which
the germination is slow as well as poor (5%), so it is not commonly
used for plantation, or achieving good germination the seeds are
mechanically scarified with sand paper and are kept under running
water for 24 hours.
• Propagation by stem cutting: Semi hardwood cuttings of 15-20 cm
length with width of 10 mm can be taken and be treated with IB A or
NAA, growth regulator solution, these cuttings are then planted in
manured and well prepared nursery beds in the month of June to July.
These cuttings are regularly irrigated. The cuttings sprout in 10-15
days and are ready to be planted in the field after 10-12 months, during
the next rainy season. The percentage of rooting in stem-cuttings is
around 80-94%. Air layering is also found to be successful.
Plant protection
Before planting the pits are treated with BHC (10%) or aldrin (5.0%) to
protect the new plant from white ants damage.
Gum tapping and pruning

At the age of 8-10 years the plant is ready for tapping. Tapping is the
procedure of making a careful incision on the bark to yield resin from the
incision. Usually the incision is made after November but before April. The
collection of resin is done after an interval of every 10-15 days.
On pruning the guggal plants in May, in arid regions of Gujarat and
Rajasthan, the maximum of guggalsteron (0.06%) was found. Pruning is
considered to be important.
Yield
At the age of 8-10 years every plant yields 700-900 g of gum resins.
Processing
From the time of making an incision a small quantity of guggal gum is

mixed with water and is applied on the incised place with the help of prick-
GUGGUL 33
chisel. So the resin obtained needs to be separated from gum. The separation
is brought about by either hot expression or solvent extraction at 120-130°C
(Dalai and Patel, 1995). The solvent extraction method is more beneficial
than the hot expression as it yields 61 % of resin while the yield of hot expression
is 10% less than that of the solvent extraction. The resin obtained is transparent
in thin films, but becomes opaque in bulk.
Genetics of sex-determination in the species will help to raise the seed
productivity.
Bibliography
Abedin S and Ali S I. 1972. Burseraceae (in) Flora of West Pakistan. Nair E and Ali
S I (Eds.).
Atal C K, Gupta O P and Abag S H. 1975. Commiphora mukul: source of medicine.
Economic Botany 29: 208-18.
Atal C K and Kapur B M. 1982. Cultivation & utilization of medicinal plants. Regional
Research Laboratory, Jammu - Tawi, pp 33.
Dalai K C and Patel M A. 1995. Guggal, Advances in Horticulture: (.Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants, Volume 11 pp 491-500), Chadha K L and Gupta Rajendra,
Malhotra Publishing House New Delhi.
Farooqui A A and Sreeramu B S. 2001. Guggal. Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic
Crops, pp. 115-120. University Press India Ltd. Hyderabad.
Kumar S and Shankar V. 1982. Medicinal plants of Indian deserts: Commiphora wightti
(Arnott) Arid Environment, 5: 1-11.
Rao K S S, Patel D H and Dalai K C. 1984. Occurrence of Commiphora stochsiana
(Mitha guggal) in Kutch. Indian Drugs 21: 541-3.
Datura
{Datura stramonium Linn. Syn. Datura tatula Linn.)
Datura of Solanaceae is also called Thom Apple. It originated in south America.

It is found distributed in arid and semi- arid regions of Punjab, Haryana,
Rajasthan, Gujarat, the central plateau of Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, the
southern peninsula of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka etc. (Farooqui and Sreeramu,
2001). World distribution of the plant is in Africa, Asia, Europe, Mexico, India
and south America.
Datura is annual, perennial herb or shrub growing mostly in warmer parts.
Datura has a height of 90-120 cm. Leaves are ovate almost entire or dentate
and softly tomentose on both the sides. Flowers are white, solitary, funnel like
14-16 cm long and toothed, corolla 10 in number, stamen 5-6, more or less
reaching the mouth of corolla tube (Farooqui and Sreeramu, 2001). Fruit is a
capsule reflexed, covered with long spines breaking irregularly.
Datura
DATURA 35
It contains 0.3-0.5% of tropane alkaloids, chiefly hyoscyamine and small

quantities of atropine and scopolamine (hyoscine). The alkaloid content in
different parts of datura is as follows: leaves having 0.41-0.45% of alkaloids,
stem having 0.25-0.26% of alkaloids, fruits having 0.46% of alkaloids, seeds
having 0.19% of alkaloids and roots having 0.21% of alkaloids.
Parts used are leaves, seeds, flowering tops and roots for following:
(i) Plants have hyoscyamine, which is active in paralyzing effect on nerve
ending and less active in its stimulant action on the central nervous
system.
(ii) Hyoscyamine and its salts are used for therapeutic purposes.
(iii) Hyoscyamine hydrobromide treats delirium, tumour and menia.
(iv) Parkinsonism can also be treated with the alkaloids of the datura.
(v) Hyoscine alkaloid is mainly used as a preanesthetic in surgery, in
childbirth, in ophthalmology and prevention of motion sickness.
(vi) It is also extensively employed in relief of withdrawal symptoms in
morphine and alcoholic addiction, in paralyzing agitans,
postencephaletic parkinsonianism and to allay sexual excitement.
(vii) It finds extensive use in obstetrics and surgery as pre-anesthetic in
conjunction with morphine and other analgesics.
(viii) The leaves are smoked to relieve asthma.
Datura can be grown on variety of soils but prefers rich clay loam soil with
sunny climate (Kaul and Singh, 1995). The land needs to be ploughed twice
or thrice followed by planking. Farm yard manure (5 trucks/h) should be added
to the field. Datura is sown in March-April in temperate areas and during
November in north Indian plains. The seedlings are transplanted to the field in
May-June in temperate region and November-December in subtropical
regions. The plant is propagated by seeds. The method is described below.
Cultivation by seed sowing

In case of direct seed sowing the germination is low because of the presence
of an inhibitor (Zutshi and Atal, 1970). Soaking the seed in water for a night
and washing it 2 - 3 times by freshwater before they are sown can enhance the
germination of seed. Also the seed germination can be hastened by alternative
exposure to freezing and thawing. This method makes the seed coat weaker.
In case of direct sowing, the seeds are suggested to be sown 1 m apart in rows.
Seeds are sown at the rate of 7 - 8 kg/ha. In 15 days the seeds germinate and
regular thinning and weeding is done, keeping plant-to-plant and row to row
distance of 75 - 100 cm.
Nursery raising
The nursery beds are prepared by mixing well rotted FYM into the beds.
The seeds are grown by broadcast method. The beds are kept moist. About 2
kg of seeds are required to raise seedling for planting one hectare. The
transplantation is done when the seedlings are about 15 cm in height and have
4 leaves. The plant needs regular irrigation. A spacing of 80 - 85 cm row to
row and plant to plant is recommended for high yield. Interculture, weeding,
organic manuring, irrigation and plant protection are done normally.
Plant protection
• Thrips act as vector in transmitting mosaic virus, which can be
controlled by spraying insecticide like metasystox (1.5 ml/lit).
• Wilting is caused by Scleoritium rolfsii. No control measure is reported
but field sanitation and crop rotation can be a remedy.
• Root and Foot Rot are caused by Corticium solani. The young seedling
can be saved by drenching them with a solution of copper fungicide
(0.3%) in the nursery.
• Viral disease like distortion mosaic, venation mosaic, rugose leaf curve
and little leaf have been found which can be checked by spraying
suitable insecticides.
Harvesting of Datura is done after 6-7 months of sowing. While harvesting,
entire plant is cut. At this stage the fruits are matured but green. These are
dried in sun and in shade. The leaves are stripped and dried separately. The
seeds are shaken off from the capsules when fruit begins to burst.
Yield of leaves is 11-17 q/ha and the seeds may yield upto 8 q/ha.
Development of high yielding varieties resistant to diseases and pests is needed.
Bibliography
Atal C K and Kapur B M. 1982. Regional Research Laboratory. Council of Scientific
and Industrial Research, Jammu - Tawi, pp 260-61.
Farooqui A A and Sreeramu B S. 2001. Datura. Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic
Crops. University Press India Ltd, Hyderabad, pp 77-85.
Kaul B L and Singh C. 1995. Datura. Advances in Horticulture: Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants, Volume, 11 pp 288-302, Chadha K L and Gupta Rajendra, Malhotra
Zutshi U and Atal C K. 1970. Scopoletin induced inhibition of germination in Datura
species. Herba. Hung, 9: 51—4.
Foxglove
(.Digitalis purpurea Linn.)
Foxglove (Scrophulariaceae.) is also called Tilpushpi. Its origin was west

central Europe (Atal and Kapur, 1982) and distributed in Kashmir valley in
hills of north western Himalayas and nearby forests in Chamba Hills (Madhya
Pradesh) and also in south India it is being successfully cultivated in Nilgiri
Hills (Tamil Nadu) and adjoining hills of Kerala state. It is found distributed
in the British Islands, Canada, western Europe, France, Germany, Hungary,
Mexico, UK, USA and some Asian countries.
Plant description
Foxglove is a biennial herb. Plant is erect, branched, herbaceous and attains
the height of 60-90 cm. Leaves are simple, alternate, opposite or whorled
Foxglove
exstipulate. Flowers are zygomorphic, pentamerous, hypogynous and bisexual.

It has 4-5 partite bracts. Sepals are gamosepalous, lobed in imbricate
aestivation. Petals are 4 in number, gamopetalous, bilipped, sometimes spurred
and in imbricate aestivation. Stamens are two to four in numbers. Anthers are
bithecate, hairy, dehiscing by longitudinal slits and epipetalous (Farooqui and
Sreedhar, 2001). Ovary bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior with many ovules
and single or bilobed style, stigma is bilobed. Fruit is a capsule.

Sharma (1983) studied the characters of EC-115996 culture of Digitalis
lanata grown under Solan conditions. According to him the selection in the
germplasm provides a possibility to register genetic improvement for yield in
this crop. Maximum heritability is recorded for days taken into initiation of
flowering (65%). High heritability estimates in broad sense for other economic
characters like glycoside contents, leaf yield, number of leaves, number of
flowers and number of fruits per plant have been found to accompany high
genetic gains which were 59.3,51.5,37.9,28.5,25.5% respectively, suggesting
that these can form effective selection criteria in crop improvements. (Sharma
et al. 1990). Research should be done to develop varieties, which can yield
still higher amount of digitoxin, talin and gitoxin and should have resistance
to diseases and pests.
Varieties
From several researches by National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources,
Delhi EC-115996 (ex. Poland) was found to be superior in foliage as well as
glycoside content. This was then used to make selection and the result was the
development of D-76, D 21, DYF and DPF, which are high yielding selections.
The leaf yield of these selections varies from 32 to 37 q/ha and the total
glycoside content is 0.93 to 0.99%. The colour of flower and the flowering
pattern varies slightly in these selections.
The leaves of Digitalis purpurea contains three glycosides, ie digitoxin,
gitalin and gitoxin. The leaves of Digitalis lanata also found to be 3-4 time
active than those of Digitalis purpurea (Voroshilov, 1941). Leaves are found
to have digitoxin and gitoxin. Other glycosides are digitoxigenin,
glucodigitoxigenin - bis - digitotoxoside, glucogitaloxigenic, bisdigitoxoside,
glucovatromonoside, glucogitoroside, glucolanadoxin, varadoxin, stropeside
and anthraquinone.
Parts used: Leaves and inflorescence for:
• Digitalis purpurea and Digitalis lanata are known for yielding
cardiotonic glycosides (Anon 1973).
FOXGLOVE 39
• In case of burns it is more selective in preserving the cells severely

injured by heat.
It grows well in lower altitudes. The crop requires fairly warm conditions
during vegetative growth to produce maximum leaf and glycoside content. It
prefers well-drained silty loam to clayey loam soil, rich in organic matter with
adequate amount of moisture. Germination of seed takes place after 15-20
days of sowing. In 60 days the plant attains the height of 10 to 15 cm, which
is the stage for transplanting. Fresh seeds should be sown immediately as the
older seeds loose viability. The land should be leveled and deep ploughing
and pulverization should be done. Then 8 kg of seeds/ha (Singh, 1982) should
be sown, at the depth of 1 to 2 cm in a line. Sowing should be done in spring
season. Seeds should be pre-sprouted by soaking in water and incubated at
30°C for two to three days. In nursery, the rate of germination of seeds is
found to be higher than that of direct sowing. Nursery beds are prepared in
strips of 10 x 1 m. Each bed is treated with 5 baskets of FYM, compost or leaf
mould. Irrigation, interculture, weeding, organic manuring and plant protection
are carried out normally.
Plant protection
• The pests like cutworms, hairy caterpillar, and aphids can be checked
by dusting sevin wp or 0.5% malathion which is given as foliar spray.
• Leaf blight caused by Alternaira sp. is prevented by spraying with any
copper fungicide at the rate of 0.1-0.2%.
• Anthracnose, caused by Collectotrichum fuscum Laubert. For control
the seeds are treated with hot water at 55°C. The crop should be regularly
sprayed with 0.5% Bordeaux mixture (lime + copper sulphate)
• Leaf spot, caused by Septoria digitalis Pass and Phyllosticta digitalis
Bell. Control measures (a) the spreading up of disease can be checked
by spraying Bordeaux mixture (1: 1.5%), capton (0.2%) and zeneb
(0.2%). (b) the use of protectants helps in controlling the disease at
early stages.
• Virus diseases of Digitalis: Digitalis have been found infected by
various kinds of viruses like Tobacco Mosaic Virus, Cucumber Mosaic,
Tobacco Ring Spot Virus, etc. Control: Spray of extracts of some
insecticidal plants can inhibit the virus infection.
Harvesting
Satisipero et al. (1954) and Singh (1960) observed that under favourable
conditions 2-3 harvests of leaves could be done in first year, while in second
year two harvests can be done. It was observed that late harvesting (middle or
late October) of leaves reduced the second year yield, it was so because the
growth of stem gets inhibited. In India, during harvest the leaves are picked
manually. Larger leaves should be picked first (Srivastava and Johari, 1995).
Usually, at a time 75% of leaves/plant are harvested.
Yield
The foliage yield is 152 q/ha on fresh weight basis. On dry weight basis the
foliage yield in Solan (HP) is 31 q/ha and in Kodaikanal (TN) it is 28q/ha.
The glycoside content was found to be less in Kodaikanal harvest than that of
Solan.
Processing
Leaves should be dried in sun at 30-^10oC temperature. The temperature
higher than this will reduce its quality and potency. The moisture of leaves
should be reduced to six percent. Once the leaves are dried it should be kept in
airtight place (polythene bags) at cool and dry place. The leaves are hygroscopic
in nature and thus the total glycosides content in the leaves is liable to be
deteriorated if exposed to moist air.
Bibliography
Anonymous. 1973. British Pharmaceuticals Codex, Pharmaceutical Press, London.
Atal C K and Kapur B M. 1982. Regional Research Laboratory Council of Scientific
and Industrial Research, Jammu - Tawi, pp 715.
Farooqui A A and Sreeramu B S. 2001. Digitalis. Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic
Crops, pp 86-92. University Press India Ltd. Hyderabad.
Satsipervo F A, Dimianets P F, Zabalotnaya E S, Ivamira L I, Leskov AI and Maltseva
M V. 1954. Naperstianka, Medgiz, Moscow.
Sharma S C. 1983. Study of floral biology and correlation of some yield contributing
traits in Digitalis lanata Ehrh. MSc. thesis, Himachal Pradesh Krishi
Vishwavidyalaya (HPKVV), SNS Nagar, Solan, Himachal Pradesh.
Sharma S C, Srivastava L J and Singh J M. 1990. Genetic evaluation of some selected
characters in Digitalis lanata Ehrh. J. Res. Appl. Sci. 5(1 & 2): 1-4.
Singh P. 1960. Avtoreferat dissertatsii, Moscow State University, Moscow.
Singh P. 1982. Cultivation of digitalis sp. (In) Cultivation and Utilization of Medicinal
Plants (Atal C K and Kapoor B M (Eds), Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu
- Tawi, pp 362-7.
Srivastava L J and Johri A K. 1995. Foxglove. Advances in Horticulture: Medicinal
and Aromatic Plants, Volume 11, pp 305-313. Chadha, K.L. and Rajendra Gupta,
Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi.
Voroshilov V N. 1941 Poesckinovovie Lekarstvennix Rastenix -cereya, USSR 12.
Medicinal yam
{Dioscorea floribunda Mart. & Gal.)
Medicinal yam (Dioscoreaceae) is also called Greater Yam. It originated in

Central America. In India, Dioscoria floribunda is successfully growing in
Karnataka, Asom, Meghalaya, and Goa (Farooqui and Sreeramu, 2001). Other
than India it is distributed in Africa, Europe, Mexico and South America.
Plant description
It is a twining herb. The stem is glabrous and left twining. Leaves are
alternate, have broadly ovate or triangular ovate, shallow or deeply cordate,
coriaceous lamina with nine nerves. The petioles are 5-7 cm long, thick and
firm. Variegation in leaves occur in varying degree. The male flowers are
solitary and rarely in pairs. Female flowers have divericate stigma which is
bifid at apex. The capsule is obovate and seed winged all round. The tubers
are thick with yellow coloured flesh, branched and grow up to a depth of 30
cm. In Dioscorea floribunda the buds are confined to the crown position
(Selvaraj et al. 1972).

The chromosome number of Dioscorea floribunda is 2n=18. There is need
Medicinal yam root and leaf

to produce higher diosgenin content, high tuber yield, compact tuber growth,
resistance to diseases and pests and wide adaptability. Breeding of Dioscorea
sp. has been done at Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru.
Breeding for higher diosgenin yield and resistance to diseases and pests should
be carried out.
Varieties
Three varieties of Dioscoria floribunda have been developed which are as
follows:
• FB (C)-l: It is a composite strain from introduced clonal material from
central America. It has been produced in IIHR (Indian Institute of
Horticultural Research), Bengaluru. The plant grows vigorously and is
almost free from pests and diseases. The yield of the tuber is 25-30 t/
ha per year (1 kg/plant) from one year crop or 60 t/ha for two year crop
(2.5 kg/plant). Diosgenin in dried roots vary from 2.5-3.0%.
• Arka Upkar: the variety is more diosgenin yielding clonal selection
than FB (C)-l. It has dark green leaves and vigorous growth habit. The
yield of tuber exceeds 60 tonnes (in two year crop) and the yield of
diosgenin content is 3.5-4%.
• Pusa-1: A selection from germplasm with tuber yield of 1.5 kg/plant
after 18 months. It was developed by IARI (Indian Agricultural
Research Institute), New Delhi.
All these varieties are adapted to tropical and sub-tropical regions of the
country. FB (C)-l and Arka Upkar are being grown in Bengaluru, Goa, Asom
and other regions.
Diosgenin, a steroid is obtained from rhizomes. Some other sex hormones,
cortisomes, other corticosteroids are also found in it (Krishnan, 1995). Other
sapogenins found are yamogenin, botagenin and krytogenin. In some cases
minor sapogenin like pannogenin and tigogenin are also found.
Roots (tubers) are used for:
• The steroids are used for the production of corticosteroids, sex hormones
and antifertility medicine (Tyagi etal 1997). The corticosteroids possess
anti-inflammatory properties and provide relief in arthritis, rheumatism
and asthma.
• Sex hormones are used in substitution therapy for deficiency in natural
hormones in male and female patients. The male sex hormone,
testosterone and its modifications are prescribed as anabolic agents
following severe illness or stunted growth. The female sex hormones find
extensive use in the treatment of gynaecological disorders. In addition
to these uses it is the active ingredients in oral contraceptive pills.
MEDICINAL YAM 43
Soil and climate

Heavy clay soil is not suitable. It grows well in light loam soil. Much acidic
soil is not desirable. In dry season irrigation arrangement is essential. Good
drainage is required.
Propagation is done vegetatively by tubers or by seeds.
Tdbers propagation
50-70 gm weighing tubers are used for propagation. Within 30 days crown
sprout while median and tip region sprout in 120-180 days. The use of crown
piece should be done for replanting as it is more yielding than median and tip
regions. Prophylactic treatment is given to the tuber with 3000 ppm benlate
for 5 minutes and dusting of cut ends with 0.3% benlate powder for storage
and also in field for prevention of tuber rot. The sprouted tubers are then
planted in the field at spacing of 60 x 45 cm. Each hectare has 37,000 plants.
After one or two year of planting the crop is ready for harvest.
Seed propagation
It is not recommended for commercial production due to variability in
seedlings. The fresh seeds are sown at the depth of 6-8 mm in plastic bags
filled with mixture of sand, soil and well-decomposed farm yard manure in
equal proportion. Per bag two seeds are sown. The seed takes four weeks to
germinate and only after 6 months it is transplanted to the field. After 2 to 3
years, the crop is ready to yield economically. Plant grown by seeds are
heterozygous and not uniform.
Support for the plants

Firm support is essential for growing Dioscorea floribunda plants. Support
of wires is preferred. Five wires of 12 gauge are arranged properly on 2.5 m
long and 7 cm wide poles spaced at 5 m distance. Plants are supported on the
wires.
Weeding
Field must be kept clean by weeding once in two months specially before
application of fertilizer.
Manure and fertilizers

Five trucks of manure/ha is mixed with soil while field preparation. Nitrogen
340 kg, phosphorus 170 kg and potash 170 kg are recommended per hectare
per year. Nitrogen should be applied in four doses.
Irrigation
In dry weather the field requires irrigation at an interval of 7-10 days.
Plant protection
• Two important pests of Dioscoria floribunda are aphid and red spider
mite. They can be controlled by the treatment of 0.5 active ingredients
of alar or kelthane.
• Damage done by leaf eating insects can be prevented by prophylactic
sprays of rogor (Bammi and Randhawa, 1975) or 0.1% metasystox
(Tyagi et al. 1976).
• In Dioscoria sp. the attack of mites and cutworms can be prevented by
the use of kelthane (0.5%f) and aldrin dust (5%).
• In Dioscorea sp. the fungal diseases caused by Cercospora remularia
and late blight by Phytophthora infestans were cured by dithane Z-78
(0.3%) and any copper fungicide application (Asolkar and Chadha,
1979).
• Collar rot of seedling in nursery can be controlled by brassical (0.5%)
suspension.
• To prevent it from tuber rot, Dioscorea floribunda tuber is dipped in
3000 ppm solution of benlate for 5 min and dusted by 0.3% benlate
powder in talcum.
Harvesting and processing

Harvesting of tubers is done manually by pick-axes or deep ploughing with
heavy mould board plough. Harvesting of tubers in Karnataka is done during
February-March when leaves turn yellow because at this time the growth
retards and the season is free of inclement weather which otherwise affects
harvest operations. The tubers should be washed to remove soil particles.
Crown portion is separated for planting. Other portion is cut in thin pieces and
dried in sunlight. Delay may cause rot. It should be stored in shade for sale.
Root yield
Tuber (fresh) yield of one-year crop varies from 25-30 tonnes/ha while it
goes upto 60 t/ha in two-year, under Bengaluru conditions (Bammi and
Randhawa, 1975; Chadha and Rao, 1984) at IIHR (Indian Institute of
Horticultural Research), Bengaluru. Saxena and Dutta (1985) reported highest
yield of 60.16 t/ha for two year crop spaced at 40 x 45 cm.
Marketing
Some medicinal companies have Dioscoria farms in Bengaluru, Goa, Ooty
and other places. They also encourage nearby farmers to grow Dioscoria
floribunda with marketing agreement. They purchase dry Dioscoria at the
rate of rupees one per kg having one percent diosgenin. If the Dioscoria contain
3% diosgenin then price is rupees three per kg dry Dioscoria. About ? 16,600
per year per hectare a farmer can get with additional income of 17. 3% if he
MEDICINAL YAM 45
can extract the diosgenin. An extraction machine has been innovated and
patented by Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu.
Bibliography
Asolkar L V and Chadha Y R. 1979. Diosgenin and other steroid drug precursors.
Publications and Information Directorate, CSIR, New Delhi.
Bammi R R, Radhawa G S. 1975. Dioscorea Improvement Project - Status Report,
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru.
Chadha K L and Rao V R. 1984. Cultivation of wild yam for steroid drug industry.
Indian Horticulture. 28 (1): 13-14.
Farooqui A A & Sreeramu B S. 2001. Dioscorea. Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic
Crops, pp 93-100. University Press India Ltd. Hyderabad.
Krishnan R. 1995. Medicinal yam. Advances in Horticulture: Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants, Volume 11 pp 385-^-04. Chadha K L and Gupta, Rajendra, Malhotra
Tyagi M C, Sharma B and Singh M P. 1976. Yam can check baby boom, Intensive
Agric. 15: 22-3.
Saxena H O and Dutta P K. 1985. Effect of varying spacing on tuber yield and diosgenin
content in Dioscorea floribunda Mart & Gal unger various population densities.
Indian Drugs 23: 330^1.
Selvaraj Y, Subhash Chandra Bommi R K and Randhava G S. 1972. Preliminary note
on the effects of incubation of fresh tubers of Dioscoria on diosgenin content.
Curr. Sci 41.
Liquorice
(Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn.)
Liquorice (Leguminoesae) is also called Sweetwood, Mulahathi, Jetimad,

Yastimadhu, Madhukah, Jesthamadhu and Atimaturam.
It is native of the area between southern Europe to Pakistan and northern
India. It is distributed in the world from 5w to lOOe longitudinally. It is spread
from 20 n to 50 s. It is found abundantly in western China, parts of Asia
Minor, Persia, Asian republics of erstwhile USSR and Afghanistan. It is found
also in some warmer parts, such as in Mediterranean region of north Africa,
Spain, Italy, Yugoslavia, Greece, Syria, Hungary extending from westward to
eastern parts and southern Russia (Farooqui and Sreeramu, 2001). It is also
cultivated in Italy, France, Germany, Spain, China and India.
Liquorice is a perennial shrub. Under favourable condition it attains the
height of about 1.2 m. The root crown gives out a number of long woody
Liquorice
LIQUORICE 47
stems. Leaves are compound pinnate, 13 in number, which in turn bears small
ovate leaflets covered with soft hairs on the underside. Flowering shoot appears
in axil of terminal and axillary leaves. Raceme of small pale blue flowers are
seen at the age of two to three years. In north western and central India the
flower is seen rarely because it needs 14-16 hours of daylight. Fruits are
2-2.5 cm long pods, containing 2 to 5 seeds. Root is highly branched and not
too deep. There is present a short taproot with large number of rhizomes. In
some cases the roots, which are left in soil, produce plants.
Varieties
• Spanish liquorice: (var. Typica, Regel. & Herd.) fetches a higher price
in the market and is sweetest of all.
• Russian liquorice: (var. Glandulifera, Waldst & Kit) have sweet taste.
It is accompanied by a perceptible but mild bitterness.
• Persian liquorice: (var. Boiss) is of inferior quality and produces thick,
hard and lumpy roots.
• EC-111236: It is a Russian collection. EC-111236 has been released as
‘Haryana Mulhati No. 1’ by CCS Haryana Agricultural University,
Hisar. It gives 70-80 q/ha of roots at age of 3 years with 7.5%
glycyrrhizic acid.
• EC-2195: It has been identified as a good strain by All India Coordinated
Research Project on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants.
Main chemical constituents are glycyrrhizin, glycyrrhetinic acid, phenol,
triterpenoids and saponin. The extract from underground stems, roots contains
5 to 20% saponin, i.e. glycoside glycyrrhizin. It also has caumarine compounds,
hemiarin, umbelliferone and flavours liquiritin, liquiritigenin, isoliquirtin and
isoliquiritigenin. The glycosides, liquiritoside and isoliquiritoside are also
present. A volatile flavour component is also isolated from G. glabra var.
Glandulifera. A steroid estrogen, possibly estiol is also reported.
Parts used: Roots and underground stem.
Medicinal uses
• In ayurved and unani medication it is used as demulcent, mild laxative
and expectorant.
• In modem medication it is used in bronchial tablets and cough mixtures.
It is an important constituent of all cough and catarrh syrups, throat
lozenges and pastilles.
• Deglycyrrhized roots are used in treating intestinal and peptic ulcers.
• The glycopeptide, synthesized from glycyrrhizic acid isoliquirategenin,
prevent diabetic related complications.

• Its consumption promotes retention of water, sodium and chloride ions
in body fluid and is given to sustain thrust.
• It is anti-inflammatory, analgesic and anticonvulsive in property.
• It is now being extensively used in confectionary and tobacco blending.
Also the extract gives sparkle and aroma to beer.
• Conditions of adrenal inefficiency are treated well with it.
• It is an immune activity enhancer and liver detoxifier.
• It has reproductive enhancing and healing property, good for digestion
and energizer, as also it is a lung tonic.
• Glycyrrhizin inhibits the growth of human viruses and bacteria.
• Saponins can increase antibody production and interferon production.
• Liquorice triggers liver enzyme, which reduces tumour-promoting
estrogen.
The soil best suited for it is loamy soil of light texture with pH 6 to 8.2,
even deep moist soil, particularly on the bank of rivers, subjected to periodical
inundation, is also suitable. Liquorice can also withstand salinity. Plant grows
well in warm, dry and subtropical climatic conditions with well-defined winters.
The plant growth is adversely affected by heavy rainfall and frost.
The propagation can be by stolons or by seeds. 60% of seed germination
was reported by Punia et al. (1986). The stolons having two or three buds of
15-25 cm length can be used to raise new plant by planting it 6 - 8 cm deep
in the soil at spacing of 90 x 45 cm (Legha and Sharma, 1993). The cuttings
begin to sprout in 15-20 days after planting. From this 60 -70% of sprouting
is seen. Fresh plantation can be raised during February - March or July -
August. The former is preferred where irrigation facilities exist. Under the All
India Crop Research Project on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants at Anand,
Patel et al. (1991) have reported good crop stand on plantation of cuttings any
time between October to mid January but October to mid November month
planting is reported to be most suitable time, which avoids root rot incidence
which otherwise is reported to cause large gaps in the plantation and inflict
heavy crop losses. Irrigation, interculture, weeding, manuring and plant
protection should be attended on time.
Plant protection
• Cercospora leaf spot: The disease is caused by Cercospora cavarae (P.
and D. Saccarado). For controlling it, Diathane M-45 or Diathane
Z-78 at the rate of 0.2% is recommended. Bavistine (0.1%) with Deltan
(0.3) also finds control over the disease.
• Root rot, collar rot and wilting: These diseases are caused by a group
LIQUORICE 49
of fungi, i.e. Rhizoctonia batciticola, Sclerotium sp. and Fusarium sp.

To prevent it Bavistin or Benlate is mixed with soil before planting.
Carbendazin 0.05% though being costly as well as uneconomical can
control the disease.
(c) Leaf spot disease: It is caused by Altemaria tensuis (Khadr and Abdel
Karer, 1974). For the treatment, Cuprox or Blitox (0.2%) is sprayed
3-4 times at an interval of 6 days after the disease appears.
(d) Insect pests: For termites the soil is treated with insecticides, during
field preparation. Cotton ash weevil is controlled by the use of
Metasystox.
Harvesting
The crop is harvested in winter, i.e. November or December. During this
time of harvest high amount of glycyrrhizic acid is present. During harvest
the root contain 50-60% moisture and so should be dried for 2-3 days in the
sun and then in shade for 10-12 days. Not more than 10% of moisture should
be present in the dried root. They are then cut into convenient size packed in
polythene bags so as to prevent reabsorption of moisture.
Yield and price

The yield of plant at two and a half or 3 years of age becomes high (proved
in Haryana). The yield of dry root at Hisar (Haryana) is recorded between 70
- 80 q/ha. At Anand, 18 to 20 month crop has given an average yield of 20 -
25 q/ha. Liquorice as a whole is sold at the rate of 120 Rs/kg. Root powder is
sold at the rate of 125 Rs/kg.
Scope for future development

• There is need to collect and evaluate germplasm of Glycyrrhiza glabra
and its related species from different countries.
• The breeding programme should be carried out to get higher yield, and
also for resistance to diseases and pests with high production of
glycyrrhizic acid.
@ Control measures for soil borne diseases should be studied in detail.
Bibliography
Farooqui A A and Sreeramu B S. 2001. Liquorice. Cultivation of Medicinal and
Aromatic Crops, pp 385^104. University Press India Ltd, Hyderabad.
Khadar A S and Abdel Karer N E. 1974 Altemaria leaf spot of basil and liquorice, the
first report. Res. Rev. (Cairo) 52 (2) 85-88.
Legha P K and Sharma G D. 1993. Characterization of agroclimate and cropping
system of south-west zone of Haryana and model project for cultivation of
sustainable medicinal, aromatic and under utilized plants. Tech. 2 (MA & UUP)
CCC Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, pp 26-27.
Patel D H, Patel M A and Dalai K C. 1991. Effect of length of cutting on root and
shoot growth of glycyrrhiza. ix Workshop presentation of trial data book, All
India Crop Research Programme on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Gujarat
Agricultural University, Anand, pp 296 301.
Punja M S, Sharma G D, Verma P K and More B R. 1986. Research on Medicinal
Plants in Haryana, their prospects and retrospects. Proceedings of Regional
Seminar on Medicinal Plants, held at Manali (H P), India, April 11 to 13, 1986,
pp 150-54.
Hops
(.Humulus lupulus Linn.)
Hops (Cannabinaceae, Duke 1983) is also called Common hops

Native to Europe and western Asia, now cultivated in North and South
America, Africa, Asia and Australia. Naturalized in many areas ranging from
wet to subtropical dry forest zones. Hops is reported to tolerate annual
precipitation of 3.1 to 13.7 cm, annual temperature of 5.6 to 21.3°C and pH of
4.5 to 8.2 (Duke, 1978,1979). It is suitable between latitudes 35-51°N and
34-43°S, with mean summer temperatures of 16-18°C. Hops are quite hardy.
When dormant, they withstand freezing, however, a severe frost will kill young,
tender vines. Annual rainfall requirement is about 30 cm, distributed between
July and November.
Hops
Perennial herbaceous vine, living 10-20 years, with horizontal and vertical
roots. The horizontal roots spreading out at depth of 20-30 cm and giving rise
to fibrous roots in upper layers of soil. The vertical roots developing downward
to depth of 152 cm with spread of 183-244 cm with no fibrous roots. Stem is
slender, climbing, up to 9 m in length, often with stout hooked hairs. Leaves
are opposite, cordate, 3- to 5-lobed. Margins serrate. Petiole is slightly fleshy
with stout hooked hairs. Plants are dioecious with unisexual flowers on separate
plants. Occasionally, monoecious plants occur, in which case male or female
flowers are often infertile. It is wind-pollinated. Female inflorescence is cone¬
like, 2.5-5 cm long. Male flowers are long raceme. Many varieties are available.
Morphological studies indicate that Japanese, European and American plants
may be characterized by their hairy behavior at node part of stem. Varieties
may also be classified into early, mid-season, and late. Some triploid varieties
grown in Europe are seedless. Resin content is controlled by many pairs of
genes. Disease resistance is found in some tetraploids. Most countries export
and import hops for a variety of beer flavors. Cultivars vary also as per harvest
time, susceptibility to downy mildew, characters of vine, lobes of leaf, number
of nodes, colour of young shoot (red, violet or pale green), thickness of stem
and characters of cone (size, weight, number of bracts), total resin and yield
per ha. Some of the better known cultivars being grown in the world today
include Italian Wild Type Humphries, EarlyCluster, Saaz, Shinshuwase, Early
Green Dauba, Japanese Wild Type, Hallertau, Early Zug, Canadian Wild Type,
Spalt, Fuggle American No. 2, Sappo, American Wild Type, Sonoma,
Riverside, English Cluster and B.C. Goldi. In Japan about 96% of the hops
crop is grown from the variety Shinshuwase.
Chemistry of hops
According to the Wealth of India (1976), hops contain 6-12% moisture,
11-21% resins, 0.2-0.5% volatile oils, 2-4% tannins, 13-24% protein, 3-4%
fructose and glucose, 12-14% pectins, and 7-10% ash. According to Leung
(1980) hops contain 0.3 to 1% volatile oil; 3 to 12% resinous bitter principles
composed of a-bitter acids and b-bitter acids. Some other resins are oxidation
products of the a- and b-acids; xanthohumol; flavonoid glycosides; phenolic
acid; tannins; lipids; amino acids; estrogenic substances etc.
The volatile oil is made up mostly of humulene, myrcene, b-caryophyllene,
and famesene, which together may account for over 90% of the oil. Other
compounds number over 100, including germacratriene, a- and b-selinenes,
selina-3, 7-diene, selina-4, 7-diene, a-copaene, a- & b-pinenes, limonene, p-
cymene, linalool, nerol, geraniol, nerolidol, citral, methylnonyl ketone, other
oxygenated compounds, 2,3,4-trithiapentane, S-methylthio-2-methylbutanoate,
S-methylthio-4-methylpentanoate, and 4,5-epithiocaryophyllene (Leung,
HOPS 53
1980). Buttery and Ling (1967) compared 5 cvs for 76 of their volatile oil
components. Countering claims that the “wonder cure” GLA (gamma-linolenic
acid) is found only in mother’s milk and evening primrose, the USDA lab at
Peoria has reported that GLA was also in hops.
Toxicity of hops
Dermatitis has long been recognized not only on hands and face, but legs
have suffered purpuric eruptions due to hop picking. Although only 1 in 3,000
workers is estimated to be treated, one in 30 is believed to suffer dermatitis
(Mitchell and Rook, 1979).
Medicinal and other uses

• Hops are grown, solely for the brewing industry (Bradford, 1979). Bitter
substance obtained from glandular hairs are used by brewers for giving
aroma and flavour to beer.
® Hops is known for preservative value. There is one German patent for
adding hops to sausages as a “natural” preservative. Substance prevents
gram-negative bacteria from growing in the beer.
• Amount of essential oil varies from 0.2 to 0.5%. Oil of Hops also used
in perfumes, cereal beverages, mineral waters, and tobacco.
m Stems are source of fibre like soybean stalks, cotton stalks, flax shives
and similar agricultural residues have been suggested for pulp or
biomass production. Fibre has relatively high lignin and low pentosan
content, with a cellulose content lower than any of them. Sometimes
used for filler material in corrugated paper or board products, but
unsuited for corrugated paper because of low pulp yield for production
of high-grade pulp for speciality paper.
• Young tops are used as a vegetable, especially in Belgium. Romans eat
the young shoots like asparagus. Chopped very fine and dressed with
butter or cream the young shoots are excellent (Femald et al. 1958).
• Alcoholic extracts of hops in various dosages have been used clinically
in treating numerous forms of leprosy, pulmonary tuberculosis, and
acute bacterial dysentery, with varying degrees of success in China.
Hops extracts are said to have various biological activities (antimicrobial
activities due to the bitter acids, especially lupulone and humulone)
and sedative effects.
• Extracts are used in skin creams and lotions, in Europe, for alleged
skin-softening properties.
• Extracts and oil are used as flavoring in nonalcoholic beverages, frozen
dairy desserts, candy, baked goods, gelatins, and puddings, with the
highest average maximum use reported for an extract used in baked
goods (Leung, 1980).
• Flower heads have been used to produce a fine brown dye (Grieve,
1931).
• Hop vines have 26.2% lignin as compared to 16.8% in wheat straw;
cellulose 42.4% as compared to 54.7% in wheat. The stubble as well
as the hop residues, after processing, could, of course, be channelled
into energy production.
• Dried strobili used medicinally as a bitter tonic and sedative.
• The decoction from the flower is said to be remedy for swellings and
hardness of the uterus.
• The dried fruit, used for poultices and fermentations, is said to control
painful tumors.
• The pomade made from it is said to remedy cancerous ulcerations
(Hartwell, 1967-1971).
• It is reported to be antiseptic, diuretic, hypnotic, nervine, sedative,
stomachic, and vermifuge.
• Hop is a folk remedy for bruises, cancer, cramps, cough, debility,
delirium, diaorhea, dyspepsia, fever, fits, hysteria, inflammation,
insomnia, jaundice, nerves, neuralgia, rheumatism, and worms (Duke
and Wain, 1981).
• Moerman (1982) gives interesting insight on uses of the plant. In India
small bag of leaves are heated to apply for earache or toothache.
• Use of hops as a sedative, drinking hops tea several times a day to
alleviate nervousness.
• The antibiotic principle lupulone is tuberculostatic (Duke, 1972).
• The spent hops are often used as fodder or manure.
Hops do well over a wide range of soils provided they are fertile and
moisture-holding. Light to heavy loams are best. Soil depth of 45 dm is
required. Plants are propagated from seed which require dormancy period for
germination. More frequently propagation from layering or cuttings from
established stocks is done. Spacing of 2 m x 2 m is given. Various types of
pole training are used. Fertilization requirement depends on soil type and
variety of hop planted. Green manure often sown in June- July and ploughed
under to provide organic matter. Vegetative and reproductive growth of hops
three years or older seem to be improved by pruning. Irrigation should be
practiced as per need. Hop cultivations in Japan and elsewhere are usually
conducted by contract system between beer company and grower.
Diseases of hops
Many fungi cause diseases in hop plants: Armillaria mellea, Ascochyta

humuli, Cercospora cannabis, Cercospora humuli (Downy mildew).
HOPS 55
Rhizoctonia solani, Sclerotinia libertiana, S. sclerotiorum, Septoria humuli,

S. lupulina, Sphaerotheca humuli, S. macularis, Typhula humulina, Ureolella
tami var. humuli, Verticillium alboatrum, V. dahliae, V. tricorpus, Botrytis
cinerea (Gray mold).
Bacteria also attack hops, eg. Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Corynebacterium
humuli and Pseudomonas cannabina. Cuscuta europaea also parasitize the
plant.
Viruses known to attack hops include: Chlorotic disease, Chloride mosaic,
Fluffy tip. Mosaic, Nettlehead-Humulus virus 2, and Split-leaf blotch.
Nematodes isolated from hops include: Ditylenchus destructor, Heterodera
humuli, Meloidogyne hapla, M. incognita, and M. javanica, (Golden, P.C.
1984).
Injury by aphids and spider mites (Tetranychus) may be serious.
Harvesting of hops
Dry weather is best for harvest. Hops are usually picked by hand. However,
more recently, picking machines weighing about 160 kg are able to pick 8-10
kg/hr. In 5-6 days, 500-700 kg of cones can be picked from about 10 ha.
Hops are collected in dry weather when they are ripe, carefully dried by artificial
heat and packed in bags or bales. From bloom to harvest requires about 40
days. Sometimes hops are treated with sulfur dioxide to improve the colour
and prevent change of active principle. Hops deteriorate upon aging and
exposure to atmosphere. Drying is an important process as moisture content
must be reduced from 80% to 6%. Kiln-drying is practiced in some humid areas.
Yields and economic viability of hops

Yields vary according to locality, climatic conditions, and variety. Average
yields range from 860 to 1890 kg cones/ha. Best yielders are: English Cluster
(1763 kg/ha); Shinshuwase (1664 kg/ha); American (1580 kg/ha); and
American No. 2 (1546 kg/ha). Under ideal conditions up to 4,000 kg cones/ha
have been produced. Principal hop-producing regions are: United States
(Northwest and New York), England, Czechoslvakia, Germany, Yugoslavia,
France, Belgium, Poland, former USSR and Canada. Hops are grown in many
other countries also. In 1971, United States production was 23.3 million kg,
averaging about $ 1.40/kg. United States imports about 6 million kg, mostly
from Europe for different flavors. A growing amount is being marketed in
extract form. Japan produces about 941,000 kg annually.
Bibliography
Anon. 1999. Hop. http: //infoplease.com/ce5/CE024384.html.
Bradford. I. 1979. Hops and hop products. Chemistry and Industry, no. 24 (15 Dec.):
88-9.
Buttery R G and Ling L C. 1967. Identification of hop varieties by gas chromatographic
analysis of their essential oils. Ag. & Food Chemistry 15(3): 531-35.
C S I R (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research). 1976. The Wealth of India. 11
vols. New Delhi.
Duke James A. 1983. Humulus lupulus L. Handbook of Energy Crops, http:
www.hort.purdue, edu/new crop/indices/index.ab.html.
Duke J A. 1972. Isthmian Ethnobotanical Dictionary. Harrod & Co., Baltimore.
Duke J A. 1978. The quest for tolerant germplasm. p. 1-61. (In) Crop tolerance to
suboptimal land conditions. ASA Special Symposium 32, Am. Soc. Agron.
Madison, WI.
Duke J A. 1979. Ecosystematic data on economic plants. Quart. J. Crude Drug Res.
17(3-4): 91-110.
Duke J A and Wain K K. 1981. Medicinal Plants of the World. Computer index with
more than 85,000 entries 3 vols.
Fernald M L, Kinsey A C and Rollins R C. 1958. Edible Wild Plants of Eastern North
America. Rev. Edn, Harper & Bros., New York.
Grieve M. 1931. A Modem Herbal. Reprint 1974. Hafner Press, New York.
Hartwell J L. 1971. Plants used against cancer: A survey. Lloydia 30^4.
Leung A Y. 1980. Encyclopedia of Common Natural Ingredients Used in Food, Drugs,
and Cosmetics. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Moerman D E. 1982. Geraniums for the Iroquois: A Field Guide to American Indian
Medicinal Plants. Reference Publications, Algonac, MI.
Henbane
(Hyoscyamus niger Linn.)
Henbane (Solanaceae.) is also called Black Henbane, Khurasani Ajavayan,

Khurassani Jamani, Khurassani Ajavana, and Parasikayavani.

Henbane is indigenous to Europe, central Asia, India and tropical Africa
(Good. 1953). According to Hocking (1947) the plant originally came from
Eurasia and is now distributed throughout Europe from Portugal and Greece
in the south of Norway and Finland in the north. According to Julia Mortan
(1977) henbane is native of Scandinavia and southern England to the
Mediterranean and Siberia. It is also found in Caucasian Mountains, Iran and
throughout Asia Minor. In India, it is found sparsely distributed over 2450 m
elevation from Kashmir to Garhwal in north-western Himalayas (Watt, 1972).
Small scale cultivation has been practiced in Srinagar valley and foothills of
Uttarakhand. With the help of AICRP in Indian Council of Agricultural
Research it is cultivated in central India and Karnataka to a small extent.
Henbane
Plant description
Henbane is erect, perennial herb with height of 160 cm. Leaves are simple,
ovate or oblong to triangular ovate with long lamina, coarsely dentate, margin
with pinnately lobed base and acute apex. The dry leaves emit strong
characteristic odour and have bitter acrid taste. Flowers are pale yellow with
purple veins (Farooqui and Sreeramu, 2001). The flowers are large, sessile or
subsessile with 5-lobed persistent calyx and corolla. Fruit is an oblong - ovoid
berry, about 1 cm long, having numerous small reniform seeds, which are
brown to black in colour with fine reticulations on the seed coat. It is a long
day plant. Approximately one gram of seed counts about 2000 seeds.
Varieties
• IC - 66 is a short duration (100 days) variety of Hyocymus muticus,
yielding 25 q/ha with the total tropane alkaloids varying from 0.05 to
0.10%.
• Aela is a mutant culture of Hyocymus niger selected from irradiated
progenies. It gives a yield of 73 q/ha. It also has high alkaloid content
of 0.054%.
The major active constituent of henbane is hyoscyamine and is 90% of
total alkaloids, rest are scopolamine and atropine. According to Singh and
Sharma (1977) alkaloids in various part of Hyocymus niger are as follows:
Parts Percentage of alkaloids (dry weight basis)
Leaves 0.04 -0.08

Flowering tops 0.07-0.10
Stem 0.01-0.025
Whole herb 0.02 - 0.03
Seeds 0.06-0.10
Parts used: Foliage and seeds.
Medicinal uses
The drug made from henbane is useful for the treatment of asthma and
whooping cough. It provides relief from painful spasmodic conditions of the
non-striated muscles, irritation, hysteria and gripping pain in intestinal disorders
(Watt, 1972; Wealth of India, 1959). The dried leaves are smoked to get relief
from asthmatic strokes (Boulos, 1983). In infants it is used to prevent fits and
to ease the pain of teething. In Europe, hyocymous is used as a mydriatic,
sedative and anodyne and is administered in case of earache and rheumatism.
HENBANE 59
The cultivation is brought about by either direct sowing or by transplantation
of plants from nursery to the field after they are 6 weeks-old in the first week
of October. The soil for maximum germination should be fine textured. This
can be achieved by ploughing, cultivator and disc harrowing followed by
planking. Add 15-20 tonnes per hectare of farm yard manure at the time of
land preparation. In direct sowing 2-3 kg seeds per hectare are sown. The
depth of sowing is 1-2 cm. The germination is seen after 7-10 days. Saxena
et al. (1979) observed that direct sowing yielded higher herbage and total
alkaloids as compared to the transplanted ones. Irrigation, interculture, weeding,
plant protection should be taken care of.
Plant protection
The pests like cotton bug and aphids are controlled by spraying Endosulphan
(Thiodon 35 ec at 1-1.5 1/hectare or Methyl Parathion 50 ec at 500 ml/hectare
or Metasystox 25 ec at 650 ml/hectare) properly dissolved in 1000 litres
of water. The spraying should be done 2-3 times after an interval of
10-15 days.
Harvesting and processing of henbane

According to Chopra et al. (1962) the annual crop is generally harvested
on attaining 50% flowering. In case of biennial crop, during first year, the
leaves are collected in late summer and in second year leaves are collected
when the plant is flowering.
According to Maheshwari et al. 1984, the Hyocymus niger is harvested
after 90-100 days of sowing. During harvest, first the lower leaves are picked
and then upper leaves along with soft twigs are collected for obtaining high
yield of alkaloid.
The pickings are sun-dried, the herbage contains 80-90% of moisture, which
needs to be dried fully (Maheshwari, 1995). After drying they are packed in
gunny bags and kept in cool dry place.
Yield
Comparitive performance of direct sown and transplanted crop of
Hyoscyamus niger (Indian Drugs. 16(5); 102-104) has been expressed in
following table:
Hyocymus niger Dried herbage Alkaloid content Alkaloid yield

(q/hectare) (hyoscyamine%) (kg/hectare)
Direct sowing 15.0 0.0870-0.0905 1.33

Transplanted 6.5 0.0755-0.0810 0.509
Scope for future development

Development of better yielding varieties resistant to diseases and pests.
Bibliography
Boulos L. 1983. Medicinal Plants of North Africa. Reference Publications Inc.
Michigan.
Chopra IC, Sobti S N and Nanda K L. 1962. Cultivation of medicinal plants in Jammu
and Kashmir, Bull.No.13, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, pp 44-52.
Farooqui A A and Sreeramu B S. 2001, Henbane. Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic
Crops, pp 121-7. University Press India Ltd, Hyderabad.
Good Ronald. 1953. The Geography of the Flowering Plants, 2nd edition. Longmans,
Green and Co, London. Hyoscymus niger Linn. Econ. Bot. 1 (3), 306-16.
Julia F Mortan. 1977. Major medicinal plants. Publisher - Charle C Thomas, pp. 303.
Maheswari S K, Asthana O P and Gangrade S K. 1984. Black henbane, a new
introduction for Madhya Pradesh. Indian Hort. 28 (9), 45-6.
Maheshwari S K. 1995. Henbane. Advances in Horticulture: Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants, Volume 11 pp 315-22, Chadha K L and Gupta, Rajendra, Malhotra
Singh Pratap and Sharma B M. 1977. Prospects of cultivation of herbane. Cultivation
and Utilization of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Atal C K and Kapur B M,
Eds). Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu Tawi, pp 39-43.
Saxena R K, Kidwai M A and Heardas M P. 1979. Plant introduction experiments
with herbane - new raw material for Indian drug industry. Indian Drugs 16(5):
102-4.
Watt G. 1972. The Eco. Prod. India, 4, Periodical Export.
Jatropha
(.Jatropha curcas Linn.)
Jatropha (Euphorbiaceae) is also called Physic Nut and Purging Nut

Though native to America, the species is almost pantropical now, widely
planted as a medicinal plant which soon tends to establish itself (James A.
Duke, 1983). It is listed as a weed in Brazil, Fiji, Honduras, India, Jamaica,
Panama, Puerto Rico, and Salvador (Holm et al. 1979).
Shrub or tree, height about 6 m, with spreading branches and stubby twigs,
with a milky or yellowish exudate. Leaves deciduous, alternate but apically
crowded, ovate, acute to acuminate, basally cordate, 3 to 5-lobed in outline,
Jatropha
6^40 cm long, 6-35 cm broad, the petioles 2.5-7.5 cm long. Flowers several,
in greenish cymes, yellowish, bell-shaped; sepals 5, broadly deltoid. Male
flowers many with 10 stamens, 5 united at the base only, 5 united into a column.
Female flowers borne singly, with elliptic 3-celled, triovulate ovary with 3
spreading bifurcate stigmata. Capsules, 2.5-4 cm long, finally drying and
splitting into 3 valves, all or two of which commonly have an oblong black
seed, these measure 2x1 cm (Morton, 1977; Little et al. 1974). Somatic
chromosome number of Jatropha curcas is 2n=22.
Chemistry
Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain 6.6 g H20, 18.2 g protein, 38.0 g
fat, 33.5 g total carbohydrate, 15.5 g fibre, and 4.5 g ash (Duke and Atchley,
1983). Leaves, which show antileukemic activity, contain oc-amyrin,
a-sitosterol, stigmasterol, and campesterol, 7-keto-b-sitosterol, stigmast-5-
ene-3-b, 7-a-diol, and stigmast-5-ene-3 b, 7 b-diol (Morton, 1981). Leaves
contain isovitexin and vitexin. From the nuts saccharose, raffinose, stachyose,
glucose, fructose, galactose, protein, and an oil, largely of oleic- and linoleic-
acids (List and Horhammer, 1969-1979), curcasin and arachidic, linoleic,
myristic, oleic, palmitic and stearic-acids are also reported (Perry, 1980).

• Reported to be abortifacient, anodyne, antiseptic, cicatrizant, depurative,
diuretic, emetic, hemostat, lactagogue, narcotic, purgative, rubefacient,
styptic, vermifuge, and vulnerary. Physic nut is a folk remedy for
alopecia, anasorca, ascites, burns, carbuncles, convulsions, cough,
dermatitis, diarrhea, dropsy, dysentery, dyspepsia, eczema, erysipelas,
fever, gonorrhea, hernia, incontinence, inflammation, jaundice,
neuralgia, paralysis, parturition, pleursy, pneumonia, rash, rheumatism,
scabies, sciatica, sores, stomachache, syphilis, tetanus, thrush, tumors,
ulcers, uterosis, whitlows, yaws, and yellow fever (Duke and Wain,
1981; List and Horhammer, 1969-1979).
• In South Sudan, the seed as well as the fruit is used as a contraceptive
(List and Horhammer, 1969-1979).
• Latex applied to treat bee and wasp stings (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk,
1962).
• Mauritians massage ascitic limbs with the oil.
• Cameroon natives apply the leaf decoction in arthritis (Watt and Breyer-
Brandwijk, 1962).
• Colombians drink the leaf decoction for venereal disease (Morton,
1981).
• Bahamans drink the decoction for heartburn.
• Guatemalans place heated leaves on the breast as a lactagogue.
JATROPHA 63
• Cubans apply the latex in toothache.

• Colombians and Costa Ricans apply the latex to bums, hemorrhoids,
ringworm, and ulcers.
• Venezuelans take the root decoction for dysentery (Morton, 1981).
• Seeds are used also for dropsy, gout, paralysis, and skin ailments (Watt
and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).
• Leaves are regarded as antiparasitic, applied to scabies; rubefacient
for paralysis, rheumatism; also applied to hard tumors (Hartwell, 1967—
1971).
• Latex used to dress sores and ulcers and inflamed tongues (Perry, 1980).
• Seed is viewed as aperient; the seed oil emetic, laxative, purgative and
for treatment of skin ailments.
• Root is used in decoction as a mouthwash for bleeding gums and
toothache. Otherwise used for eczema, ringworm, and scabies (Perry,
1980; Duke and Ayensu, 1984).
• Homeopathically used for cold sweats, colic, collapse, cramps, cyanosis,
diarrhea and leg cramps.
• According to Ochse (1980), “the young leaves may be safely eaten,
steamed or stewed.” They are favored for cooking with goat meat, said
to counteract the peculiar smell.
• Pounded leaves are applied near horses eyes to repel flies.
• The oil has been used for illumination, soap, candles, adulteration of
olive oil, and making Turkey red oil.
• Nuts can be burned like candlenuts (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).
• Mexicans grow the shrub as a host for the lac insect.
• Ashes of the burned root are used as a salt substitute (Morton, 1981).
• Agaceta et al. (1981) reported that it has strong molluscicidal activity.
• Duke and Wain (1981) list it for homicide, piscicide, and raticide as
well.
• The latex was strongly inhibitory to watermelon mosaic vims (Tewari
and Shukla, 1982).
• Bark used as a fish poison (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).
• Sap stains linen and can be used for marking (Mitchell and Rook, 1979).
• Little, Woodbury, and Wadsworth (1974) list the species as a honey
plant.
• According to Hartwell, the extracts are used in folk remedies for cancer.
Toxicity of Jatropha curcas

• The poisoning is irritant, with acute abdominal pain and nausea about
1/2 hour following ingestion. Diarrohea and nausea continue but are
not usually serious. Depression and collapse may occur, especially in
children.
• Two seeds are strong purgative. Four to five seed are said to cause
death, but the roasted seed is said to be nearly innocuous.
• Bark, fruit, leaf, root, and wood are all reported to contain HCN (Watt
and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).
• Seeds contain the dangerous toxalbumin curcin, rendering them
potentially, fatally toxic.
Energy application
The clear oil expressed from the seed has been used for illumination and
lubricating, and more recently has been suggested for energetic purposes, one
ton of nuts yielding 70 kg refined petroleum, 40 kg “gasoil leger” (light fuel
oil), 40 kg regular fuel oil, 34 kg dry tar/pitch/rosin, 270 kg coke-like char,
and 200 kg ammoniacal water, natural gas, creosote, etc. In a startling study,
Gaydou et al. (1982) compared several possible energy species with potential
to grow in Malagasy. Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) was considered energetically
most promising as shown in the table.
Plant Crop production Fuel production/ Energetic kwh/ha

MT/ha ha equivalent
Elaeis guineensis 18-20 3,600-4,000 33,900-37,700

Jatropha curcas 6-8 2,100-2,800 19,800-26,400
Aleurites fordii 4-6 1,800-2,700 17,000-25,500
Saccharum officinarum 35 2,450 16,000
Ricinus communis 3-5 1,200-2,000 11,300-18,900
Manihot esculenta 6 1,020 6,600
Climate and soil requirements

Climatic requirement range from tropical very dry to moist subtropical wet
forest zones. Physic nut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 4.8 to
23.8 cm (mean of 60 cases = 14.3) and annual temperature of 18.0 to 28.5°C
(mean of 45 cases = 25.2). It can be cultivated in a variety of soil. However
water logging should be avoided.
Grows readily, from cuttings or seeds. Cuttings strike root so easily that
the plant can be used as an energy-producing living fence. The field is prepared
by moldboard ploughing, harrow, cultivator and planking. Fifteen cart loads
of farm yard manure/hectare is mixed with the soil during last phase of field
preparation. Saplings 30-40 cm high from good Jatropha curcas tree are planted
at a distance of about 7 meter plant to plant and row to row during start of
rainy season. In absence of rain initially irrigation is done at an interval of
about 2-3 days. After establishment of plants interval should be increased to
JATROPHA 65
10-12 days. Later on it may be enhanced to one month. Interculture and weeding
should be done once in two months to keep the field clean. Plant protection
measures should be taken up.
Diseases
Agriculture Handbook No. 165 lists the following as affecting Jatropha
curcas: Clitocybe tabescens (root rot), Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (leaf
spot), and Phakopsora jatrophicola (rust). These diseases can be controlled
by spraying proper fungicides.
Harvesting
For medicinal purposes, the seeds are harvested as needed. For energy
purposes, seeds might be harvested all at once, the active medicinal compounds
might be extracted from the seed, before or after the oil, leaving the oil cake
for biomass or manure.
Yields and economics

According to Gaydou et al. (1982), seed yield is about 6-8 t/ha with about
37% oil. They calculate that such yields could produce the equivalent of 2,100-
2,800 litres fuel oil/ha. In Madagascar, they have about 10,000 ha of purging
nut, each producing about 24 hi oil/ha for a potential production of 240,000 hi
(Gaydou, et al. 1982).
Scope of development
Development of high yielding variety having biotic and abiotic resistance.
Bibliography
Agaceta L M, Dumag P U and Batolos J A. 1981. Studies on the control of snail
vectors of fascioliasis: Molluscicidal activity of some indigenous plants. Abstracts
on Tropical Agriculture 7. 38008; 6: 2: 30-4.
1960. Index of plant diseases in the United States. Agriculture Handbook 165. USGPO,
Washington.
Duke J A and Atchley A A. 1984. Proximate analysis (In). Christie, B.R. (ed.) The
Handbook of Plant Science in Agriculture. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL.
Duke J A and Ayensu E S. 1985. Medicinal Plants of China. Reference Publications,
Inc., Algonac, MI.
Duke J A and Wain K K. 1981. Medicinal Plants of the World. Computer index with
more than 85,000 entries. 3 vols.
Gaydou AM, Menet L, Ravelojaona G and Geneste P. 1982. Vegetable energy sources
in Madagascar: ethyl alcohol and oil seeds (French). Oleagineux 37(3): 135-41.
James A Duke. 1983. Handbook of Energy Crops, unpublished.
Holm L G, Pancho J V, Herberger J P and Plucknett D L. 1979. A geographical Atlas
of World Weeds. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
List P H and Horhammer L. 1979. Hager’s handbuch der phamiazeutischen praxis
Vols 2-6. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.

Little E, L Jr, Woodbury R O and Wadsworth F H. 1974. Trees of Puerto Rico and the
Virgin Islands, Vol. 2. Ag. Handbook 449 USDA, Washington DC.
Mitchell J C and Rook A. 1979. Botanical Dermatology. Greenglass Ltd, Vancouver.
Morton J F. 1977. Major Medicinal Plants. C C Thomas, Springfield, IL.
Morton J F. 1981. Atlas of Medicinal Plants of Middle America. Bahamas to Yucatan.
C C Thomas, Springfield IL.
Ochse J J. 1931. Vegetables of the Dutch East Indies. Reprinted 1980. A Asher and
Co. B V Amsterdam.
Perry L M. 1980. Medicinal Plants of East and Southeast Asia. MIT Press, Cambridge.
Tewari J P and Shukla I K. 1982. Inhibition of infectivity of 2 strains of watermelon
mosaic virus by latex of some angiosperms. Geobios Jodhpur, India 9(3): 124-6.
Watt J M and Breyer-Brandwijk M G. 1962. The Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of
Southern and Eastern Africa, 2nd edn. E&S. Livingstone, Ltd, Edinburgh and
London.
Opium Poppy
{Papaver somniferum Linn.)
Opium poppy (Papaveraceae) is also called White Poppy, Afim, Posta,

Gasagase, Gashagasha, Postaka, Aphiphen, Post and Afim.

Opium poppy is native to Asia Minor and indigenous to Mediterranean
region (Atal and Kapur, 1977). According to Bentley and Trimen (1992) the
home of the plant is south-eastern Europe. The plant is found distributed
throughout Europe, Asia, north western Africa and north America. In India it
is distributed in some parts of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.
Distribution of the plant is also reported in Argentina, Bulgaria, China,
Czechoslovakia, Egypt, Germany, Greece, Holland, Hungary, Iran, Japan,
Poland, Portugal, Spain, Turkey, USSR and Yugoslavia (Farooqui and
Sreeramu, 2001).
Opium Poppy
Plant description
Opium poppy is an annual, erect herb characterized by drooping bud and
grey latex. Plant is tapering, much branched, growing upto the height of about
60 cm. Leaves are numerous, closely packed, alternate, sessile, spreading
horizontally 6-15 cm long, 3-6 cm broad and cordate to much divided. Flowers
are large scarlet white in colour while some are lime purple or pink or may be
red. Flower buds are ovoid, oblong, 15-25 mm long. Stamens are arranged in
several whorls, surrounding the carpel with captiate stigma. Fruit is a capsule,
3-6 cm long, smooth and opening by pores. The dry latex obtained by
scratching the capsule is called opium. Seeds are minute and grey in colour.
Chromosome number of opium poppy is 2n =22.
Varieties
Researches are going on to evolve new high yielding varieties. The varieties
which have been placed on the approved list and are recommended for
commercial cultivation in India are as follows: -
• Brop 1 (Botanical Research Opium Poppy-1): It is synthetic variety
developed at National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow by
crossing selections from Kali Dandi, Surya Pankhi and Safaid Dandi.
The variety is moderately resistant to diseases and is also resistant to
lodging. This variety is highly adaptable to varied agro-climatic
conditions and gives higher yield than national checks. It yields about
54 kg/ha of opium and 10-13 q/ha of seeds.
• Kirtiman (NOP-4): This variety was developed at ND University of
Agriculture and Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad and was released
in the year 1990. This was developed through selection from local races.
Latex yield varies from 35-46 kg/ha and seed yield from 9-11 q/ha. It
is suggested to do well in the areas where temperature rises early in
spring season like in the eastern Uttar Pradesh.
• Chetak (U.0.285): This variety was developed at Rajasthan Agricultural
University, Udaipur. The variety was released in the year 1994. The
variety is resistant to diseases and pest and lodging. The plant yields
54 kg/ha of opium and 10 -12q/ha of seeds.
• Jawahar Aphim 16 (JA- 16): This high yielding variety was developed
by Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwavidyalaya (JNKV), Mandsaur (MP).
The variety was released in 1984.
• Jawahar Opium 539: This high yielding variety was developed at
AICRP, Mandsaur. The variety was released in the year 1997.
• Jawahar Opium Poppy 540: This high yielding variety was developed
by AICRP, Mandsaur in the year 1998.
• Trishna (IC-42): This high yielding variety was developed by National
Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, Delhi. The variety is resistant to
OPIUM POPPY 69
varied climatic conditions.

• Dhola Chota Gotia: This is a dwarf cultivar, with pure white flowers
and light green capsules. The capsules are oblong ovate in shape. The
plant is ready for lancing after 105-115 days of sowing and matures
for seed in 140 days.
• Sharma: This variety was released by the Central Institute of Medicinal
and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow in the year 1983. It yields 39.5 kg of
latex and 8.8 kg/ha of seeds.
• Shweta: This variety was also released with Sharma, but it is superior
to Sharma. It gives average yield of 42.5 kg of latex and 7.8 kg/ha of
seeds.
The major alkaloids are morphine, thebaine, noscapine and papaverine.
The contents are morphine 4-21%, noscapine 4-8%, papaverine 0.8%, codine
2.5-3.5% and thebaine 1.0-2.0%. Some other alkaloids are narcotine and
narceine. Some minor alkaloids are aporeine, codamine, crytopine, gnascopine,
hydrocotarnine, landanine, narcotoline, neopine, oxynacotine and
papaveramine. In prolonged uses it produces toxic effects which resemble the
effect occurring in epidemic dropsy.
Parts used: Opium, seeds, fruits, bark, petals and milky juice from plant.
Medicinal uses
• Opium is a well know sedative, having constipating effect, so used in
diarrhoea and pains in the body.
• The ointment of opium can be used as a local anesthetic in piles, etc.
• In ayurveda it is used as sleep inducing and antidiarrhoeal drugs.
• In unani medication, it is occasionally used as an aphrodisiac.
• It is used for treatment of nausea, constipation, headache and delirium.
• Its syrup is given for cough.
• The decoction is a common anodyne and demulcent fermentation when
applied hot to inflammable parts, bruises, sprains and other painful
affections.
• The seeds (maw seeds) are used as the medicine for birds.
• It is also used in genito-urinary diseases.
• The semi-dried oil finds use in the manufacture of paints and in artist’s
ink.
The techniques of cultivation of opium poppy and collection of capsules
adopted in countries like Turkey, former USSR, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Japan,
Pakistan and India, have been published in the journals and bulletins on
narcotics, United Nations, Geneva.

In India it is grown as rabi crop (Sala, 1997). Before seed sowing, the soil
is well ploughed, pulverized and is enriched with manure. After irrigation and
final ploughing the seeds are sown by conventional broadcasting method. The
plant-to-plant and row-to-row spacing should not be more than 12 cm. The
regular irrigation at the interval of 20 days is required. Poppy takes about 90
days to flower from the time of sowing and the capsule becomes ready for
collection after about 20 days of flowering. The lancing of capsule may be
done after about 15 days of flowering (Gupta, 1984; Gaur, 1987). In India, the
collection of opium starts in the middle of February and extends upto April
depending on the climatic conditions and time of sowing of the poppy seeds.
During the time of seed sowing, they should be treated with 10% gammexine
to kill cut worms, white grubs and other pests. The poppy is then soaked in
water containing formalin and then it is dried in shade. The plant should be
treated with fungicide by the time it develops 4 leaves. The insecticidal spraying
should be done at the regular interval of 3 weeks. Also the application of
soluble salts of micronutrients of manganese, boron, copper, molybdenum,
zinc, iron and magnesium is recommended as foliar spray to make the plants
more healthy and pest resistant.
Plant protection
• Downy mildew is caused by Pernospora arborescens. This can be
prevented by spraying Dithane Z-78 and Dithane M-45 or Cesan at
early stages of poppy.
• Powdery mildew is caused by Erysiphae polygoni and is controlled by
the spraying of Cuman-1 mixed with Wettable Sulphur (Sultaf).
• Curley leaves disease is caused by virus, which get transmitted by aphids
via sap. this can be prevented by spraying Rogor or Metasystox.
• Root rot is caused by Fusarium semitectum, and is controlled by
removing the affected plant and spraying Bavistin (1 g/1 of water) or
Streptocycline (4-6 g/600-800 1 of water).
• ORABANCEiE PAPAVERIS is a root parasite specific to poppy.
The remedial measure is to cut the parasitic plant at the bottom.
• Aphids and jassids are prevented by spraying of the Dimecron 100.
Lancing
Lancing is the process in which incision is made on the capsule. Usually

each capsule is lanced 3-4 times or may be more than that. A special type of
instrument called ‘nashtar’ is used to lance the capsule. Generally three parallel
longitudinal incisions are made after midday. Due to incision of capsule wall
the latex exude out which remains on the capsules for the whole night. On
coagulation the latex becomes thick and dark in colour.
OPIUM POPPY 71
Harvesting
After lancing the coagulated latex are collected. Then the opium is allowed
to dry in the plant itself (Singh et al. 1995). This takes 15 days after the lancing
is completed. In India, the capsules are plucked by hand and the seeds are
separated after breaking the capsules.
Yield
The average yield of crude opium is about 25-30 kg/ha and that of the
seeds is about 400-500 kg/ha.
Processing
The raw opium cultivated by farmers is dried either by prolonged heating
or sun drying. The sun drying is preferred over artificial drying. The raw
opium is received by district opium officer and tested for its purity and
consistency.
It has been observed that no morphine is lost for first 5 days when the
opium is kept at 97-98°C, but prolonged heating leads to a progressive loss of
morphine. An enzyme called peroxidase is responsible for decomposition of
morphine. Under moist condition, the opium gets sometimes covered with
fungus but this does not affect its morphine content.
Bibliography
Atal C K and Kapur B M. 1977. Cultivation and Utilisation of Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants. Regional Research Laboratory, Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research, Jammu-Tawi, pp 68.
Atal C K and Kapur B M. 1982. Opium poppy. Regional Research Laboratory, Council
of Scientific and Industrial Research, Jammu-Tawi, 483.
Bentely and Trimen. 1992. Medicinal Plants Vol 1, p 18. Valley Offset Printer and
Publishers.
Farooqui A A and Sreeramu B S. 2001. Opium poppy. Cultivation of Medicinal and
Aromatic Crops. University Press India Ltd, Hyderabad 180-90.
Gaur B L. 1987. Production technology for opium poppy in Rajasthan. Indian Hort,
31 (4): 21-4.
Gupta R. 1984. Improved production methods for opium poppy, Indian Hort. 28 (4):
9-12.
Sala A V. 1997. Indian Medicinal Plants, Vol 4, p 214. Orient Longman Ltd.
Singh S P, Shukla Sudhir and Khanna K R. 1995. Opium poppy. Advances in
Horticulture, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Vol 11 pp 535-69. Chadha K L
and Gupta Rajendra. Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi.
Long Pepper
(Piper longum Linn)
Long pepper (Piperaceae) is also called Indian Long Pepper, Peppali,: Hipli
Magadhi, Piple, Pippili and Tippil.

It is native of Indo-Malaya. It is now widely distributed in India, Nepal,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Rhio, Timor and Philippines (Farooqui and
Sreeramu 2001). In India it is found in Asom, Khasi Hills, lower hill of West
Bengal, eastern Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and evergreen
forests of western ghats in Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. It is widely
grown in Andhra Pradesh and Andaman and Nicobar islands.
Plant description
Long pepper is a semi-erect or climber shrub. It is glabrous with slender
branches. The branches are often of creeping type or trailing type. Leaves are
Long Pepper
LONG PEPPER 73
simple, alternate, stipulate and petiolate or sessile at the upper end of the
stem. The leaf lamina varies in shape over the same plant. The leaf is ovate or
ovate oblong, acute, most often unequal sided or unequally cordate at base
while the lower ones are usually cordate. All the leaves are entire, glabrous,
membranous or slightly succulent and five to seven ribbed from the base.
Inflorescence is spike with unisexual (dioecious), small, densely packed flowers
and form very close clusters of small greyish green or darker grey berries.
The female stalk is shorter than that of male stalk, which elongates during
maturation. The stalk of female spike is thick in contrast to the male spike,
which is slender.
Varieties
• Gol Thippali (Ball - Round Type) in West Bengal.
• Pipal Non Sori (Maharashtra Type).
• Asali (true) and Suvali: These two common types are present in Asom.
• Viswan released in 1996 by AICRP on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants,
College of Horticulture, Trichur.
Thirty-two geographical races are now maintained at the All-India
Coordinated Research Project on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Trichur
center, Kerala Agricultural University. Being semi-domesticated for over
centuries in the region, selection from amongst the diverse germplasm appears
to be the most practical breeding procedure for developing varieties suitable
for different agroclimatic regions and cropping situations in the country. The
natural genetic diversity available now in different parts of the country has to
be assembled and screened for its yielding ability and adaptability to different
oil and agro climatic conditions. Target character for genetic improvement
includes number of spikes per plant, length and diameter of spike, green and
dry weight ratio of spikes, tolerance to diseases and pests, prolonged flowering
phase to get multiple harvests etc.
Alkaloids piperine (4-5%) and piplartin have been reported in long pepper.
Other alkaloids also have been reported which are designated as piperolactam
a, piperolactam b and pellitorine. These have been isolated from the cold ethanol
extract of long pepper (Desai et al. 1988). Piper longumine (0.2 - 0.25%) is
also reported in fruits.
Further purification yielded six other alkaloids which are cepharadione b,
cepharadione a, cepharanone b aristolactum, all- norcepharadione b, 2 hydroxy
1 methoxy 4 and h dibenzoquinoline -4, 5 (6 h) dione.
Parts used: Fruits, roots, stem, female spike (dried spikes) and leaves.
Medicinal uses
• The root is used for stomachic, laxative, anthelmintic, carminative,
improves the appetite, useful in bronchitis, abdominal pains, diseases
of spleen and tumours.
• The ripe fruit is sweetish, pungent, heals stomach, aphrodisiac, laxative,
diarrhoeic and antidysentric.
• In ayurveda, it is used for treating ‘vata’ and ‘kapha’ asthma, abdominal
complaints, bronchitis, leucoderma, fevers, tumours, urinary discharges,
piles, diseases of the spleen, pains, inflammations, leprosy, insomnia,
hiccoughs, jaundice, and tuberculous glands.
• The root and fruit both are used in lumbago and gout.
• In unani system, the fruit is used as the tonic of liver, for stomachic,
emmenagougue, abortifacient, aphrodisiac, diuretic, digestive, general
tonic, useful in inflammations of the liver, pains in the joint, lumbago,
and night blindness.
• It is prescribed after parturition to induce the expulsion of the placenta.
® The dried immature spike and the matured root in the form of decoction
are extensively used in acute and chronic bronchitis and cough for
getting gradual relief.
• Long pepper with ginger, mustard oil, butter milk and curds make an
ointment for sciatica and paralysis.
• The roasted spikes are beaten up with honey and are given for treating
rheumatism in Konkan (Maharashtra).
• Long pepper is a useful remedy in veterinary medication.
The propagation is done only via suckers or rooted vine cuttings. It is not
propagated by seeds. The suckers or rooted vine cuttings are raised in the
nursery during March and April after rainfall. The rooted vine cutting as well
as suckers give almost 100% of plantation. The plant needs to be irrigated
every alternate day but excess moisture can cause Phytopthora wilt. The cutting
is ready for field plantation by end of May. The field where the cutting is to be
planted is ploughed twice or thrice and planked to make it level. The pits are
dug at spacing of 60 x 60 cm and the soil of every pit is mixed with FYM at
the rate of 100 g/pit. Per pit two sucker or two rooted cuttings are planted. The
root system of a year old plant has been found to have seven primary roots
with the length of 12 cm and 6 secondary roots of 7 cm length (Viswanathan,
1993).
Plant protection
• Rotting of leaves and veins is caused by Colletotrichum sp. Necrotic
LONG PEPPER 75
spots and blights caused by Cercospora sp. These diseases can be

controlled by spraying 1% Bordeaux Mixture, at the rate of one spray
during May and 2 or 3 subsequent sprays during rainy seasons.
• The mealy bugs attack affects roots and also shows stunted growth.
This can be prevented by application of insecticides like Rogor. Piper
longum is highly infected by adults and nymph of Helopeltis theivora.
These pests can be controlled by application of neem kernel suspension
at 0.25% concentration.
Harvesting
After 6 months of planting, the vines show the presence of spikes. The
spikes are ready to be harvested after two months of their appearance
(Viswanathan, 1995). At this time the spikes are blackish green in colour as
they are most pungent at this stage. In case if they are not harvested, the
spikes ripe and lead to loss of pungency to a great extent.
Yield and price

From pipali farm, yield of ten to fifteen quintals of dry fruits per hectare is
obtained. The plant continues to yield up to three to five years. After five
years its stem and roots are taken out and it can also be sold. A yield of two
quintals of dry root per hectare is obtained. Its market rate is ? 15,000 per
quintal. In Vishakhapatnam (A.R) pipali farming is done mainly for root
purpose.
Processing
For drying the spikes, they are exposed to sun for 4-5 days. The ratio of
green spike to dry spike becomes 10: 3.5. The storage of the spike should be
done in a moisture proof condition.
Bibliography
Bentely and Trimen 1992. Medicinal Plants, p 18 Valley Offset Printer and Publishers.
Desai E J, Prabhu B R and Mulchandani N B. 1988. Aristolactams and 4, 5 -
dioxaporphines from Piper longum. Phytochemistry, 27(5): 1511-15.
Farooqui A A and Sreeramu B S. 2001. Long pepper. Cultivation of Medicinal and
Aromatic Crops, 1993, pp 165-71. University Press India Ltd, Hyderabad pp
318-24.
Viswanathan T V. Indian long pepper. Rooting Patterns of Tropical Crops, ( Abdul
Salam M and Abdul Wahid P (Eds.) pp 318-24.) Tata Me Graw-Hill Publishing
Company, New Delhi.
Viswanathan T V. 1995. Long pepper. Advances in Horticulture Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants, Volume 11 pp 373-438. Chadha K L and Gupta, Rajendra,
Isabgol
(.Plantago ovata Forrsk)
Isabgol (Plantaginaceae) is also called Psyllium, Ispaghula, Blond Psyllium,

Spogel Seeds, Isabgul, Ishabgola, Shalkshnajira, Snigdhabya, Issabagolu and
Isphogol.

Its origin is from Persia. It got distributed to the neighboring arid tracts in
west Asia, westwards to Sind, Baluchistan, Spain and the Canary Islands.
(Kirtikar and Basu, 1953). It is also found in southern Spain and north Africa,
Canary islands, Tasmania, Australia, Mexico and Turkmenistan. Commercial
cultivation in India is done in north Gujarat, southern Rajasthan, in some places
of Madhya Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana.
Isabgol
ISABGOL 77
Plant description
The morphology of isabgol has been explained by many authors (Post,
1933; Pilger, 1937; Kirtikar and Basu, 1953). It is a small annual plant about
30 cm tall. Tillers arise from the base of the plant. There is a rosette of leaves
on each tiller. The leaves are narrow, finely acuminate, entire or distantly
toothed, attenuated at base, usually 3 nerved. Inflorescence are either shorter
or longer than leaves arising in the leaf axils and bear ovoid or cylindrical
terminal spikes with sessile flowers subtended by a bract and arranged in a
dense spiral. They number 10-15 per tiller, bracts are 4 mm long and broadly
ovate, concave, membranous and glabrous, the sepals have herbaceous midrib
bordered by wide, membranous wings similar to that of bracts. Corolla is
colourless, but midveins are often coloured brownish or red. The lobes are
narrow to broadly oval. Style and filament are colourless or pink to dark red.
The style is lengthier than stamens and protogynous. Ovary is superior, 2
celled with a single ovule in each cell. Seeds are albuminous with oily
endosperm and straight embryo. They are deeply concave and are broadly
elliptical to ovate or boat shaped. Length varies from 2-3.5 mm and width of
1-1.5 mm. It is pale brown to moderate brown with a dull surface. The convex
surface have a small and elongated glossy brown spot. This spot is surrounded
by a white portion extending to the concave surface and is called husk. The
concave surface has a deep cavity in the centre of the base on which is present
a hilum covered with a thin membrane (Osol and Ferrar, 1960). Root is a tap
root which is 20-30 cm deep with many lateral roots which are almost
perpendicular to tap root.

Genetically many mutants have been developed which include following.
Protruding corolla mutant: This mutant was originally identified by
Mehta et al. (1976). This mutant had receptive stigma in all the florets
of a spike much before an thesis.
Ball mutant: Ball mutant differs from normal in being having much
branched petiole having a spike with 5-10 florets. Also the seeds are
lighter having more husk as compared to that of normal. In this, the
florets in the spike are modified into elongated leaves.
Wheat mutant: The spikes of mutant are similar to that of wheat so is
called wheat mutant. In the spikes corolla in absent and have many
sepals and remains closed even at the time of anthesis.
Horn mutant: This differs from normal in having only two florets in
the axil of separate bracts (Anon.,1980). The size of plant is small and
also the florets are small sized and closely borne. Due to this the removal
of anthers becomes difficult (Patel et al 1980). With the help of tissue
culture the haploids and somoclonal variations can be developed. There
should be an attempt to breed non-shattering type of capsule and

resistance to diseases and pests.
Varieties: Gujarat Isabgol 1 and 2 and sel-10 are good varieties.
Gujarat Isabgol-3 released in 2005, by Spices Research Station, SDAU,
Jagudan.
Haryana Isabgol-5 released in 1989 by AICRP on Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar Jawahar Isabgol-4 released
in 1996 by AICRP on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Mandsaur.
Seeds contain protein, a fixed oil, mucilage, some cellulose and traces of
starch (Anon., 1968). A glycoside named aucubin was isolated from the plant
and reported to be pharmacologically inactive (Chopra et al. 1958). A sugar
called plantiose was also isolated. Seeds contain pale yellow oil (11.42%),
large amount of mucilaginous matter, inorganic ash and reducing sugar. The
oil contains both saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. Saturated acids are
composed of 32.77% palmitic, 60.37% stearic 6.80% lignoceric acid (Pendse,
1973). The seed during extraction with water yield mucilage, its constituents
are d-xylose, 1-arabinose, d-galacturonic acid and 1-rhamnose (Smith and
Montagomery, 1959). The husk is found to have a polysaccharide with a
polyxylose backbone and pectin like compound containing galactouronate and
rhamnose. The composition of these basic components may vary from species
to species (Salyers et al. 1978).
Isabgol oil is the by-product of isabgol husk and is found to have high
protein with good amount of limiting essential amino acids. The content of oil
is not much (8.6%), but its oleic or linoleic acid ratio (1: 27) ensures that it is
good grade edible oil (Anon. 1989).
Parts used: Seeds and husk obtained from the seed.
Medicinal uses
(a) Of seeds:
• The seeds are used as the demulcent, for cooling, for inflammatory
and bilious derangements of the digestive organs.
• It is used as poultice to rheumatic and gonuty swelling.
• Decoction is used for curing cough and chronic diarrhoea.
• It is used for curing dysentery and irritation of intestinal tract.
• It stimulates the intestinal peristalsis mechanically by swelling up, on
coming into the contact of water and this way it relieves the chronic
constipation.
(b) Of husk:
• Acts as an anti-diarrhoeal drug.
ISABGOL 79
• It is good in chronic dysenteries of amoebic and bacillary origin.

• It is beneficial in treating constipation and intestinal disorders.
Both seeds and husk are used for curing the inflammation of the mucous
membrane of gastro-intestinal and genito urinary tracts, ducodenal ulcer,
gonorrhoea and piles. It is also used as ‘cervical dilator’ for termination of
pregnancy.
(c) Other uses:
It is used in dying, in ice cream industry as stabilizer and also in
confectionary and in cosmetic industry.
There are many steps involved from sowing of the seed till it gets harvested
like tillage, clearing of the land from weeds, clods etc and making it good for
perfect seed germination, sowing, adding manures and fertilizers. The plant is
photosensitive. In Gujarat, sowing is done from 20 November-20 December.
In Punjab, Randhawa et al. (1978) reported that the yield is directly affected
by the date of sowing. The yield decreased when the sowing was done from
3rd week of October, but the yield decreased abruptly if the sowing was done
beyond first week of December. These results matched with the results of
Iyengar et al. (1968).
The seeds are light and small, therefore before sowing it, the seed is mixed
with sufficient amount of fine sand or sieved farm yard manure. For pest
control seeds are treated with some mercurial seed dresser so as to protect it
from seed borne diseases. The seeds are sown by broadcast method in nursery
or field and are covered by light sweeping with a broom only from one side,
this is done to prevent deep burial and also to facilitate uniform germination.
Irrigation, interculture, weeding, plant protection should be attended from time
to time.
Plant protection
• Downy mildew: It is caused by Peronospora plantaginis. It leads to
qualitative as well as quantitative deterioration of the crop (Desai and
Desai, 1969). Usually the disease appears at the time of spike initiation.
The disease is difficult to check since it is a seed as well as soil borne
disease. Tetraploid population raised at Anand was found to be highly
susceptible (Anon., 1986). In fungicides tested at Anand, the overnight
seed soaking in Aureofungin (0.75%) solution coupled with 2 spraying
of Aureofungin at 15 g/ha/spray controlled the disease effectively. Also
the treatment of seed with Metalaxyl (5 g/kg seeds) coupled with three
sprayings of Captof (0.2%) or Metalaxyl (0.05%) effectively controlled
the disease (Patel, 1984). The spraying was done first after the
appearance of the disease and repeated at 10 days intervals. For
preventive measures the fungicides like Bordeaux Mixture (6: 3: 100)

or Copper Oxychloride or Dithane M-45 or Dithane Z-78 or any other
copper fungicide at 2.0-2.5 g in 1 lit of water may be sprayed when
weather for pathogens turns favourable.
• Damping off disease: The disease is caused by Pythium ultimum Trow
(Chastagner et al. 1979), Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn (Anon., 1960) and
Fusarium oxysporum Schlescht Emend, synd & Hans. (Russell, 1975).
Pre-treatment of seeds with metalaxil or with fenaminosulf at 5 g/kg
seeds may protect the seeding by 67% while the fenaminasulf is able
to protect 78% of it, though it is found to be phytotoxic to some extent
and so it delays as well as reduces the germination. The treatment with
CGA 489 is effective which provides protection to young seedling for
longer period.
• Wilt: Wilting is due to Phythium ultimum and Fusarium oxysporum
(Russell, 1975; Chastagner et al. 1979). It comes either due to the pre¬
emergence damping off or as a late season wilt by Fusasrium solani
and F. oxysporum reported by Mehta et al. (1985) from Haryana. The
treatment of seed by fungicide, like Bavistin or Benlate at 2.5 g/kg of
seeds has been found to protect the seedling for about a month (Russell,
1975).
• Powdery mildew: It may appear at the time of flowering (Shakhela et
al. 1985). It is incited by Erysiphe cinchoracearum D.C. (Kumawat,
1979). It can be controlled by spraying Karathane W.D. (0.2%) or
Wettable Sulphur compounds as soon as the disease appears (Shakhela
et al. 1985).
• Insect pests: When white grub and termites attack it can be controlled
by 65% Lindane (125 kg/ha) or 10% BHC (60 kg/ha) before last
ploughing. Aphids are also found to attack this crop and are controlled
by spraying 0.2% Dimethodate.
Harvesting
The crop matures during March-April approximately after 110-130 days
after sowing. On maturation the seeds can be shed easily even if touched
slightly and also the crop turns yellowish and spike turns brownish. During
harvesting the atmosphere should be free from moisture or else it would lead
to lot of seed shattering (Sriram and Dalai, 1995). Normally the whole plant is
cut and is bundled in large thick cloth sheet. After 2 days they are thrashed
with bullocks or tractors for easy separation of seeds from spike. The thrashing
is done in early morning.
Yield
The varieties developed by Agricultural University, Gujarat, i.e “Guj.
ISABGOL 81
Isabgul-1 and Guj Isabgul-2" yield 800-900 and upto 1000 kg/ha of seeds
respectively. In excellent weather condition the yield may rise up to 1500 kg/
ha.
Higher seed yield of 1.8 to 2 tonnes/ha are reported from experimental
cultivations over medium textured fertile soils at Mandsur (M.P.) and Udaipur
(Rajasthan).
Processing
In processing, psyllium seeds are cleaned by a sieve. Afterwards the seed

are grounded and then for removal of husk fan and sieve are used. Afterwards
proper packing is done.
Bibliography
Anonymous. 1960. Index of Plant Disease in the United States. Handbook no. 165.
US Dept Agric, p. 531.
Anonymous. 1968. British Pharmaceutical Index, pp. 420, 690, 691. The
Pharmaceutical Press, London.
Anonymous. 1980. xii Sub-committee meeting report of plant breeding, genetics and
plant physiology. Gujarat Agricultural University, p 16.
Anonymous. 1986. Report of AICIP on medicinal and aromatic plants and related
schemes, presented at 23rd AGRESCO meeting, Gujarat Agricultural University.
Anonymous. 1989. Chemical analysis of isabgol seeds. Annual Report 1988-89, Dept.
of Biochemistry, College of Agriculture, Gujarat Agricultural University, Anand.
Chastagner G A, Ogawa J M and Sammeta K P V. 1979. Causes and control of damping
off in Plantago ovata. Plant Disease Reporters 62 (11): 929-32.
Chopra R N, Chopra I C, Manda K L and Kapur L D. 1958. Indigenous Drugs of
India 2nd edn, pp 379-85. V N Dhur and Sons, Calcutta.
Desai M V and Desai D B. 1969. Control of downey mildew of isabgol by Aureofungin.
Hindustan Antibiotic Bull 11(4): 254-7.
Iyengar N A, Kantikar U K and Pendse G S. 1968. Some factors affecting yield of
isabgul in Maharashtra, Indian Journal of Agronomy 13: 123-4.
Kirtiker K R and Basu B D. 1953. Indian Medicinal Plants, Vol iii, 2nd Ed pp 2033-
44. Lalit Mohan Basu, Allahabad, pg.
Kumawat H. 1979. Grow isabgul as a commercial crop. Farmers and Parliament 10:
21-23.
Mehata K G, Modi J M and Gupta R. 1976. Protruding flower type dwarf mutant of
isabgol (Plantago ovata forst.) Geobios. 3: 176-7.
Mehta N, Madan R L and Thakur D P. 1985. Record of isabgul wilt from Haryana.
Haryana Agricultural University 15 (4) 473-4.
Osol A and Farrar G E. 1960. Plantago seed. The dispensatory of the United States of
America 25th Edition, pp 1070-71 J B Lippincott Company, Philadelphia, USA.
Patel J G. 1984. Downy mildew of isabgul (Plantgo ovata f.). Doctoral thesis, Gujarat
Agricultural University, India.
Patel N H, Sriram S and Dalai K C. 1980. Floral biology and stigma pollen maturation
schedule in isabgol (Plantago ovata f.). Curr. Sci. 49: 689-92.
Pendse G P. 1973. Chemical examination of the seeds of isabgul (Plantago ovcita

forsk). 11. Supplementary note, Natl. Acad. Sci, India, 7: 137-9.
Pilger Robert. 1937. Monograph on Plantago Section Leucopsyllium. Das
Flanzenceich, Engler and Diets, Vol 102, p 269.
Post G T. 1933. Monograph on Plantaginaceae. Plantain family, Vol 11. Flora of
Syria, Palestine and Sinai.
Randhawa G S, Sahota T S, Bains D S and Mahajan V P. 1978. The effect of sowing
date, seed rate and nitrogen fertilizer on the growth and yield of isabgol (Plantago
ovata). J. Agric. Sci. Camb., 90: 591.
Russell T F. 1975. Plantago wilt. American Phytopathology 65: 359-60.
Salyers A A, Harris C T and Wilkins T D. 1978. Break down of psyllium hydrocolloid
by strains of Bacterocides ovatus from the human intestinal tract. Can. J. Microbiol
24 (3): 336-8.
Shakhela R R, Jose V T and Tikka S B S. 1985. It is paying to grow isabgol. Farmers
and Parliament 20 (4): 21-22 32.
Smith F and Montagomery R. 1959. The Chemistry of Plant Gums and Mucilages,
Reinhold Pub. New York, Co. p 360.
Sriram S and dalal K C. 1995. Psyllium, Advances in Horticulture (Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants, Volume 11 pp 513-99). Chadha K L and Gupta, Rajendra (Eds).
Aon la
(Phyllanthus emblica Linn.)
Aonla (Euphorbiaccae.) is also called Indian Goose Berry, Myrobalan, Amla,

Nelli, Malakka and Amlaki.

It is said to be indigenous to tropical Asia (Singh et al. 1963). and found
growing wild in tropical forests of India as well as on the hill slopes up to an
elevation of 4000 feet. It also grows wild in some of the south Indian forests.
District Pratapgarh in Uttar Pradesh is famous for development and production
of this fruit in the whole world. Aonla is being cultivated in various states of
north and south India.
Aonla
It has height of 20 to 20 ft. Usually it is evergreen throughout the year
(Anand Singh et al. 2004). Bark is smooth. Fruit is smooth and nearly stalk
less. Fruit is hard and divided into six segments. The fruit has one hexagonal
stone having six seeds. Fruits skin is thin, the flesh taste acidic sweet.
Varieties
• Banarsi Aonla: It is excellent variety. It’s fruit size is large, colour
yellow and shining. Yield is also very good for nearly thirty-five years.
• N.A. 6, 7 and 10: These varieties were developed by Acharya Narendra
Deo University of Agriculture and Technology, Faizabad, Uttar Pradesh.
All these are good and high yielding varieties of Phyllanthus emblica
Linn.
• Anand-2: It was developed by Gujarat Agricultural University, Anand
as good high variety for Gujarat.
• BSR - 1: It is also a good and high yielding variety.
® Chakia: It was developed in Pratapgarh (Uttar Pradesh) as superior
variety.
• Kanchan: It is a high yielding selection from Uttar Pradesh.
Aonla fruit is well known for its very high vitamin C content. It is 20 times
more than in mandarin fruits. One hundred gram of Aonla flesh has 1220 to
1814 milligram vitamin C (Pahuja, 2003)
Part used: Fruits, leaves, seeds and roots.

• Aonla is widely used in ayurvedic medicines such as Chawanprash,
Amritkalsh, Murabba, Kayakalp, pickles, Trifla (mixture of aonla, harad
and bahera), hairtonic etc.
• Leaves, seeds and roots of Aonla also have several medicinal uses.
• Aonla fruits can be used to prepare wine (Raviprasad Kamila, 2007)
Because of its diversified uses it is known equivalent to Tridev (Bramha,
Vishnu and Mahesh) in Ayurveda according to Pahuja 2003.
For commercial purpose it should be never propagated by seed because
seed propagated trees are usually inferior. Shield budding is the best method
to propagate Aonla plants. Seeding trees can be improved well by top working
with scion of a good variety.
Pits measuring 60 cm x 60 cm are made at distance of 10 meter x 10 meter
in well prepared field. Pits should be filled up by a mixture of compost and
AO NLA 85
soil (1: 1), in the month of June. By irrigation or rains the mixture get settled.
In beginning of July, saplings of Aonla should be planted in the afternoon.
Each hectare accommodates 100 tress. After planting, the saplings must be
irrigated. During rainy season if it does not rain then the field must be irrigated
once in ten days, 7 to 10 days duration is followed during winter. In summer
the duration should be 3 to 4 days. From second year to sixth year irrigation
should be given in 10 to 30 days depending upon the need. Application of
about 10 kilograms of farmyard manure per plant before onset of monsoon is
recommended. Before flowering addition of 3 to 4 kg of super phosphate
results in better yield of fruits.
Protection from pests and diseases

No serious pest or disease damages Aonla. During August-September
caterpillars of an insect Benfonsa stylophora occasionally makes bores in
branches and hide there. If it is near the tip then growth is hindered. Affected
parts get swelled. For control measure entomologist should be consulted.
Planting 91.44 cm height of stem with bordo paste keeps the trees healthy
Harvesting and yield

Flowering starts by end of February (Pathak, 2003). From seventh year
Aonla tree starts production of fruits. During winter the fruits attain harvesting
stage in south India. At some places Aonla is available throughout the year. To
harvest, person climbs the tree and plucks the matured fruits and keeps in the
bag. Yield per tree is about 200 and 300 kg of fruit. Per hectare about 200 to
300 quintal fruits are obtained. Till 35 years the tree yields well every year.
Economic viability
Aonla sells for about ^ 18 to 30 per kilo. This way gross income of ^ 3.6
lakh to 9.0 lakh/ha is possible. If half of this is deducted as cost even then 1.8
lakh to 4.5 lakh/ha net profit is possible. If the fruits are sold at ^ 10 per kilo
even then gross profit of ? 2 to 3 lakh per hectare can be obtained. Details of
expenditure and income shows that during seventh year net profit of ? 7,2850/
ha and from eighth year to 35 years every year a net profit approximately
^ 2,62,000/ha can be obtained. Main marketing centers of Aonla in India are
located in Mumbai, Amritsar, Kolkata, Patna and Hyderabad. Aonla is exported
from India to USA and Gulf countries.
Increase in area under aonla cultivation

District Pratapgarh located in Uttar Pradesh is famous for high quality of
Aonla throughout the world (Chadha, 2003). It is being cultivated in other
states of north India. Eighty percent of Indian Aonla is being produced in
Uttar Pradesh and nearby places. Because of increasing demand for wide use
in herbal medicines its area is increasing to Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya

Pradesh and south India. Now Aonla is being cultivated in 30,00 hectares. Out
of this 1200 hectares are in Tamil Nadu alone. Every year 75 hectares are
being added for its cultivation there. Another reason for increasing area is
development of suitable varieties. Waste land can be utilized for its cultivation.
Increase in its area has resulted in increase in rural employment. For
development of Aonla in India an organization entitled “Aonla Growers
Association of India” has been established in Tamil Nadu located in Selam.
Addresses to get Aonla plants

1. Manager, Kedia Nursery, 83 Chilbila, Pratapgarh, Uttar Pradesh. Phone
05347-20361, 20377.
2. Head, Department of Horticulture, Acharya Narendra Deva University
of Agriculture and Technology, Narendradev Nagar P.O. Faizabad, U.P.,
Phone: 05272 -2163.
3. Head, Central Horticultural Experiment Station, Godhara, Gujarat.
4. General Manager Raj and Company, Dushehra Maidan, Neemuch, M.P.,
Phone 07423-2221600,2225341.
5. Manager, BAIF institute of Rural Development, Kamdhenu, P.B No.
3, BAIF campus, Shardanagar, Tiptur Hassan Road, Tiptur- 572202
Karnataka, Phone 08134 - 263755.
6. Secretary General, Organization of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
Growers, Bihar C/o Shristhi Foundation, C-18, S.K. Puri, Patna 800001
Bihar. Phone 0612-2237497.
Bibliography
Chadha K L. 2003. Handbook of Horticulture. Directorate of Information and
Publication of Agriculture (DIPA), Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New
Delhi.
Pathak, Ram Kripal. 2003. Phal vriksha pravardhan. Directorate of Information and
Publication of Agriculture (DIPA), Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New
Delhi.
Pahuja R L. 2003. Aonle Ke Chamatkar. Udyan Rashmi 4 (2): 1.
Raviprasad Kamila. 2007. Producing wine from pulp of tender arecanut. The Hindu,
January 12, 2007: 8
Singh Anand, Singh H K, Swati Barkha and Singh H. B. 2004. Aonle Ki Unnati
Kheti, Bhulaxmi (ICAR), 2 (3-4): 10-2.
Singh Sham, Krishnamurthy S and Katyal S L. 1963. The Aonla, Fruit Culture in
India. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, p 297-301.
Sarpagandha
CRauvolfia serpentina (Linn.) Benth ex. Kurz]
Sarpagandha (Apocynaceae) is also called Serpentina root, Serpentine,

Rouwolfia root, Chandrabhaga, Chota Chand, Sarppaganti, Chivan Amelpodi.
Harkaya, Harki, Sutranav, Sarpagandhi, Talgandhi. Paatalagani, Paataala
Garuda, Chundrika, Chuvannavilpori and Suvapavalporiyan.

It is indigenous to the moist, deciduous forests of south-east Asia which
includes Bangladesh, Burma, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Indonesia and the Andaman
Islands. It is distributed in India, Nepal, Burma, Thailand, Bangladesh,
Indonesia, Cambodia, Philippines and Sri Lanka. In India it occurs naturally
in the foothills of Himalayan range. From Himalayan foothills it is distributed
from Sal forest in north-west near Yamuna river, to the lower ravines of Asom
and Meghalaya to the elevation of 1300-1400 m, via Shiwalik ranges of Shimla
and Dehradun, eastern U.P, Bihar, Nepal, eastward of Sikkim, foothills of
Sarpgandha
Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri reserves forests of north Bengal. It is also available

in Andaman Island, Western Ghats tract in Konkan, slopes of Annamalai hills
of Tamil Nadu and south- west coast in Kerala state. The plant is also distributed
sporadically in Andhra Pradesh, Bastar forests of Madhya Pradesh, Odisha
and Chota Nagpur of Bihar (Dutta and Virmani, 1964; Sulochna, 1959). At
present it is being cultivated in U.P., Bihar, T.N., Odisha, Kerala, Asom, West
Bengal and Madhya Pradesh. Thailand is now the chief exporter of Rouvolfia
alkaloids. Zaire, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Indonesia and Nepal are also small
exporters (Guniyal et al. 1988 and Sarin, 1982).
Plant description
It is an erect evergreen perennial under shrub with a cluster of branches (2
- 6) arising from the root. Leaves are simple having short petiole, it is glandular
at the base, glabrous and bright green when young but becomes pale yellow
before shedding. Leaf shape is elliptic-lanceolate and occur in whorl of 3 - 5
but may be opposite, particularly at the base of the stem. Leaf apex is acute to
acuminate. Inflorescence is terminal or sometimes axillary. The flowers are
abundant and form an inflorescence in compact cymes, forming a hemispheric
head at the end of a long peduncle. Flowers are small, pedicellate and
hermaphrodite. Calyx is glabrous, five-lobed and deep red. Petals are five in
number, gamopetalous and white. Corollas are tubular and swollen in the
middle. Stamens are 5, epipetalous, enclosed within the dialated portion of
corolla tube. Carpels are 2, connate, style filiform and stigma large. Fruits are
drupe, obliquely ovoid and purplish black in colour when gets matured. Seeds
are ovoid and wrinkled. The main root grows upto 40-60 cm deep into the
soil. Root is prominent, tuberous, usually branched. Outer bark of the root is
corky with irregular longitudinal fissures and posseses high alkaloid
concentration. Thin branches have more alkaloid content.
Varieties
The evaluation of six populations from different locations was done at
JNKVV, Indore and the culture was purified and designated as ‘RS-1\ The
variety is being commercially cultivated by the Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa
Vidyalaya, College of Agriculture, Indore.
The roots of Rovwolfia is reported to have more than 20 alkaloids, of these
reserpine, rescinnamine, deserpidine, ajmaline, alstonine, neoajamaline,
serpentine and alpha- yohimbine are pharmacologically important alkaloids.
The extraction of alkaloid depends on the age of plant, the time of harvest,
ecological condition of growth and also on the handling of material, ie. drying
and storage.
SARPAGANDHA 89
Medicinal uses
• The roots of this plant is used as sedative, to control high blood pressure
and certain form of insanity.
• In ayurvedic system of medicine, insomnia, epilepsy, asthma, acute
stomachache and painful delivery of child and also high blood pressure
and insanity are treated with the roots of Rouvolfia serpentina.
• In addition to its use as an antidote for snakebites, R. serpentina was
often employed to treat anxiety, insomnia, and insanity. In fact, in parts
of India, R. serpentina was known as “pagal-ka-dawa,” which translates
to “the insanity cure.” Other local cultures are the plant used as a relaxant
and as a tranquilizer to put children to sleep for the night.
• The alkaloid reserpine isolated from the root is considered a
sympathomimetic agent, one that targets the sympathetic nervous
system. Reserpine has been found to lower blood pressure in remarkably
low oral doses. CIBA, a pharmaceutical company based in Switzerland,
marketed reserpine under the trade name Serpasil as the first major
drug to treat hypertension. (In 1996, CIB A combined with Sandoz
Pharmaceuticals, another Swiss company, and now exists under the
new name Novartis.)
Parts used: Roots, leaves and seeds.
The plant can be cultivated by root cuttings, by stem cuttings, by root stumps
or by seeds as described below. The plants grow well in the places where
rainfall is heavy.
By Root Cuttings: About 5 cm long root is planted in the nursery during
rainy season. The beds are kept moist. Within three weeks the cuttings begin
to sprout. Now these are planted in the field mostly during rainy season when
around 8-10 cm of rainfall is already received. During transplantation of
seedlings, the distance of 30 cm is maintained from plant to plant and also the
distance of 45 cm is maintained from row to row.
By Stem Cutting: 15-22 cm long stem is planted closely in the nursery
during June. The bed is kept moist. After the stem sprouts and roots are seen,
the plant is transplanted. Normally 4-65% new sprouts are reported by stem
cutting propagation.
By Root Stumps: In this the stem above the collar along with 5 cm of root is
directly planted in the field with proper irrigation facilities.
By Seeds: Seed germination is found to be highly variable. Its germination
varies from 5-30%. In that too only heavy seeds germinate, since according
to Gupta (1968) light seeds consist of atrophied embryos and hence germinate
very rarely. The factor like temperature, moisture, period of storage, etc. are
found to effect the seed germination. In all, 6 kg of seeds are sufficient to raise
one hectare plantation.

Manuring, irrigation, interculture, weeding, plant protection etc. are
attended.
Plant protection
• Leaf spot is caused by Cercospora rouvolfiae. This can be controlled
by Dithane Z-78 or Dithane M-45 at the rate of 0.2% by spraying it in
early June and should be repeated every month till November.
• Alternaria tenuis affects leaves, flowers and also fruits. The crop should
be sprayed with 30 g Blitox in 10 lit of water when the symptoms are
seen.
• Mosaic is commonly seen in the plant. For its prevention the selection
of seedling at nursery stages should be done properly.
• Root knots is caused by the pest like mites, fungi or nematodes
(.Heterodera sp.). It is controlled by the application of 25 kg of 3G.
Carbfuran or 20 kg Phorate granules/ha is also found to be effective.
• Pyralid caterpillar (Glyhodes vertumnalis) is found to affect the leaves.
It can be controlled by spraying 0.2% Rogor.
• Cockchafer grubs (.Anomala polita Blanch) attack seedling. It can be
prevented by mixing phorates with the soil during nursery preparations.
• Wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporium. No control measure has been
yet reported.
• Powdery mildew caused by Leveillula tauriea. For control the spraying
of fungicides like Karathane or Bavistine are recommended, (i) Pests
like Diaphania nilgirica, etc. cause damage. Research has been
undertaken to find control measure.

After 18 months of plantation, the crop is reported to produce maximum
yield of root (Trivedi, 1995). At this stage the root contains maximum
concentration of total alkaloids. The root bark contributes 40—45% of the total
root weight. During digging out the roots, the thin roots are also collected.
Then the roots are cleaned and cut into small pieces. These pieces of 12-15
cm length are then dried till its moisture reduces to 8-10%. Then these are
stored in polythene lined gunny bags in cool dry place, to protect it from
mould.
Yield and price

The yield of root depends on soil fertility, crop stand and management
(Farooqui and Sreeramu, 2001). The average yield of root is from 15-25 q/ha
of dry weight. The price of Rouvolfia serpentina roots powder is 2,400 ^/kg.
SARPAGANDHA 91
Bibliography
Dutta S C and Virmani O P. 1964. Rouvolfia serpentina. Bull. Nall. Bot. Garden,
Lucknow 107: 1-20.
Farooqui A A and Sreeramu B S. 2001. Rouvolfia. (In) Cultivation of Medicinal and
Aromatic Crops, pp 210-9. University Press India Ltd., Hyderabad.
Gupta, Rajendra. 1968. Commercial cultivation of Rouwolfia serpentina - Need for
quality seed. ISI Bull 20 (9): 243-51.
Guniyal A K, Kapoor A and Virmani O P. 1988. Rouvolfia serpentina. CROMPAP, 10
(3): 113-37.
Sulochna C B. 1959. Indian species of Rouvolfia. J. Indian Bot. Soc, pg 288-94. 38:
575-94.
Sarin Y K. 1982. Rouvolfia Cultivation and Utilization of Medicinal Plants, pp 288-
94. Atal C K and Kapur B N (Eds). Regional Research Laboratory (RRL), Jammu-
Tawi.
Trivedi K C. 1995. Sarpagandha, Advances in Horticulture: Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants, Volume 11 pp 453-65). Chadha K L and Gupta, Rajendra, Malhotra
Khasi Kateri
Solanum viarum Syn. Solarium khasianum (Clarke)
Khasi kateri (Solanaceae) is also called steroid bearing solanum, and

Kasibadne.
Distribution
Khasi kateri is distributed in India, Mynamar and China. It enjoys a wide
distribution as it easily adapts to various agroclimatic conditions. Commercial
cultivation under the sponsorship of Galaxo Laboratory mostly was confined
to the peninsular India covering Mahbubnagar in Andhra Pradesh, Vadodara
and Bulsar in Gujarat, Raichur, Hassan and Bengaluru in Karnataka and Jalgaon
in Maharashtra (Farooqui and Sreeramu, 2001). In the north-eastern region,
large scale cultivation of the improved RRL Jorhat strain was taken up in
Diphu in collaboration with Asom Hills Development Corporation. In north
Khasi Kateri
KHASI KATERI 93
Bengal it is being reported to be grown in tea gardens and 2000 acres are
covered around Jalgaon in Maharashtra.

At Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru sufficient work on
genetics and breeding of Solarium viarum (Solarium khasianum) has been done.
Further breeding work should be carried out to develop spineless variety having
more yield of solasodine and resistance to diseases and pests.
Varieties
Originally it was spined which causes problems in crop management. To
solve this problem plant breeders have produced spineless varieties which
can be grown at closer spacing producing more yield of berries. Galxo strain,
BARC strain, Pusa-1, RRL-20-2 and RRL-GL-6. These are less spiny varieties.
Arka Sanjeevini and Arka Mahima are two diploid and tetrapoloid varieties of
the crop developed at the Indian Institute of Horticultural Research,
Hessargatta, Bengaluru and released for cultivation by Dr R. Krishnan (1995).
These are spineless good varieties.
The plant yields glyco-alkaloid, solasodine, a nitrogen analogue of
diosgenine. Solasodine through 16-dehydro-pregnenolone (16 DPA) is
converted to a group of compounds like testosterone and methyl - testosterone
and corticosteroids like predinisolone and hydrocortisone.
Medicinal uses
It is used as steroid. It is an ingredient of contraceptive pills, corticosteroids
and sex hormones. Besides having steroidal effects it also has anti¬
inflammatory, anabolic and antifertility properties.
• Raising nursery: It is propagated by seeds. The seedlings are raised
like chillies or brinjal in raised nursery. For convenience in weeding,
irrigation and removing seedlings, nursery strips of 10 x 1 m are
prepared. To each strip about five baskets of manure, one kg of calcium
ammonium nitrate, 500 gm of aldrin or gamaxene are applied while
preparing the nursery. Seeds are sown in lines at 10 cm apart and covered
by thin layer of soil. About 1.25 kg of seeds sown in five such strips
will produce enough seedlings for planting one hectare. Germination
is completed in one week. After 3 weeks, seedlings are manured with
500 gm urea in solution. In about 5 weeks the seedlings attain height
of 10-12 cm, then these are ready for transplantation.
• Time of sowing: It should be sown in mid March to mid April. Plants

grown in rainfed fields sometimes grow better.
• Land preparation: Land should be prepared at least one week before
planting. The field should be cross ploughed one time with mouldboard
plough and then with harrow and cultivator.
• Spacing and transplanting: Seedlings are transplanted at 75 cm plant
to plant as well as row to row. After planting light irrigation is given.
• Manure and fertilizers: It responds well to manure and fertilizers. In
poor soils plant growth is stunted and fruiting is poor. Green manuring
before planting enhances yield by 20%. Addition of 100 kg nitrogen,
60 kg phosphorus and 40 kg potash/ha gives good yield. Entire quantity
of phosphorus and potash are broadcast at the time of final field
preparation. The nitrogen is applied in 3 equal splits - first one after
two weeks of transplanting when seedlings are established. The second
after one month. Nitrogenous fertilizer is applied along rows close to
plants. Then it is followed by earthing. Light irrigation after fertilizer
application make the nutrients easily available to plants. Third
application of nitrogen is done after 3 months of planting.
• Weeding operations: Fields should be kept free of weeds otherwise
weeds will rob nutrients from the soil. In initial stage weeding should
be done once in two months. Afterwards the canopy does not allow
weed growth. Earthing also helps in weed control.
• Irrigation: About six irrigations are required at interval of 20 days in
dry weather. This crop can not tolerate water logging.
Plant protection
• After first watering, seed beds get a drenching of 0.25% solution of
copper oxychloride or of 0.1% solution of Bavistin to protect seedlings
from damping off disease.
• The spray of endosulfon mixture (0.1%) should be done on seed beds
to protect the seeds from biting and cutting pests.
• To prevent it from powdery mildew dusting of 4-6 kg Sulphur dust or
750 g Wettable Sulphur well dispersed in 250 of water is sprayed on
one acre crop. Karathane (110 ml) or Bavistin (250 g) in 250 liters of
water is also found to be effective.
• Bacterial Blight: To control this disease 12 g of streptocycline and 12
gms of Copper Sulphate be dissolved separately in 1 litre of warm
water each. Then both solutions are to be added to 200 litre of water
and sprayed on one acre of crop, to prevent it from bacterial blight.
Harvesting
The harvesting is to be done when the berries turn yellow. These berries
are picked by hand. The fruiting is not simultaneous and so the harvesting
K.HASI KATERI 95
takes months. A labourer with gloves can pick about 50 kg berries in eight
hours. In peak season one may pick as high as 80 kg in eight hours. This
figure reduces to about 30 kg in end of season. Picking last for two months.
Processing of berries
Fresh solanum fruits contain about 80% moisture. Pharmaceutical
companies need air dried berries containing 10% moisture. Therefore, berries
are air dried in sun. To hasten drying and to impart better colour, berries are
cut in two halves. However, cutting is a costly affair. Bursting fruits with
wooden hammers or running a light roller also expedites drying process. Burst
fruits are spread in single layer on floor and turned frequently. In bright sun
drying is completed in 4 to 5 days. In cloudy days or when the fruits are kept
in heaps drying is delayed. The materials turn black due to fungal attack which
reduces the solasidine content. Hence the berries should be properly dried so
that bright yellow material is obtained (Srivastava, 2006). Mechanical drier
may be used in rainy season but this process will be expensive. When dry
berries make cracking sound they are packed in bags for transport. On average
5 kg of fresh berries give one kg of dry berries.
Yield and economics

When crop is grown by adopting proper cultivation practices it may yield
nearly 10,1000 kg/ha of fresh berries which, in turn will give about 2,500 kg/
ha of dried berries. A profit of ^ 5,560/ha was worked out for the strain RR1 -
20-2 by Kaul and Zutshi (1997).
Marketing
Solanum berries are required by those pharmaceutical companies who
manufacture drugs only from steroidal hormones. Hence it is desirable to have
an agreement with pharmaceutical firms before taking up cultivation. The
rate generally offered is ? 5/kg of air dried berries’ containing 10% moisture
and atleast 2% solasodine.
Bibliography
Farooqui A A and Sreeramu B S. 2001. Steroid Bearing Solanum. Cultivation of
Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, pp 242 -7. University Press India Ltd, Hyderabad.
Kaul B L and Zutshi U. 1977. Cultivation of Solanum khasianum Clarke for steroids:
Problems and Promises (in) Cultivation and Utilization of Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants, pp 23-31. Atal C K and Kapur B M (Eds). Regional Research Laboratory,
Jammu-Tawi.
Krishnan R. 1995. Steroid bearing Solanum, Advances in Horticulture: Medicinal
and Aromatic Plants, Volume 11, pp 605-20. Chadha K L and Gupta, Rajendra,
(Eds). Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi.
Srivastava H C. 2006. Solanum viarum syn. S. khasianum (Khasikateri) Production
and Marketing of Medicinal & Aromatic Crops in India, pp 165-704 Bengaluru.
Ashwagandha
[Withania somnifera-Dunal/(Linn.)]
Ashwagandha (Solanaceae) is also called Winter Cherry, Asgandh, Varahakami,

Viremaddinagaddi, Kiremallinagida, Amukkira & Amukkirakkilangu.

It is believed to be found wild in grazing grounds in Mandsaur and the
forest lands in the Bastar districts of Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. It is
distributed in Spain, Fenary Island, Morocco, Jordan, eastern Africa,
Baluchistan (Pakistan), Sri Lanka and India. In India it is found in Gujarat,
Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, western Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana,
Maharashtra, West Bengal, Karnataka, Kerala and in Himalayas up to the
height of 1500 mts. In Madhya Pradesh about 4000 ha of land is under
cultivation of Ashwagandha. It is grown in Manasa, Neemuch, Jawad tehsil
Ashwagandha
ASHWAGANDHA 97
of Mandsaur and also in Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh

state.
Plant description
Ashwagandha is an erect, evergreen, tomentose shrub. It attains the height

of 30-75 cm. Leaves are simple, ovate, glabrous, opposite. Flowers are
inconspicuous, greenish or dull yellow in colour, axillary, umbellate cyme
and bisexual. It consists of 5 sepals, 5 petals and 5 stamens, 2-celled ovary
with single style and bilobed stigma. The petals are united and tubular. The
stamens are attached to corolla tube and bear erect anthers which form a close
column or cone around the style. In some strains pollen production is not
good. Fruit is small, berry, globose, orange or red on maturation. The fruits
remain enclosed in persistent calyx. Seeds are small flat yellow, light weighed
and reniform in shape. Roots are stout, fleshy, cylindrical, whitish brown in
colour and not very thick.

The chromosomal number is 2n=48. Twenty-four promising germplasm
lines were studied for genetic variability at Mandsaur. Single plant selections
were made in successive generations of germplasm grown at Jawaharlal Nehru
Krishi Vishwavidyalaya (JNKV), Regional Agricultural Research Station,
Mandsaur under Medicinal and Aromatic Plants project and evaluated for fresh
and dry root yield. Seven promising lines were identified, ie. WS10, WS12,
WS14, WS16, WS19, WS20, WS22. Finally WS20 was recommended for
general cultivation at the All India Medicinal and Aromatic Plant workshop
under popular name - Jawahar Asgandha 20 (Nigam et al. 1991).
Variety
Jawahar Asgandha 20, was released in 1989 from Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi
Vishwavidyalaya Regional Agricultural Research Station, Mandsaur. The
variety has quite high dry root yield.
Jawahar 134 was released in 1998 by AICRP on Medicinal and arometic
Plants, Mandsaur.
The major alkaloid present in the root is withanine. Some other alkaloids
are reported in the roots which are somniferine, somniferinine, somnine,
withananine, pseudowithane, withananinine, choline, tropanol, pseudotropanol,
cuscokygrene, 3- tigloyloxytropana, isopelletierine, anaferine, anahygrine,
withasomnine and several other steroidal lactones. Apart from alkaloids, roots
also have starch, reducing sugar, hentriacontane, glycosides, dulcital, withaniol
acid and a neutral compound. The amino acid in roots includes aspartic acid,
glycine, tryosine, alanine, proline, tryptophan, glutamic acid and cystine.

Leaves contain 12 different withanolids. Withaferin ‘a’ is most important of
withanolids isolated so far. It has antibiotic and anti-tumour activities.
Parts used: Leaves, seeds, roots and bark.
Medicinal uses
• Roots are used for curing hiccups, female disorder, bronchitis,
rheumatism, dropsy, stomachache, lung inflammation and skin disease.
• Leaf paste and root paste are used to relieve joint pain and inflammation.
• The root and leaves are also used in treating disability and sexual
weakness in male.
• The warm leaves are used for providing comfort during eye diseases.
• Seeds are diuretic in nature.
The plant grows well in sandy loam or light-red soils with good organic
matter and drainage. The pH of 7.5-8 is ideal for ashwagandha. Climate suitable
for the plantation is subtropical climate. Plants also thrive well in dry climate.
Only 1-2 late winter rains are sufficient for the roots to develop fully. The
seeds of Asgandha are generally not used for line sowing instead they are
broadcasted. The distance of about 25 x 25 cm should be kept for better cultural
practices. Germination of seed takes place after 6-7 days after sowing. The
sowing of crop should be done when the land is sufficiently moistened due to
rainfall. Light rain after sowing is good for germination. The seed while sowing
should be treated with thiram or dithane M-45 at 3 g/kg seeds so as to protect
them from seed borne diseases. Organic manuring, irrigation, interculture,
weeding, plant protection should be well attended.
Plant protection
• The seed borne diseases can be checked by treating the seed with dithane
M-45 or thiram or deltan at 3 g/kg seeds before sowing.
• Seedling blight and leaf blight are also controlled by treating the seeds,
along with one to two spray of 0.3% fytolon or dithane Z - 78 or dithane
M-45.
• The seedling mortality or die back disease can be minimized by use of
healthy seeds and pre-treatment of seeds with thiram or deltan (3-4 g/
kg of seeds).

Harvesting is done after 150-170 days from sowing, which usually starts
from January and continues up to March. During harvesting the entire plant is
uprooted, the roots are then separated from the aerial part by cutting the stem
ASHWAGANDHA 99
1-2 cm above the crown. The root is then cut into small pieces to facilitate
drying. These dried roots undergo cleaning, trimming and grading before
packing it for market. Berries are harvested separately, dried, beaten and seeds
are taken out and stored properly.
Yield
In Madhya Pradesh the commercial crop produces 3-4 q of dried roots and
50-75 kg seeds/ha. The total alkaloid content in Indian Ashwagandha roots is
reported to vary between 0.13-0.31%.
Bibliography
Dubey S. 1997. Ashwagandha, bahu upyogi aushidiya fascil. Udyamita M P: 47.
Farooqui A A and Sreeramu B S. 2001. Ashwagandha. Cultivation of Medicinal and
Aromatic Crops, pp 27-34. University Press India Ltd, Hyderabad.
Nigam K B, Kandalkar V S, Patidar H and Pathan M A. 1991. Performance ofWS 20,
a new variety of Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera Dunal). Indian J. Agric. Sci.
61 (8): 581-2.
Nigam K B and Kandalkar V S. 1995. Ashwagandha. Advances in Horticulture:
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, pp 335-43, Volume 11, Chadha K L and Gupta
Rajendra (Eds). Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi.
AROMATIC PLANTS
Ambrette
(.Abelmoschus moschatus Medik.
Syn. Hibiscus abelmoschous Linn.)
Ambrette (Malvaceae) is also called Musk Mallow, Mushkdana, Kasturidana,

Kasturi bhindi, Kadu kasturi, Kattu kasturi, Vartlaikasturi, Gandapura,
Kasurilatika, Latakusturikam.

It originated in India (Zeven & Zhukovsky, 1975). In India it is wildly
distributed in the foothills of Himalayas. Other than India it is also found in
south China, Indonesia, New Guinea, south-west Pacific Island, northern
Australia, south-east Asia, Brazil, Columbia, Ecuador, Madagascar, Papua
and Seychelles.
Parts used: Seed, seed coat, fruit, leaves, roots, bark and essential oil.
Ambrette is an erect herbaceous, hirsute or hispid annual or biennial herb
(Farooqui and Sreeramu, 2001). The plant attains the height of about 2 m. The
Ambrette
stems are somewhat woody at base and rarely hollow. It is hispid-pubescent

throughout, the hair being suppressed or present on the stems. Leaves are
palmately 3-7 lobed with varying sizes of long petiole. Flowers are solitary in
the upper leaf axils, on apical pedicels. Involucral bracts are 6-10, more
oppressed, persistent, linear to subdulate or lanceolate. Sepals are 5 toothed at
the apex and petals are yellow with a deep purple spot at the base. Fruit is a
capsule, spiculate, oval to fusiform, usually five-chambered, hispid green when
young, taking a reddish tinge on maturity finally turning to black on ripening.
Seeds are ovoid - reinformed, black concentrically striate and pubescent with
much scented smell (Srivastava et al. 1986).

Chromosome number of Ambrette is 2n =72. Germplasm base in Ambrette
is relatively low. In India, about 50 population samples collected from wild
sources are maintained by the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources
(NBPGR), New Delhi and its Regional station at Akola (Maharashtra)
(Srivastava, 1995). Few lines are maintained at National Botanical Research
Institute, Lucknow and at Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu. It occurs
widely in northern Kerala, and in forests edges and bushes in Garo hills and
east Khasi hills of Meghalaya. A semi-wild type also occurs in west Siang
districts of Arunachal Pradesh (Rana et al. 1994). High yielding variety having
resistance to diseases and pests should be developed.
The seed consists of volatile oil present in the seed coat. It is a mixture of
famesol and ambrettolide present to the extent of 0.1222 and 0.03 per cent
respectively. The seed also has protein (2.3%), starch (13.35%), crude fibre
(31.46%), fatty oil (14.5%) and also moisture (11.14%), and resin (5%). The
presence of sitosterol and its glucosides have been reported in seeds (Krishna
and Badhwar, 1947; Wealth of India, 1985). The main constituent of oil is
sesquiterpene alcohol and famesol (0.12%). The smell of musk is mainly due
to the ketone, ambrettolide, a lactone of ambrettolic acid. Ambrettolide (0.3%)
is a colourless viscous liquid.
Aromatic, medicinal and other uses

• The oil extracted from seed (kasturi) is used in producing high qualitiy
perfumes, scents and cosmetics as the smell resembles the smell of
musk in musk deer.
• It is used in flavouring tobacco and as an ingredient of several
medicines.
• The seeds are used as coolant, diuretic, an aphrodisiac, an
antispasmodic, a carminative and used as such in native medicines.
AMBRETTE 105
• Seed also prevents vomiting and cures diseases occurring due to

imbalance of kapha and vata.
• Decoction of seed is useful in treating nervous debility, hysteria, skin
diseases (itching and leucoderma), intestinal disorders, stomatitis and
dyspepsia, etc.
• The mucilage prepared from leaves and roots are used in venereal
diseases (Mitra and Mishra, 1967; Srivastava, 1976).
• The juice of whole plant is applied on the chest to treat bronchitis
(Asolkar, 1992).
• By eating fruit the pets stop regurgitating. Seed pounded with water is
given to ailing cow and buffaloes as rejuvenator in Rajasthan (Sebastian
and Bhandari, 1984). Pounded seeds when taken, help in retention of
semen (Suresh Kumar et al. 1980)
• The seed powder is used as cattle or poultry feed.
• The tender leaves and shoots are eaten in soups and green pods as
vegetables.
• The stem barks yield fibres which is equally good as jute.
Plant grows well under tropical warm and humid climate. Well-drained,
loamy fertile soil suits the crop plantation. The pH of soil should be from 6.0
to 8.5. For uniform germination seeds require well pulverized and compact
seed beds. The land is dug deeply and fine tilth is brought out. Farmyard
manure is applied at a rate of about 50 cartloads/ha. The seeds are sown after
pre-monsoon shower in the mid of June till the end of July. Three to four
seeds are sown per hill at about 1 cm depth by dibbling. It can also be sown on
flat beds in rows 1 x 1 m apart. It has been reported that closer spacing gives
higher yield. The rate of seed in case of dibbling is 1-1.5 kg seeds/ha while for
broadcasting seed rate is 6 kg seeds/ha. The germination of seed takes place
in 6-10 days. If the seeds are treated with carbofuran at 4 or 5 g/100 g of seed
weight, they grow vigorously, and flower 2-3 days earlier than the normal and
even the seed yield becomes higher. Water logging should be avoided.
Irrigation, interculture, weeding and plant protection should be done in normal
way.
Plant protection
• Anthracnose is caused by Colletotrichum hibisci. This can be controlled
by treating the seed with agrosan GN or cerasan before sowing.
• The leaf spot disease caused by Altemaria hibiscicum and Phytophthora
leaf blight caused by Phytophthora nicotianae can be checked by
treating the seed with cerasan.
• The pest spotted bollworms attack the plant during vegetative growth
and fruting stage (Srivastava,1963). Spraying the plants with thiodon

35 EC (0.15-0.20% solution) at 10-15 days interval from the time they
are one month old to the end of the harvest, controls this pest.
• The spraying of 0.05% folidol prevents the web forming red spider
mites.
Pruning
The places where the crop shows heavy vegetative growth the pod shows
less production. Therefore, the process called pruning is done in which the
growing plant is tapped 50-60 cm, leading into pod formation and increase in
seed yield. Pruning can be done after 50 days of sowing or transplantation.

The fruits start ripening by the end of November till the end of April, though
the fruits should not be picked after the end of February as it yields low. Fruits
should be plucked when their three quarter of body turns blackish brown and
also before the fruits split and shed the seeds. Since the ripening is not
simultaneous so the plucking of mature pods is done once a week. Harvesting
of the crop is difficult. After harvesting the pods are dried in shade. The husk
from it is removed by thrashing and winnowing. The seeds can be obtained by
splitting the dry fruits by hand. The seeds are also dried before storing them.
Extraction of oil
The conventional method for extraction of the aromatic principle is done
through hydro-distillation of the whole seed. Srivastava (1986) at National
Botanical Research Institute, Fucknow reported the following steps for
purifying the ‘aromatic principle’
• Extraction of the powdered, air dried seeds by percolation with rectified
spirit at ordinary temperature, 4-5 percolations are required for complete
extraction.
• Separation of lipid and waxy materials from the alcoholic extract by
cooling it at about 0°C and decantation.
• Dilution of alcoholic extract with saturated brine in the ratio of 1: 4.
• Extraction of the diluted alcoholic extract with ether, repeatedly 3-4
times.
• Concentration of the total ethereal extract by distillation.
• Removal of the acidic impurities (free fatty acids) if any, from the
ethereal extract by repeated washing (2-3 times) with 1 percent aqueous
alkali.
• Removal of alkali by washing it with ice cold water and drying over
anhydrous sodium sulphate.
• Distillation of the ethereal extract, firstly in usual manner and finally
AM B RETT E 107
under vacuum, to obtain the pure aromatic material.

• Removal of the sterol bodies by filtration after keeping the product in
a refrigerator for a few days.
Yield
On an average the normal crop yield 7.5-10 quintals of seeds/ha. (Singh
and Gupta, 1961; Srivastava, 1976). With proper manuring and irrigation, the
seed yield can be increased to 15-18 q/ha. (Srivastava, 1986). According to
Farooqui and Sreeramu, 2001) a normal crop may give a yield of 9-10 q/ha of
seeds.
Bibliography
Asolkar L V (Ed.). 1992. Glossary of indigenous medicinal plants with active
principles. Part 1 (A-K). Publication and Information Directorate, CSIR, New
Delhi 2.
Farooqui A A and Sreeramu B S. 2001. Ambrette. Cultivation of Medicinal and
Aromatic Crops 295-9. University Press India Ltd, Hyderabad.
Krishna S and Bhadwar R L. 1947. Aromatic plant of India, Part iv. J. Sci. Industr.
Res. 6(5): 64-5.
Suresh Kumar, Tiwari A and Dwivedi R. 1980. Use of aphrodisiac in medieval India.
Nagarjun 23 (3): 170-4.
Mitra G R and Mishra P S. 1967. Amino acids of processed seed meal portion. J.
Agric. Food Chem. 15 (4): 697-700.
Rana R S, Thomas T A, Koppar M N and Bisht I S. 1994. Germplasm collection of
okra and eggplant and their wild relatives from south Asia (Project Report).
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi, pp 136.
Sebastian M K and Bhandari M M. 1984. Some plants used as veterinary medicines
by Bhils. Int. J. Trop. Agric 2 (4): 307-10.
Singh C B and Gupta G N. 1961. Cultivation of musk seed (Hibiscus abelmoschus L.
or Abelmoschus moschatus Medic.) at Kanpur. Indian Perfum. 5 (2): 115-7.
Srivastava G S. 1963. A serious pest of Ahelmoschous moschatus Medic, in Lucknow.
Indian Perfum. 20 (pt 2): 12-6.
Srivastava G S, Nigam S P and Mishra G. 1986. Production and processing of ambrette
seeds. Agric. Int. 38 (7 and 8): 220-3.
Srivastava G S. 1976. Cultivation of Abelmoschus moschatus in Lucknow. Indian.
Perfumer 20 (pt 2): 12-6.
Srivastava Umesh C. 1995. Amberette seeds, Advances in Horticulture: Medicinal
and Aromatic Plants, Volume 11, 887-96. Chadha K L and Gupta, Rajendra,
Wealth of India. 1985. The Wealth of India: Raw materials, vol 1 (revised), pp 10-3.
Publications and Information Directorate, CSIR, New Delhi.
Zeven A C and Zhukovsky P M. 1975. Dictionary of cultivated plants and their centers
of diversity. Centre of Agricultural Publishing and Documentation, Wageningen,
The Netherlands, p 219.
Dill
(Anethum graveolens Linn.)
Dill (Umbelliferae) is also called Garden Dill, Satapuspi, Soya, Sabasige,

Satakuppi and urva.

There are four species of Dill of which one is indigenous to Africa and
three others are indigenous to central and south-east Europe and also central
and south-east Asia (Willies, 1966). Indian dill is commercially grown in India
and Japan. In India it is mostly grown in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan for its seeds. Also it is found distributed in
Abyssinia, Africa, Egypt, England, Europe, Iran, southern Russia, USA and
Sweden (Faroooqui and Sreeramu, 2001).
Plant description
It is an annual or biennial aromatic herb with the height of 1 to 1.20 m. The
leaves are feathery, standing on a sheathing of foot-stalks, with linear leaflets,
compound and light green in colour. The stem is hollow, smooth and shiny,
Dill
DILL 109
grows straight and have flat terminal compound umbels, with numerous yellow
flowers. The petals are rolled inwards. The flowers are regular, bisexual,
pentamerous. The fruits are dry, flat, groomed and are produced in large number.
They are light with very pungent and bitter taste. Fruits have two brown broadly
oval, compressed and 2-3 mm broad ridges being inconspicuously brown in
colour and the two lateral ridges are yellowish and wing like.

Chromosome number of Anethum graveolens is 2n = 22. Out crossing is
high, and usually takes place between flowers of the same umbel by swarms
and bees. It is observed that selfing reduces the percentage of fruit set (Gupta
1982). Shashilova (1986) observed the greatest variation in the duration of
emergence to flowering period from 50-80 days. Development of higher
yielding variety resistant to diseases and pests should be bred.
Varieties
• Gribovski.
• Lesnogorodskii: has best flavoured leaves and high oil contents in leaves
and seeds.
• Dura with high herb yield.
• K-299 (from Sweden) and K-253 (Georgia) producing high amount of
essential oil.
• Mammoth Long Island having highest yield of seed having excellent
quality of essential oil.
• Haldwani selection having high seed yield.
• Stamm Weibull having high essential oil content.
• Herkules has high content of essential oil.
There are 13 monoterpenoids, 4 phenyl derivatives, 2 methylene
dioxyphenyl derivatives, 2 sesquiterpene hydrocarbons and a new
dihydrobenzofuran in seed oil. Seed oil is also found to have apoile, carveol,
caryophyllence, dihydrocarveol, dihyclrocarvone, dillapiole, D-limonene, D-
phelliandrene, eugenol, iso euginol, 1-pinene 1-terpinene and myristicin other
than carvone.
The principal constituents of seed oil is carvone. Other than phellandrens
the oil has pinene, a-pinene, a-3- careen, terpinent, limonene, y - terpinene,
cymene, terpinolene, undecane, cis-3- hexanyl acetate, cis 3 - hexanol, trans
-2- hexanol, terpineol, carvone, thymol, carvacrol, mysiciticin and apiole.
The chemical constituents from roots are coumarins scopoletin, umbelliferone,
bergapten and the sterols. Dill roots also produce essential oils which contain
carvone and phenyl propane compounds, apiole and myristicin.
Parts used: Seeds, herbs, stem, flowers and essential oil.

• Seed is known to have an essential oil called dill oil. Its emulsion in
water is commonly called dill water which is an aromatic, carminative,
especially useful in the flatulence, colic pain, vomiting, diarrhoea and
hiccups due to indigestion in infants and children.
• The leaves of the plant can be applied as poultice to heal boils.
• Dill with the turmeric powder prevents formation of ulcers and also
heals them.
• Leaves boiled in sesame oil makes an excellent ointment for reducing
swelling and pain of joints.
• Seeds are effective for treating respiratory problems like cold,
bronchitis, influenza (Anon, 1989).
• The essential oil of dill seed completely inhibits the growth of mycelial
growth of Rhizoctonia solani.
• The stems and blossoms heads are used for dill pickles and for
flavouring soups.
The sowing should be done in the mid of March, on the well drained soil.
Sandy loam type soil is best suited. The pH of soil should be 8.6. Seeds are
sown at the depth of 1.5 to 2 cm in a drill or broadcasted. After sowing planking
is done. The spacing of 15 x 20 cm for sowing is considered optimum. The
germination of seed takes place within a week. There is need to maintain soil
moisture. Water logging should be avoided. Irrigation, weeding and interculture
should be normally done.
Plant protection
• Aphids occasionally attack the crop and are controlled by spraying
malathion (0.5%) 2-3 times during the infestation.
• Powdery mildew (.Ejysphie umbelliferum) is the disease seen in flowers
at early seedling stage. It is controlled by spraying wettable sulphur
(2%), twice or thrice at an interval of 6 days.
• Root rot disease caused by Fusarium sp. is controlled by phytosanitary
measures, seed treatment with agrosan at the rate of 3 g/kg of seed and
by a foliar spray of Bavistin (0.1%). The plant is also found to be
affected by mottling, leaf necrosis, dwarfing and malformation due to
viral infections.
Harvesting
The harvesting of dill is done according to the purpose for which it is grown
DILL 111
(Randhava and Kaur,1995). In case of seed yield harvesting is done when the
seeds on the tertiary branches turn yellowish brown in colour. Immediately
the crop should be taken to the thrashing floor so as to prevent the loss by
shattering of seeds. For high production of oil the harvesting should be done
at the milky waxy stage of seed maturity (Zlatev, 1977). Maximum herb yield
with lowest oil content is produced when the harvesting is done at flower
initiation stage. But if harvesting is delayed the herb yield goes down but the
oil yield becomes good (Randhawa and Singh, 1991). Seeds with 1/3 to 1/2 of
usual moisture, if stored in sealed glass container at 11-20°C for 10-16 years
are viable with same yield capacity and quality.
Extraction of oil
The extraction of oil from either herbs or seeds is done by hydro or steam
distillation. Partially dried material yields good amount of carvone and less
amount of limonene (Chubby and Dorrell, 1976). The extraction done within
72 hours shows the same trend (Balinova - Tsvetkova et ol. 1976) but according
to Zlatev et al. (1976) the oil content rises during 48 hours of storage but
afterwards the oil content is found to decline to 21.2% of that from the fresh
material. During this stage phellandrene increases and carvone decreases.
Yield
The yield of essential oil due to harvesting at various stages are as follows;
Harvesting stages Oil yield (kg/ha)
Flowering 36.7
Seed formation on primary umbels 69.8
Secondary umbels 102.5
Seed formation on tertiary umbel 113.1
Milk stage 136.5
Maturity 44.5
Bibliography
Anonymous. 1989. About a soothing herb. Times of India, July 1989 (cf. Indian Perfum.
33 (2): iii-iv.
Balinova - Tsetkova A, Zlatev S and Dimitrova L. 1976. Changes in the essential oil
during dill (Anethum graveolens) distillation. Rasteniev Dni 3. Nauki 13 (5):
12-18 (cf. Hort. Abstr 47: 4884).
Chubby B B and Dorrell D G. 1976. Changes in the chemical composition of dill oil
during hydro distillation. Can J. Plant Sci. 56 (3): 619-22.
Farooqui A A and Sreeramu B S. 2001. Dill. Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic

Crops, p 337. Universities Press India Pvt Ltd, Hyderabad.
Gupta Rajendra. 1982. Studies in cultivation and improvement of dill (Anethum
graveolens L.) in India. Cultivation and Utilization of Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants, pp 545-58. Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu.
Randhawa G S and Kaur S. 1995. Dill, Advances in Horticulture: Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants, 918-28 Volume 11. Chadha K L and Gupta, Rajendra (Eds).
Randhawa G S and Singh, Avtar. 1991. Effects of sowing time and harvesting stage
on oil content, herbage and oil yield of dill {Anethum graveolens L.). Indian
Perfumer 35 (4): 204-8.
Shashilova L I. 1986. Intraspecific variation in dill for earlyness. Instituta
Rastenievvodstva Imeni N.I. Vavilova No. 165: 80-1 (cf. Hort. Abstract 58: 7950)
Willies J C. 1966. A dictionary of flowering plants and ferns, 7 th edn. (revised). The
University Press, Cambridge: 63.
Zlatev S, Balinova A, Zlateva M. 1976. Changes in the essential oil of dill plant
during post harvest storage. Rastenievvodstva dni Nauki 13 (9): 51-57 (cf. Hort.
Abstract 47: 7758).
Zlatev S. 1977. Sowing rates of dill grown for essential oil production.
Rastenievvodstva dni Nauki 14 (5): 57-63 (cf. Hort. Abstract 48: 5865).
( * Ck; o r\/
(Apium graveolens Linn.)
Celery (Umbelliferae) is also called Karnauli, Shalary, Ajmod, Ajmud,

Khurasani Ajwain, Ajmada, Celery Keerai, Ajmoda, Andhpatrika, Randhuni,
Chandani, Chanu and Selerin.

It originated in Mediterranean area, low lands of Italy, spreading up to
France and England. Another hypothesis is that celery was found in marshy
places in Sweden from where it extended to south of Algeria, Egypt, Ethiopia,
Caucasus and Baluchisthan. The plant is also distributed in Europe, America
and Asia. In India its cultivation is for seed. The oil extracted and oleoresin
are exported to USA, Europe and Russia. About 90% of the total Indian oil is
produced in Punjab. Rest is achieved from Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh.
Celery
It is annual or perennial herb (Farooqui and Sreeramu, 2001). The plant is
glabrous, with pinnate compound leaves and long stalk. Flowers are greenish
white in colour and present in compound umbels. It consists of 5 petals and 5
stamens. Fruit formed from two compressed carpels, are very small, dark brown
cremocarp with agreeable odour and pungent taste which encloses the seeds.
Roots are adventitious.

Chromosome number of celery is 2n=22. Most of the species of genus
Apium are diploid with 2n=22 chromosomes (Emsweller, 1929). Occurrence
of a spontaneous triploid was reported by Whitaker (1941). Celery is not self
incompatible and is naturally cross pollinated. Self pollination within the
individual flower is restricted due to protandry (Allard, 1960). The variety
having high yield and resistance towards pests and diseases should be
developed.
Varieties
Apium graveolens var. rapaceum is commonly called as celeriac.
Apium. graveolens var. secalinum.
Apium graveolens var. smallage.
The important high yielding varieties recommended for cultivation under
this crop are EC-99249-1 and PRL-85-1.
Chemical components
Two kinds of components, i.e. essential oil (2-3%) and fatty acids (16-
20%) are found in the seeds (Randhawa and Kaur, 1995). The herb is also
found to have essential oil. From leaves, Choline ascorbate and enzyme Inositol
triphosphate are isolated. From roots of var. deluce, 4-phthalides,
butylphthalide, neocnidilide, cnidilide, Z-ligustilide and senkyonolide are
isolated while from A. graveolens var. rapaceum butylphthalide, Z-butylide
nephthalide, cnidiliae, E & Z ligustilide, neocnidilide and senkyonolide are
isolated (Gijbels et al. 1985). The chemical constituents of seed oil are L-
pinene, camphene, B-pinene, sabenene, myrcene, 3-carene, L-phellandrene,
limonene, B-phellandrene, cis B-ocimene, P-cymene, pentyl benzene, linalool,
isoputegone, caryophyllene, carbone, geranyl acetate, L-lonone, cinnamic
aldehyde, thymol, B-selinene, epoxycayophyllene, n-butyl phthalide, eudesmol
and lingustilide. Of these the limonene is present in high amount (72.1%).
Parts used: Herbs (leaves and stalk), seed, roots and essential oil.

• The seed yields essential oils which are used in food flavouring and
CELERY 115
pharmaceutical industries.
• It is also a remedy for rheumatism.
• Seeds are used as stimulant, carminative and also as a nerve tonic in
domestic medicine.
• The plant is used in soup and sauces (Bailey, 1963; James, 1953).
• Apium graveolens root tubers are cooked and eaten.
For sowing the soil should be maintained with pH from 5.0-7.0. The soil
except saline, alkaline and water logged ones are suitable. Low humidity,
plenty of sun shine, considerable warmth during the day and cool nights are
ideal for successful cultivation. Celery is propagated through seeds. The seed
should be of high quality or it causes poor stand of plant, with lack of uniformity
and vigour. Sowing is done directly in the field, 120 gms of seeds are taken
per acre, while in case of transplantation 60 g/acre of seeds are used (Thompson,
1974). The germination of seeds is slow. According to Guzman et al. (1973)
the seed takes 10-20 days for germination. Singh et al. (1985) reported that
pre-treatment of seeds with ethylene glycol at 300 g/1 for 30 days at 10°C
increases the germination by 81%. In nurseries the plants are grown for
60-70 days before transplantation. The sowing of seed in nurseries is done
from 15 September to 15 October in plains. On each bed, 50 g of seeds are
sown in lines. The seedlings are transplanted 30 cm apart in rows spaced at
30-45 cm. Organic manuring, irrigation, interculture, weeding and plant
protection should be attended.
Plant protection
• Leaf miner (Liriomyze trifolii) attacks leaves and are controlled by
spraying a systematic insecticide like Quinolphos (0.1%). Some other
pests are carrot rusfly, celery leaf tier, army worms, fire worms and red
spider mites. The control measures for them are practiced at the time
they are noticed.
• Late blight is caused by Septoria petrosalnii, Early blight caused by
Cercospora apii and Leaf spot disease caused by Phyllosticta apii.
The treatment of these diseases is done by spraying thiophanate methyl
(0.5%) and manels (0.1%) or fenthin hydroxide (0.2%) at 2 week
intervals.
• Some other diseases seen in plant are petiole rot caused by Sclerotium
spp. and Fusarium and also yellow mosaic disease.
Harvesting
After 90-120 days of transplantation the crop is ready to be harvested,
though harvesting depends on the purpose for which the crop is grown. The
directly sown crop takes 30-40 days more than that of the transplanted. The
harvesting is done by cutting the tap root. For seeds the harvesting is done
when the seeds in the umbels turn dark brown from light colour. After harvest
the plant should be immediately taken to the thrashing floor to avoid shattering
losses. They are then dried and separated from straw by winnowing and grading
by sieve. The seeds are then stored in gunny bags in cool and dry places.
Yield
The average yield of celery is about 1000-1500 kg/ha. The celery seeds
yield 2-3% of pale yellow volatile oil with a persistent odour.
Extraction of oil
The oil in seed is highly volatile in nature. The volatile or essential oil in
the seed is isolated by steam-distillation. The seeds should be crushed and
immediately it should be sent for distillation so that loss of oil by evaporation
can be prevented. The thing which should be kept in mind while distillation is
that the seeds should be spread evenly on perforated grids with which a still
serving for seed distillation, should be equipped. It takes 10-12 hours/batch
to be distilled. The waste of distillation can be subjected to further distillation.
Bibliography
Allard R W. 1960. Principles of Plant Breeding, pp 434-6 McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York.
Bailey L H. 1963. Celeriac. The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, 1, pp 701-2.
Ernsweller S L. 1929. Pollination and fertilization of celery. Proc. Amer. Soc. and
Aromatic Horti. Sci. 25: 29-30.
Farooqui A A and Sreeramu B S. 2001. Celery. Cultivation of Medicinal Crops, pp.
308-12. University Press India Ltd., Hyderabad.
Gijbels M J M, Fischer F C, Scheffer J J C and Svendsen A B. 1985. Phthalides in
roots of Apium graveolens var. rapaceum, Bifora testiculata and Petroselinum
crispum var. tuberosum. Fitoterapia 56: 17-23 (cf Hort. Abstrc. 56: 405).
Guzman V L, Velasco J R and Canoy C S. 1973. Celery production on organic soils of
south Florida. Florida agric. Ext. Serve. Bull. 757.
James Sheldon Shoemaker. 1953. Vegetable Growing, pp 237-55. John Wiley & Sons,
New York.
Randhawa G S and Kaur S. 1995. Celery, Advances in Horticulture: Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants, pp 900-13 Volume 11. Chadha K L and Gupta, Rajendra (Eds).
Singh H, Morss S I and Orton T J. 1985. Effects of cosmetic pretreatment and storage
on germination of celery seeds. Seed Sci. Tech. 13 (3) 551-8.
Thompson P A. 1974. Germination of celery (Apium graveolens L.) in response to
fluctuating temperature. J. Expt. Bot. 25: 156-63.
Whitakar T W. 1941. The occurrence of a spontaneous triploia celery. Proc. Amer.
Soc. Hort. Sci. 39: 346-8.
Davana
(Artemisia pallens Wall, ex DC)
Davana (Asteraceae) is also called Davanam and Davanamu.

Davana plant is endemic to India. The plant is mostly distributed in the
temperate regions of the world (Anon. 1985). In India it is commercially
cultivated in Karnataka. In Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Andhra
Pradesh the cultivation is done to a lesser extent. Attempts to raise this crop
have been made in north Indian agroclimatic conditions with limited success
(Gulati, 1980). In India, out of 30 sp. of davana most of them are found only
in Himalayan belt except some sp. which grow in tropical and sub-tropical
plains (Bakshi and Kaul, 1984). India has a possibility of production and export
trade of oil of davana. Internationally davana oil is gaining importance in the
USA.
It is an erect annual herb of about 60 cm height. Leaves are small and much
divided. Flowers are small inconspicuous, yellow in colour (Farooqui and
Sreeramu, 2001). The inflorescence is a capitulum which is sessile or may
have small peduncle. The capitulum consists of heterogamous flowers, ie
bisexual disc florets in the centre and few pistillate ray florets on the periphery.
Outer pistillate florets are glabrous except for a few cottony hairs, tubular
with generally 2-lobed (rarely 3-lobed) stigma. Inner florets are also like outer
florets, but having 5 lobed stigma and being bisexual. It has five stamens with
free, epipetalous filaments and dithecous, introse, syngenesious anthers whose
connective is prolonged and tapering. The style is bifid (Narayana et al. 1978)

The chromosome number of Artemisia pallens Wall is 2n = 16. The
chromosomal behaviour during diakinesis is found to be abnormal with seven
bivalents and two univalents. This could be one of the reasons for low pollen
fertility seen in the species (Sunitha and Farooqui, 1990). A study on intra¬
population variations revealed that the plant height and number of branches
are positively correlated with the number of flower heads, weight of flower
heads, weight of the herbage and whole plant weight. On the contrary
relationship of oil content in flower heads with herbage yield, weight of
capitulum, plant height, number of branches, its spread were more negative
and nonsignificant. This work had an objective to select lines which combine
high oil content and higher yield through branching with tall habit.
Development of variety is to be done so as to produce higher oil yield which
should be resistant to diseases and pests.
Variety
There is no systematic attempt made to develop variety for crop
improvement. Farmers grow land races which is the result of indirect human
and natural selection over a long period of time and maintain their own seeds.
In Karnataka and Tamil Nadu five accessions were collected and grown at
Bengaluru for their evaluation of yield and its contributing character but it
was found that these accessions did not vary significantly among themselves
for most of their characters.
The oil of Davana is found to have hydrocarbons (20%), esters (65%) and
oxygenated compounds (15%) (Lewis, 1967). He suggested that the esters are
responsible for the odour of davana. Simpa and Vanderwal (1968) reported
the presence of cis- davanone which was also found to be responsible for its
characteristic smell. Naegeli et al (1970) reported the presence of sesquiterpene
ketone which was named as artemone. Also cinnamic acid was isolated on
saponification. Thomas et al. (1974) demonstrated presence of novel
sesquiterpenoids which was named davanafurans and another ketone named
isodavanone.
Parts used: Leaves, flowers and essential oil.

• The oil of davana imparts a sweet, refreshingly pleasant odour on
dilution.
• Davana oil is also being used in flavouring cakes, pastries, tobacco
products and some costly beverages
• Their essential oil is being used in perfumery, food flavouring and
medicines.
• The plant is bitter stimulant antispasmodic and anthelmintic.
• Leaves and flowers of davana emit a delicate, persistent fruity fragrance
and are used in floral decorations and also in religious offerings in
India.
• The leaves and flowers are artistically blended in floral chaplets worn
on the coiffures of south Indian ladies.
• In addition the oil is reported to be anti bacterial and antifungal (Rao
and Prasad, 1981).
DAYANA 119
Nursery beds of 2 m length and 1 m width are prepared and well decomposed
farmyard manure at the rate of 10 kg/bed is applied. Then 1.5 kg of seeds are
mixed with 10 kg of sand and are spread uniformly over the nursery bed and
then covered by thin layer of sand. Till the sprouting of seed, water is sprinkled
twice a day on the beds. Foliar spray of urea solution (0.2%) is given after
seedlings attain 2 inches height at an interval of 3-5 weeks of sowing. After 3-
5 weeks the seedling becomes ready to be transplanted. The fields are prepared
well for crop plantation, and the land is irrigated a day before transplantation.
The spacing at which the transplantation is done is 15 x 7.5 cm. The seedlings
are watered immediately after transplanting. Organic manuring, irrigation,
interculture, weeding, plant protection etc. are attended.
Plant protection
• Sometimes leaf eating caterpillar, termite, mealy bugs and aphids attack
the crop. For controlling them the crop should be sprayed with organic
insecticides. However the, spraying of insecticides should be avoided
before harvesting.
• Rhizoctonia sp. causes the mortality of seedling in damping off diseases.
This can be treated by Diathane M 45.
Harvesting
The crop is harvested when 50 per cent of flower buds open during the end
of February or first week of March. At this stage maximum oil content of best
quality is produced. Harvesting is done by cutting the whole plant at the height
of about 6 cm from the ground in bright sunny days. After harvest, the herbage
is dried in shade for 24 to 48 hours with 2 or 3 stirrings for 30 percent water
loss and is then put to steam distillation for extraction of essential oil.
Distillation of essential oil

The distillation of partially dried herbage is done in galvanized steel or
stainless steel unit. Proper atmospheric pressure is maintained. In about 6
hours complete extraction takes place of the partially dried herbage. The oil
received should be filtered and made free from sediment, suspended matter
and moisture before storing it. To prevent the oil from deterioration the oil is
filled in the aluminium container upto the brim so that no space for air is left
in the container (Narayana et al. 1978)
Tips to get maximum yield of high quality:
(a) Grow the crop satisfactorily by proper time of planting, proper
manuring, irrigation, weeding, plant protection etc.
(b) Harvest at proper time and season: Harvest at a time when most of the
flowers are opening. Experiments have revealed that if harvested in
March then oil recovery is 0.08 to 0.1 per cent, if harvested in April-
May then oil recovery is 0.04 to 0.06 per cent and if harvested in June
then oil recovery drops down to 0.01 per cent only.
(c) Expose the crop properly to airy shade: Over 30 per cent loss of moisture
is not advisable. Stirrings are a must to avoid fermentation. Otherwise
quality goes down.
(d) Fill the herbage tightly in distillation chamber.
Yield
According to Farooqui and Vasundhara (1995) the crop produces average
of 15-16 kg of oil/ha on distillation. A well grown crop planted in November
yields fresh herbage upto 15 tonnes/ha. It is shade dried by spreading in thin
layer. This herbage has 0.2% davana oil. Thus yield of 30 kg oil per hectare
can be obtained. Rate of oil is approximately ^ 8,250 - 10,000/kg.
Bibliography
Anonymous. 1985. Wealth of India: Raw materials, Vol, 1 Revised, Council of
Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi.
Bakshi S K and Kaul M K. 1984. Cytomorphology of three species of Himalayan
Artemisia Nucleus 27 (3): 194-8.
Farooqui A A and Sreeramu B S. 2001. Davana. Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic
Crops, pp 330-6. University Press India Ltd, Hyderabad.
Naegeli P, Klimes J Farooqui A A and Vasundhara M. 1995. Davana. Advances in
Horticulture: Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Volume 11, pp 659-65. Chadha K
L and Gupta, Rajendra, Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi.
Gulati B C. 1980. Essential oil of Artemisia pallens Wall, (davana). Indian Perf. 24
(3) 101-9.
Lewis Y L, Namboodari E S and Nalarjan P C. 1967. Composition of davana oil -
Some pliminary studies. Perfume. Esent. Oil Res. 58 (9): 613.
Narayana M R, Khan M N A and Dimri B P. 1978. Davana and it’s cultivation in
India. Farm Bulletin no. 12. Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants,
Lucknow.
Weber G. 1970. Structure and synthesis of artemone. Tetrahedrone Letters 57: 5021 -
4.
Rao A G S J G and Prasad Y R. 1981. Investigations of the antibacterial activity of
essential oils from Artemisia pallens Wall, and Artemisia vulgaris L. Indian Perf.
25 (1): 110-1.
Simpa G and Vanderwal B. 1968. The structure of davanone - a new sesquiterpene
from davana (Artemisia pallens Wall). Rec. Trav. Chim. Pay. Bas. 87: 715-20.
Sunitha J. Rai and Farooqui. 1990. Studies on blossom biology of davana (Artemisia
pallens Wall.). Indian Perfume. 34 (3): 209-12.
Thomas A F, Thommen W, William B, Hagman E W and Wenkert E. 1974. Terpenoid
derieved from linalyl oxide, Pt. I. The stereochemistry of davanones, Helv. Chim.
Acta. 57: 2055-61.
Lemon Grass
Cymbopogon flexuosus (nees ex. steud wats)
Syn: Andropogon nardus var. Flexuosus Hack)
Lemon grass (Graminae) is also called Indian Malabar or Cochin Lemongrass,

Nimbehullu and Kadipullu.

It is indigenous to India and large variability occurs in the Western Ghats
comprising Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu besides Sikkim and Arunachal
Pradesh. It is now commercially cultivated in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Asom,
Maharashtra and parts of Uttar Pradesh. It is found to grow wild in many
tropical and sub tropical parts of Africa, Guatemala, Asia and America.
It is a highly tillered perennial grass. They grow up to the height of 2 m.
Lemon grass
Leaves are lanceolate, often hairy, linear, with distinct ligules. The inflorescence
is terminal panicle, highly branched into primary, secondary and tertiary ending
ultimately in small paired spikes. Each pair of spike is subtended by a small
leafy bract. An inflorescence on an average may have 3,000-4,000 spikes.
Each spike consists of 5-11 spikelets in pairs, of which one is pedicillate and
other is sessile, attached to a thin zig zag penduncle. The sessile spikelet is
awned with four glumes and is a bisexual floret while the pedicillated one is
awnless with 3 glumes and is a staminate floret.

The chromosomal number of lemongrass is 2n=20. Presence of a wide
range of genetic variability in oil percentage as well as in oil constituents
make it possible to select individuals with maximum number of desired
characters. Systematic crop improvements programme was initiated at
Lemongrass Breeding Station, Odakkali, as early as 1951 through collection
of a large gene pool of population samples. As on today, 450 accessions are
maintained at the station. From evaluation of several accessions it was found
that OD-19 variety is the most popular variety under cultivation. The presence
of the characters like good herbage yield, high oil yield content and high citral
percentage are its desirable characters. It appears that these characters are
polygenic. Variety having high oil yield, better quality, having resistance to
diseases and pests should be developed
Varieties
Cymbopogan flexuesus is found to have three types which are (a).
C. flexuosus var. flexuosus, (b) C. flexuosus var. coimbatorensis and (C).
C. flexuosus var. sikkimensis. The improved varieties of lemongrass are:
• OD-19 (Sugandhi): Released from Aromatic and Medicinal Plants
Research Station, Odakkali (Kerala), yields 80-100 kg oil/ha with 85-
88% citral under rainfed conditions.
• Pragati (LS 48): Produced by clonal selection from OD 19 at Central
Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow. Average oil
content is 0.63% with 86% citral (Sharma et al. 1987).
• S.D. 68: The oil yield is high with 90% citral.
• RRL 16: It is north Indian lemongrass (Cymbopogon pendulus)
developed by Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu.
• NLG-84 released in 1994 by AICRP on Medicinal and Arometic Plants
by Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology, Faizabad.
Other strains like ‘OD-408’ from the Aromatic Medicinal Plants Research
Station (AMPRS), Odakkali, RRL-39 from Regional Research Laboratory
(RRL), Jammu and ‘Kaveri’ and ‘Krishna’ from the Central Institute of
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CIMAP), Regional Station, Bengaluru, have
LEMON GRASS 123
been released as high yielding varieties for cultivation (Farooqui and Sreeramu,
2001).
Chemical constitution: Mainly citral (70-90%) is present in the oil of
lemongrass. Other constituents found are pinenes, camphenes, geraniol,
linalool, etc. The oil of OD-19 variety on GLC analysis was reported to have
myrcene (0.02%), p-cymere (0.04%), terpinene (0.60%), beta termpineol
(0.40%), and terpineol (2.25%), terpinyl acetate (0.90%), bomeol (1.90%),
geraniol and nerol (1.50%), citral-b (27.70%), citral-a (46.60%) and famesol
(12.80%).
Parts used: Leaves and essential oil.
Aromatic and medicinal uses

• The oil due to its aroma is used for scenting soaps, detergents and an
array of other products.
• Citral extracted is an important raw material for perfumery,
confectionary and beverages.
• The oil can be used to improve the flavour of some fish preparations
and can flavour wines and sauces.
• It is used in the manufacture of Vitamin A.
• Citral rich oil is known for the germicidal, medicinal and flavouring
properties.
• It can be used for headaches, toothaches, baths, fermentations, as a
diuretic agent, for fever and as insect repellent.
Lemongrass being a tropical plant loves hot and humid climate and plenty
of sunshine. It cannot tolerate waterlogging. During severe winter its growth
is slowed down. In hot summer leaves are damaged. Rainfall 200-300 cm.
well distributed throughout the year is ideal for its cultivation. It can grow on
the soils from rich loam to poor laterite. Calcareous soils should be avoided.
Lemongrass is mostly propagated vegetatively by rooted slips. They are
obtained by splitting clumps dug out from field. About 30-40 slips are obtained
from a normal clump. Planting is usually done by onset of monsoon. If irrigation
is available then planting can be done in other months also. Once planted, the
plantation lasts for 5-6 years. In fertile soil it may grow for 8 years.
The land is ploughed and harrowed. Beds of 1-1.5 m width and convenient
length are made with a spacing of 30-50 cm between beds. The beds are made
along the contour of the land slopes. In direct seed sowing the seed rate of 20-
25 kg/ha is required. Seeds are collected in February- March. Whole
inflorescence is cut and dried in sun for 2-3 days and thrashed to get seeds.
For uniform distribution of seeds, they should be mixed with sand in the ratio
of 1: 3. In nursery, raising the recommended seed rate is 3-4 kg/ha in April-

May. The seeds are uniformly broadcasted on the beds and are covered with a
thin layer of soil, followed by sprinkle of water at regular intervals. In about 2
months seedlings are ready for planting.
The seedlings are transplanted in monsoon season (May-June). A spacing
of 30 cm x 30 cm with a plant density of 1,11,000/ha is recommended. Under
north Indian conditions, wider spacing of 60 cm x 45 cm for seedlings and 90
cm x 60 cm for slips has been suggested. Where there is no rainfall after
monsoon then it is to be supplemented by 4-6 irrigations to get optimum yield
of herb. Lemongrass usually does not allow weeds to grow under its crown. It
is desirable to keep the field clean before application of fertilizer. Usually 3
weedings are required.
Plant protection
• Leaf spot is caused by Curvularia eragrostidis; grey blight by
Pestalotiopsis mangiferae\ and leaf spot and clump rot by Fusarium
equiseti and F. verticillium; leaf speck by Drechslera coloccisia and
leaf blight by Rhizoctonia solani were reported to infect at Odakkali
(Kerala). Prophylactic spraying of Diathane M-45 and Diathane Z-78
@ 3 g/1, thrice on every fortnight reduced the incidence of leaf diseases
(Anon., 1981).
• Spindle bug and stem boring caterpillar are controlled by spraying
folidol E 605. Though the crop is found to be attacked by many diseases
but they did not prove to be very serious.
Harvesting
The crop is perennial in nature and yields well for 5 years (Thomas, 1995).
Harvesting is done by cutting the grass 10 cm above the ground level. The
harvesting season begins in May and continues till the end of January. First
harvest is done in about 90 days after planting. During first year of planting, 3
harvests can be taken while 5-6 cuttings/year can be taken in further years.
Extraction of oil
Oil is extracted through hydro distillation or hydro-steam distillation or
steam distillation under field conditions. The lemongrass is distilled for 2-4
hours. Wilting of grass under shade up to 48 hours before distillation increases
oil yield (Chinnamma and Menon, 1973). Frequent turning of leaves checks
fermentation of leaves. Chopping of wilted leaves to 3 inches size is
recommended.
After extraction of essential oil the residual plant material can be called as
spent grass. It can be used for composting. After composting it can be an
excellent manure. It contains 0.88% nitrogen, 0.01% phosphorus and 1.0%
LEMON GRASS 125
potash. Guha (1973) reported that the spent grass can also be used as raw
material for paper manufacture. Other alternative use may be silage making,
material for mushroom cultivation and biogas production (Thomas, 1995).
There is a need to modernize the existing field scale distillation for maximizing
oil production and to lower fuel consumption.
Yield
The yield of herbage is 15 t/harvest which is responsible for yielding
0.3-0.5% of oil. From second year onwards oil yield of about 350-400 kg/ha
is obtained. The oil yield depends on various factors which are as follows:
storage of the plant material, treatment of the material and the method of
distillation.
Bibliography
Anonymous. 1981. Annual report 1980 to 81. Central Institute of Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, 98.
Chinnamma N P and Menon P K G. 1973. Wilting studies in Lemongrass. Agriculture
Res Journal, 11 (1) 27-31.
Farooqui A A and Sreeramu B S. 2001. Lemongrass. Cultivation of Medicinal and
Aromatic Crops, pp 391-8. University Press India Ltd, Hyderabad.
Sharma J R, Lai R R, Misra H O and Naqui A A. 1987. A genetically improved clone-
CIMAP LS 48 of lemongrass. Pafai J. 9 (1): 17-9.
Thomas J. 1995. Lemongrass, Advances in Horticulture: Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants, Volume 11, pp 715-30. Chadha K L and Gupta, Rajendra (Eds). Malhotra
almarosa
[Cymbopogon martinii (Staph. Van Motia)
Syn: Andropogon martini Roxb.]
Palmarosa (Graminae) is also called Rosha grass, Rusa Grass, Dhyamakah,

Rohisa, Rusa ghas, Gandha Bel, Palmarosahullu, Kavathampillu, Rauns.
Munkilpu, Curaippul and Roshegavat.

It originated in subtropical India. It is found distributed in patches in open
scrub forests in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. Also, in a
fewer amount it is distributed in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Asom and parts of
Uttar Pradesh where sporadic collections are made. At present Elichpur,
Amravati and Akola in Maharashtra; Khandwa and Betul in Madhya Pradesh
and Zeherabad and Mehbubnagar in Andhra Pradesh are trading center of the
Palmarosa
PALMAROSA 127
forest based oil of palmrosa. Besides India, it is commercially grown in

Indonesia, east African countries, Cuba and Brazil.
It is a tall perennial tufted hedge and attains the height of 1.7 m in forests
under favourable conditions. But, under cultivation it attains height of 2.5 m
(Farooqui and Sreeramu, 2001). The root are fibrous and shallow. Leaves are
long, linear-lanceolate, linguate, glabrous beneath, partly sheathing the stem
with cordate to sub-cordate base. Flowers are large, inflorescence visible in
the month of September to November containing white, hairy star like spiked
flowers.

The chromosomal number of plant is 2n=40. Palmarosa is highly
heterogenous species where hermaphrodite flowers constitute only 25-35%
of the florets in an inflorescence and the rest are staminate. Pollen fertility
varies from 84 to 96% in staminate and hermaphrodite florets. The florets are
small, delicate with feathery stigma and make production of seed set from
inbred and hybrid lines difficult.
Varieties
• IW-31243 and IW-31245 were found to be superior selections.
Out of the two IW-31245 gave marginally higher yield and superior
rosaceous odour characteristic of palmarosa oil (Pareek et al. 1981
and 1985 and Pareek and Maheshwari, 1990) and was released for
cultivation from National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR),
Delhi.
• RH-49 was identified as high yielding variety by Punia et al. (1988) at
Hisar and was released from Choudhary Charan Singh Haryana
Agricultural University, Hisar.
• Trishna was developed by Sharma et al. (1987). It gave 40% higher oil
yield over commercial check, (iv) Tripta a high yielding variety was
released by CIMAP, Lucknow.
• PRC-1 is another important high yielding variety recommended for
cultivation.
• CI-80-68 released by AICRP on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Indore.
Geraniol (70-80%) is the major constituent of Cymbopogon martini (Gupta
and Pareek, 1995). Other constituents are Pinene, Myrcene, Limonene, 1,8-
Cineole, a-terpinene, n-flexanol, Prenyl-iso valerate, Amyl hexanoate, Linalool,
Prenyl hexanoate, a-caryophyllene, Neryl formate, Geranyl formate, Gerenial,
Geranyl acetate, Nerol, Prenyl Octanoate, Geranyl butyrate, Geranyl

isovalerate, 6,7-Geranyl exposide, 2,3-Geranyl expoxide, Caryophyllene
expoxide, Geranyl hexanoate, n-Mentha-1 and 8 (lO)-dien -9-ol. Geraniol is
found in both either free or combined form. Some minor constituent reported
are citronellal, citral, dipentene, etc.
Parts used: Flowering tops, foliage, stem and essential oil.
Aromatic uses
• The oil is used in perfumery, cosmetics industry, soaps and in blending
of tobacco products.
• Plant serves as a source of very high grade geraniol. Geraniol is highly
valued as a perfume and as a starting material for a large number of
synthetic aroma chemicals, viz. geranyl esters, which have a permanent
rose like odour.
A well-drained loamy soil with a pH of 6-7 with irrigation facilities is
ideal for the cultivation of palmarosa. It also grows well in well-drained clayey
loam soils, free from water logging. The plant grows well in a warm tropical
climate with an elevation of upto 300 m. The plant thrives well under the
temperature between 10-36°C and annual rainfall of about 150 cm with ample
sunlight. The land is ploughed and harrowed to a fine tilth and during last
ploughing FYM is added to the soil @10 t/ha. It can be propagated by (1)
transplanting the nursery raised seedlings (2) by root-cuttings of healthy plants
and (3) by slips as described below:
Nursery raising: Nursery beds are prepared in May. Liberal amount of
FYM should be added to the seed beds. Seeds are small and light so are mixed
with fine soil in the ratio of 1: 10 so that there occurs even distribution of
seeds and also it leads to easy sowing. The seeds are sown in lines at 15-20 cm
apart. The overcrowding of seed during sowing should be avoided. About 2.5
kg of seeds are considered adequate for raising seedlings for planting 1 ha.
The beds are watered lightly and regularly. Germination of seed takes place in
two weeks after sowing. For good growth a weak solution of urea (0.2-0.5%)
may be sprayed. In about 3-4 weeks, the seedlings are ready for transplantation.
The transplantation is done in rainy season (June-July).
• By root-cuttings: The root cuttings are collected from the plants which
give a good yield and high quality oil. By root cutting it is possible to raise
plants with good yield of oil which is not possible with that of seed propagation.
However, the rate of establishment of rooted slips is very poor as compared to
nursery transplants.
• By slips: It can be planted by root slips in June-July during the rainy season.
Manuring, irrigation, interculture, weeding plant protection are attended.
PALMAROSA 129
Plant protection
Leaf spot disease is caused by Colletotrichum caudatum var Sarvakar
(Sarvar and Parmeshwaran,1981). Leaf blight disease is caused by Curvularia
andropogonis. Findings on control measures of both the diseases by appropriate
fungicides have been reported.
Harvesting
The whole plant has essential oil, i.e. the flower heads, leaves and stems,
though flower top having the major portion. The harvesting is done on the full
bloom of the plant, i.e. after 4 months of transplantation. During harvesting whole
plant is cut at a height of 6 cm from the ground level. The maximum yield of oil
is obtained when the entire plant is cut at full flowering stage. The climate
conditions decide the number of harvests. In first year, the first harvest is obtained
during October-November, whereas 2-3 harvests can be obtained from
subsequent years. Palmarosa plantation remains productive upto 8 years.
However, the yield of grass and oil starts decreasing from the fourth year onwards.
Therefore, it is recommended that plantation should be kept only for 4 years.
Extraction of essential oil

Generally, palmarosa is subjected to hydro-distillation, since a long time.
But, steam-distillation method is better because the quality of oil is better
than that of hydro-distillation. The equipment of distillation have boiler to
produce steam, a still, a condenser and separator.
The still is made of mild steel and has perforated bottom on which the grass
rests. The still has a steam inlet pipe at the bottom. A removable lid is fitted at the
top. Charging and discharging can be done in perforated cages with iron chains
which can be lowered into the still with the help of a chain-pulley block. Different
types of condensers are present in the market, but tubular condensers are better
than the others. To cool the pipes of distillate there is present a condenser having
an inlet and outlet through which the cool water flows.
The grass should be chopped into shorter lengths so as to facilitate the
release of oil and also more grass can be charged into the still. The grass
should be packed firmly as this prevents formation of steam channels. Steam
is allowed to pass into the still with a pressure from 18-32 kg/sq inch in the
boiler. The mixture of vapours of water and palmarosa oil pass into the
condenser. On distillation, the distillate condenses in the condenser. The oil is
lighter than the water and is insoluble, therefore floats on the top of the separator
and is continuously drawn off. The oil is then decanted and filtered.
Yield
Herbage yield, essential oil yield and odour as per the stages of harvest
(Pareek et al. 1981) are tabulated below:
Stages of harvest Herbage Essential oil Essential oil Odour

q/ha % FWB yield (kg/ha)
Most flower open 314 0.493 157 Terpenic Rosaceous

Early seed formation 272 0.499 136 Rosaceous
Late seed formation 240 0.440 105 Rosaceous
Bibliography
Farooqui A A and Sreeramu B S. 2001. Palmarosa. Cultivation of Medicinal and
Aromatic Crops, p 417. University Press India Ltd, Hyderabad.
Gupta, Rajendra, Pareek S K and Maheshwrai M L. 1995, Palmarosa. Advances in
Horticulture: Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Volume 11, pp 735 to 47. Chadha
K L and Gupta Rajendra, Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi.
Pareek S K and Maheshwari M L. 1990. Selection of palmarosa oil grass germplasm
for higher yield and quality. Indian Perfumer 34 (1): 5-13.
Pareek S K, Maheshwari M L, Saxena D B and Gupta R. 1981. Study of palmrosa oil
grass for higher yield of oil and its quality under cultivation. Indian Perfumer 25
(3 & 4): 64-70.
Pareek S K, Maheshwari M L and Gupta R. 1995. Studies on palmarosa oil grass
germplasm. Part iii Evaluation of high yielding genotypes at Delhi. Indian
Perfumer 29 (3 &4) 209-14.
Punia M S, Verma P K and Sharma G D. 1988. Variability and correlation in palmarosa
(Cymbopogan martini) Indian J. Agric. Sci. 58 (1): 59-61.
Sarvar M and Parmeshwaran T N. 1981. Fungus associated with leaf spot of
Cymbopogan motia. Indian J. Botany 4 (2): 228-9.
Sharma J R, Mishra H O and Lai R K. 1987. A genetically superior synthetic variety
(Trishna) of Palmarosa. Pafai. J. 9 (2): 21-6.
French jasmine
(.Jasminum grandiflorum Linn)
French jasmine (Oleaceae) is also called Arabian Jasmine, Royal Jasmine,

Catalonian, Jati, Magadhi, Chameli, Jajimalige, Jaji, Jati and Pitchi.

It originated in Indo Burma region in the foothills of Himalayas (Farooqui
and Sreeramu, 2001). This crop is distributed in Morocco, Egypt, south Africa,
Syria, Tunisia, Algeria, United Arab Republic, Sicily, India and China on
plantation scale.
In India it is grown in Tamilnadu (Mettupalayam, Coimbatore, North Arcot,
Chengalpet, Kanyakumari, Tirunalveli, Madurai, Hosur, Rajapalayam, Chennai
etc). Also it is found distributed in Karnataka (Mysore), Andhra Pradesh
(Penukonda) and Maharashtra (Aurangabad).
French Jasmine
Plant description
It is a climber but may be trained as bush. Leaves are apposite, compound
with 6-9 leaflets. Flowers are hermaphrodite, possessing 5-7 petals and 5 sepals,
persistant, and two bilobed anthers. The gynoecium has one ovule, simple
style and bilobed stigma. Ovary is superior with exile placentation. Fruit is
one seeded. Naturally, 0-3 seeds are produced per plant.

Diploid (2n=26) and triploid (2n=39) cytotypes have been reported by Dutta
(1960) and Karmakar and Srivastava (1988). The triploid strain Pink Thrum
has been identified as autotriploid (Srivastava and Karmakar, 1986). Reduction
in frequency of trivalents and high frequency of univalents were attributed to
the small size of chromosomes. The triploid strain produce a few viable seeds
which may be utilized to grow aneuploid
Clonal selection of the germplasm Lucknow at Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore resulted in a variety CO-1 pitchi having 0.29%
concrete. It was one of the six clones evaluated for various economic characters
(Veluswamy, 1980). Clonal selection (Bhupal Rao et al. 1977; Srivastava and
Karmarkar,1986) at the Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru
resulted in an improved variety Arka Surabhi (Srivastava et al 1997). It has
pin type flowers having 0.35% concrete. Studies of very large population of
Jasminum grandiflorum plants have resulted in seed producing spontaneous
variant (Srivastava and Karmakar, 1988). Also a dwarf plant type has been
identified (Srivastava and Karmakar, 1988). Its flower yield is less.
At Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru Jasminum
grandiflorum germplasm includes cultures Lucknow, Thimmapuram,
Coimbatore, Bengaluru, Co-1 Pitchi, Triploid, Pink Thrum, White Pin, White
Thrum, Dwarf, Seed Producing Clone, Super high concrete, Foliar Beauty,
etc. Over 120 accessions are maintained at this research institute of ICAR in
Bengaluru. Hybridization between Arka Surabhi and Seed Producing Clone
has been successfully done in IIHR, Bengaluru.
New varieties of other aromatic jasmines: Since few years other two
aromatic jasmines, ie Jasminum sambac Ait and Jasmnum auriculatum Vahl
have gained importance in aromatic industry. Because not even a single variety
for essential oil production could be available therefore, the Indian Institute
of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru took up research on development of
aromatic varieties in these species. After several years of studies in case of
Jasminum sambac the varieties Arka Aradhana and Iruvatchi have been
identified as superior varieties for essential oil production. Arka Aradhana
yields 7.98 tonnes flowers/year/ha with 0.188% concrete resulting 15.25 kg
concrete/hectare (Srivastava and Vasantha Kumar, 2003). The variety Iruvatchi
can yield 8.35 tonnes flowers/year/ha with 0. 263% concrete leading to yield
FRENCH JASMINE 133
of 21.9 kg concrete/hectare (Srivastava and Vasantha Kumar, 2003). In case

Jasminum auriculatum a better variety IIHR-JA-13 has been developed. IIHR-
JA-13 yields 6.9 tonnes flowers/year/hectare having 0.454% concrete resulting
31. 243 kg concrete/hectare (Srivastava and Vasanth Kumar, 2004).
Varieties
• Co 1 Pitchi: developed by Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,

Coimbatore. Yield about 10 tonnes flowers/year containing about 0.29%
concrete. Potential yield of concrete 29 kg per hectare. Potential yield
of absolute 14. 5 kg per hectare.
• Arka Surabhi: It contains about 0.35% of concrete and the yield of
flower is about 10 tonnes. It has been released by the Indian Institute
of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru (Srivastava etal. 1997). Potential
yield of concrete is 35 kg per hectare. Potential yield of absolute is 17.
5 kg per hectare.
• A promising line IIHR -JG-27 having very high content of concrete ie
0.9% has been developed by the Indian Institute of Horticultural
Research, Bengaluru. But its flower yield is very less (Srivastava and
Vasant Kumar, 2004).
Buil et al. (1981) examined Jasminum grandiflorum absolute produced
from hexane extraction and reported these components: Methyl Jasmonate,
Jasmone Neriolidol, Cis - 3 - Hexenyl Benzoate, Benzyl Benzoate, Methyl
Jasmonate, Methyl Palmitate, Famesol, Methyl N-acetyl Antharanilate, Ethyl
Palmitate, Methyl Stearate, Geranyl Linalool, Methyl Oleate, Methyl
Linolenate, Ethyl Stearate, Phytol Methyl Rinoleate, Phytol Ethyl Bleate, Ethyl
Linolenate, Phytyl Acetate and Methyl Linoleate. Srivastava et al 1997 have
reported following chemical composition in absolutes of varieties Arka Surabhi
and CO-1 Pitchi.
Constituents Arka Surabhi CO-1 Pitchi
Linalool 5.02 2.97

Benzyl Acetate 13.62 8.48
Benzyl Alchohol 1.87 0.89
Cis Jasmone 8.97 7.22
Methyl Anthranilate 1.43 Trace
Iso Phytol 9.33 8.54
Indol 3.67 3.83
Phytol 4.53 6.69
Benzyl Benzoate 10.19 10.57
Parts used: Flowers and essential oil.


• Concrete and absolute obtained from jasmine flowers have tremendous
export value. This finds a very important place in essential oil industry.
All high grade perfumes have blend of French Jasmine essential oil.
• Its essential oil is used in aroma therapy.
• Jasmine tea is used for its calming affect, especially after dinner, as
well as for its aphrodisiacal qualities.
• Jasmine oil soothes the skin and reduces menstrual cramps.
• The oil, when used in aromatherapy, can treat depression and nerve
conditions.
• Jasmine is also used to treat headaches, spasms, and neuralgias
(encephalitis) associated with the flu.
• Jasminum grandiflorum has been used as herbal remedies - an
alternative to standard allopathic medicine for a variety of problems,
including cancer (especially of the bone, lymph nodes and breasts),
stress relief, anxiety as well as for easing depression.
The crop grows well on well drained loamy soil though it can grow on
variety of soils like black laterite, clayey loam and gravelly-loam. Mild climate
with sufficient sunlight and rainfall of 80-100 cm is good for the crop.
Plantation is done at the spacing of 2 mxl.8 m for optimum yield
(Bhattacharjee, 1985).
The plant can be propagated by either shoot tip cuttings or semi - hardwood
cuttings. The shoot tip cutting has been found to be a better method for
propagation. The shoot tips are treated with IBA 4000 ppm. Such treated
cuttings produced maximum number of well developed roots (Bhattacharjee
et al. 1979). The rooting can be also brought about in Closed Media Sachet
(CMS) technique of propagation which does not need watering for almost
two months. It also deletes need of electrically operated intermittant mist
chamber. Details of this technique are published by Srivastava, 1989 and 1998.
Propagation cost of saplings is reduced to just fifty paise/sapling.
Farm Yard Manure 10 kg along with 50 gm N, 150 gm P205 and 100 gm
K20 need to be applied to each plant for realizing higher yield of essential oil.
Three splits in nitrogen should be applied during April, August and November.
It has increased flower yield by 30 percent. Pruning in middle of December at
90 cm height and 13th node has been recommended.
Bhattacharjee working in the Indian Institute of Horticultural Research,
Bengaluru during 1980s has reported that spray of Cycocel (CCC) at 1000
ppm and B-nine at 5000 ppm during early vegetative period induces early
flowering, enhance flowering duration with more number of flowers containing
high essential oil content. Indole Acetic Acid and Gibberelic Acid at 10 ppm
FRENCH JASMINE 135
also improved flower yield by increasing flower size and number of branches
respectively. Chemicals like Paraquot Dichloride (3000 ppm), Potassium Iodide
(3000-4000 ppm) and Pentachrophenol (2000 ppm) can also be employed as
defoliants wherever labour is costly.
Jasminum grandiflorum var. Arka Surabhi has expressed remarkable
tolerance to drought conditions. In an experiment at Hessarghatta, Bengaluru
nil irrigation for over three years to established plants did not cause any wilting
or casualty. All the plants remained healthy. Of course, the yield got reduced
to almost 50%. However, for optimum yield of flowers and essential oil,
irrigation is required at about 12 days interval during summer and about 20
days in rainless season (Srivastava, 1990). By interculture and weeding the
field should be kept clean especially before application of fertilizer.
Plant protection
• Rust disease caused by the fungus Uromyces hobsoni and leafy spot
disease caused by Cercopora jasminicola are controlled by spraying
Bordeoux Mixture at an interval of one month from May to December.
• Termite (Odototermes obesus and O. wak2kibebsus) attack is prevented
by treating soil with Aldrex.
• Stem Borer (Sycophylla sp.) is controlled by spraying of Nuvacron
(0.2%) from June to December.
• Bud worm (Hendecasis duplifaciallis) is checked by Carbofuran (40
g/plant).
Effect of plant age on chemistry of absolute: Absolute obtained from 2
years, 6 years, and 12 years age. Jasminum grandiflorum var. CO-1 Pitchi
plants were analyzed for ten important constituents. The results revealed that
aging of plants reduces content of linalool, benzyl acetate and benzyl alcohol.
On the other hand, content of indol, eugenol, phytol and benzyl benzoate
expressed increasing trend with ageing of plants. Isophytol content increased
upto 6 years but decreased afterwards. Twelve years age of plant expressed
slight depression in concrete content (Venkateshwarlu and Srivastava, 1998)
Harvesting of flowers
The plant flowers in the first year itself, but the flowering increases with its
age. Commercially the yield of flower commences from third year and last
upto the age of 12-15 years depending upon management. Harvesting is done
by picking the flowers between 3-7.5 am. Harvesting afterwards lowers the
quality of concrete. From 3 to 7.5 am each plucker harvest nearly 3 kg flowers/
day. Instead of opened flowers fully matured buds may also be harvested in
day time. Fully matured picked buds are spread in one layer in a closed chamber.
Open floral buds may be processed for extraction of essential oil. But labourers
may also pluck immature buds which will not flower, so it will be a waste.
The flowers are processed by solvent extraction technology for extraction of

essential oil. In north India, the harvesting is done from July to November
while in south India it is done from May to December.
Yield and price of concrete and absolute

Under the condition of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu the yield of flower in
first year is half a tonne, second year it increases to about 5 tonnes/ha while in
third year it reaches to 10 tonnes/ha. Good yield lasts till 12-13 years if the
plant is managed well. Concrete yield is 29 to 35 kg/ha and absolute yield is
14.5 to 17.5 kg/ha depending on variety. Price is about ^ 17,000 per kg concrete
and ? 35,000 per kg of absolute in international market.

The essential oil can be extracted in 3 ways.
Solvent Extraction: It is most common method. The fresh flowers are
immersed in organic solvents (food grade hexane). The solvents dissolve
essential oil along with waxes. The waste petals are removed and the distillation
of miscella is done at low temperature. Vapour of the solvent is condensed for
reuse. The remaining material of concentrated miscella is dried at low
temperature. The material obtained is waxy, brownish and is full of jasmine
smell, known as concrete. The concrete is a saleable product. Concrete is
treated with absolute alcohol and filtered at very cold temperature due to which
wax separates. The end product is semi-viscous, dark-coloured material, full
of fragrance of fresh jasmine, called absolute or ‘otto’. It is marketed at high
price in international market.
Enfleurage: The essential oil of flower is absorbed by fat. After the fat
(dehusked sesame seed, etc) get saturated, the fat is then separated from
essential oil. The flowers are replaced on the fat by fresh flowers daily for
about one week. After the fat get saturated essential oil is extracted. It is Id
method.
Dynamic Absorption Method: The vapour of jasmine is passed on activated
charcoal and deabsorption of oil from absorber by volatile solvent. The yield
of essential oil has been found to be better.
Marketing
Due to high cost of jasmine essential oil and availability of cheap synthetic
substitute the domestic consumption of natural jasmine essential oil is very
less in India. It is exported to France, Italy, Russia, Japan, Germany and USA
etc. The price depends on demand and supply and quality of the concrete. It
varies from ^ 14,000 to t 20,000/kg of concrete. Absolute sells at almost
double price. Marketing is done by individual manufactureres. Organized
marketing should be arranged by government.
FRENCH JASMINE 137
Economic viability
Seeing the excellent price of jasmine concrete and absolute in international
market there is excellent economic viability for jasmine cultivation for
extraction of essential oil. In this regard a study conducted at the Indian Institute
of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru has been summarized by Srivastava
(1999) during a Conference at the Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants, Lucknow. There is very good export demand for flowers of Jasminum
sambac and Jasminum auriculatum in the Gulf and other countries.
Bibliography
Bentely and Trimen. 1992. Medicinal Plants. Valley Offset Printer and Publishers.
Bhattacharjee S K. 1979. Annual Report, Indian Institute of Horticultural Research,
Bengaluru.
Bhattacharjee S K and Divakar N G. 1981. Annual Report, Indian Institute of
Horticultural Research, Bengaluru.
Bhattacharjee S K. 1985. Effect of plant densities on flower yield of Jasminum
grandiflorum. Indian Perfumer 29 (3-4): 177-80.
Bhupal Rao, J V R and Divakar N G. 1977. Annual Report, Indian institute of
Buil P, Gamero J and Jaoulain D. 1981. Terpenoides superiors de J. essence absolute
de flueus de jasmine. Rivista, Italy 63: 282-855.
Farooqui A A and Sreeramu B S. 2001. Jasmine. Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic
Crops, pp363-73. Universities Press India Pvt. Ltd, Hyderabad.
Karmakar P G and Srivastava H C. 1987. Sterility and meiosis in five species of
jasmine. Curr. Sci. 56 (22): 1173-4.
Karmakar P G and Srivastava H C. 1988. Meiosis in a triploid Jasminum grandiflorum
linn. Cytologia 52: 775-7.
Srivastava H C and Karmakar P G. 1986. Annual Report, Indian Institute of
Srivastava H C and Karmakar P G. 1988. Spontaneous dwarf mutant in Jasminum
grandiflorum L. Herba Hungarica 27 (2-3): 57-9.
Srivastava H C. 1989. Simple technique for clonal propagation of elite breeding
material of Jasminum grandiflorum. Gartenbauwissenchaft 54 (1): 11-2.
Srivastava H C. 1990. Drought resistance in Jasminum grandiflorum Linn, paper
presented in International Horticultural Congress, Firenze, Italy, September 1990.
Srivastava H C. 1995. French Jasmine. Advances in Horticulture: Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants, Vol. 11, pp 805-20, K L Chadha and Gupta Rajendra. Malhotra
Srivastava H C, Bhupal Rao, Karmarkar P G, Angadi S P, Kumar T V and
Venkateshwarlu G. 1997. A new variety of Jasminum grandiflorum for high yield
of essential oil. PAFAI. October-December 16-8.
Srivastava H C. 1998. Modification of CMS technique of propagation of jasmine.
Annual report of Indian Institute of Horticulture Research, Bengaluru.
Srivastava H C. 1999. Jasmine and its essential oil—an overview of research and
development in aromatic crops. Current Trends in Biology, Uses, Production

and Marketing of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, 30-31 July 1999.
Srivastava H C and Vasantha Kumar. 2003. Arka Aradhana a new variety of Jasminum
sambac for essential oil. International Congress of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants,
Thailand.
Srivastava H C and Vasantha Kumar. 2003. IIHR-JA-13 a promising selection of
Jasminum auriculatum Vah for high yield of concrete. Journal of Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants.
Srivastava H C and Vasantha Kumar T. 2004. IIHR-JG-27 a super high essential oil
germplasm of Jasminum grandiflorum linn. Science Tech. Entrepreneur, July:
25-7.
Velusamy P. 1980. Breeding for high essential oil yield content in Jasminum
grandiflorum linn. National Seminar on Production Technology of Commercial
Flower Crops, 28-30 August, pp. 5-6.
Venkateshwarlu G and Srivastava H C. 1998. Effect of plant age on yield and
composition of absolute for Jasminum grandiflorum Linn cv CO-1 Pitchi. Indian
Perfumer 42(1): 12-4.
Chammomile
(Matricaria chamomillae Linn.)
Chammomile (Compositae) is also called German Chamomile, Chammomile,

Small Chamomile, Persian chamomile, Babuna, Babuni-ka-phool, Seema and
Suteigul Seventhi Poo.

It originated from Europe and cultivated in Germany, Yugoslavia, France,
Hungary, Russia and India. In India it is found to be cultivated from about
three hundred years. The plant was introduced in Punjab about three hundred
years ago. During Mughal period it was introduced in Jammu in 1757. It is
now commercially grown around Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh), Delhi, Mumbai,
Jammu, Madhya Pradesh and Punjab.
Chamomila
Plant description
It is a small herbaceous erect annual plant. Height is 60 - 90 cm. Leaves
are pinnatifid and segments are very narrow and linear. Flowers are
protandrous. The male and female parts mature at different times having a
time lag of 24-28 hours. So it is specifically cross pollinated. Head is solitary.
Each flower head is borne on a hemispherical or conical hollow receptacles
surrounded by involucre of 2-3 rows of small imbricate bracts. The ray florets
are 10 -20 in number, whitish or yellowish. Disc florets are numerous, yellow,
tubular with long peduncles of dark brown or dusty greenish yellow in colour.
Fruit is an achene with 3-5 faint ribs (Chandra et al. 1979). A single head
produces 40-50 seeds. Seeds are generally rounded, small and pointed at end.
They are yellow or light brown in colour.
Varieties
• Sorakar - 60: It is from Hungary, grows well with good oil. The seeds
being small are mixed with sand or fine soil in the ratio of 1: 4 before
sowing in the nursery beds. Watering should be done regularly.
• Vallary: This high yielding variety has been released by the Central
Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow.
The oil is found to have (a) chamazulene (1-15%) which gives blue colour
to the oil (b) azulene is in the free form, formed during distillation. The essential
oil produced is known as Blue Oil due to its deep blue colour. The essential
oil extracted from the flowers is to have azulene (1-15%) which determines
the quality of oil. Other constituents are pro-chamazulene, matricin, terpene
hydrocarbons, sesquiterpene alcohols including bisabilol, and unsaturated
ketonic alcohol bisabalol oxide, methoxy coumarone, furfural and paraffins.
The active constituents of the flower are viscous oil, a bitter principle apigenin
and its glycoside apiin, quercimetritrin, 7-methoxy coumarin, 7- hydroxy
coumarin, adioxy coumarin, areesin phytosterol, fatty acids, vitamin C and
nicotinic acid.
Parts used: Flower, seed and essential oil.

• The essential oil is also used as flavouring agent in fine liquors.
• The oil is used to flavour pomades and pain relieving balms.
• Both flower and oil are used in flavoring shampoo, facecreams, ice
creams, ice candy, baked foods and chewing gums.
• Flower has essential oil and the oil is antiphlogistic and is used as a
remedy in gastrointestinal troubles.
• Dried flower is used as a component of herbal tea for promoting the
CHAMMOMILE 141
flow of gastric secretions and bile.

• It is also used in the treatment of cough and cold.
• In Europe it is used as a mild sedative.
• The oil being therapeutic acts as an antispasmodic, expectorant,
carminative, anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory and diuretic.
• The oil is used in infant’s ailments such as teething trouble and stomach
disorders.
• It has been used to regulate monthly periods.
• It is splendid for kidneys, spleen, colds, bronchitis, bladder troubles,
to expel worms, for argue, dropsy, and jaundice.
• The tea is believed to make an excellent wash for sore and weak eyes
and also for other open sores and wounds.
• Chamomile has been used as a poultice for pains and swellings.
• It has been used for hysteria and nervous diseases, prevention of
gangrene, for breaking up typhoid and in combination with bittersweet
for bruises, sprains, calluses and corns.
• The oil has antibacterial and fungicidal activity.
Chamomile can grow on variety of soil. Moderately heavy soils rich in
humus are best suited soil. The optimum pH of soil should be 7. In plains the
crop is grown in winter. Summer crop is grown on the hills upto an altitude of
2000 m. The optimum temperature for seed germination is between 10-20°C.
The chamomile can be propagated by direct seed sowing as well as by nursery
raising as described below.
Direct seed sowing

In direct seed sowing around 3 kg of seeds are needed to raise 1 ha of
plantation. Thousand seeds weigh from 0.088 to 0.153 g. Seeds are mixed
with fine sand before sowing.
Nursery raising
The seeds are sown in nursery beds at the rate of 1 kg for plantation of 1 ha.
The seeds are sown in nurseries during late September or early October and
the seedlings are transplanted by the last week of November or by early
December. Before transplantation the field should be prepared by moldboard
plough, harrow and cultivator. Also well-rotted farmyard manure is applied to
the seeds to germinate in 15-20 days of sowing and in 5-6 weeks they become
ready to be transplanted. The transplantation is done at the spacing of 30 cm x
30 cm. This spacing gives maximum flower and the yield of essential oil is
also high. But for varieties with a spreading habit, spacing of 40 x 40 cm is
recommended. Organic manuring, irrigation, interculture, weeding, plant
protection, etc. should be attended.
Plant protection
The plant has not been found being seriously affected by any pests or
diseases. However, black bean aphids {Aphis febae) and an insect Nysious
minor attacks flowers and causes their shedding. Black bean aphid is controlled
by spraying Phosdrin at 0.1% concentration and Brevinyl at 0.5%
concentration. Nysious minor is controlled by spraying of Endosulphan (0.2%).
Also a defoliating insect Andographis chryson has been found affecting the
crop.
Harvesting is done as soon as the pod matures fully. The delay may result
in shedding of seeds. The harvest is either done by hand picking or by means
of flower scoops or skipper. About 4-5 harvests could be done at an interval of
every 10-15 days. The maximum flowering is seen during 3rd or 4th harvest.
The last flush of flowers (5th) will be allowed to set seeds on the plant itself.
Yield of flowers and seeds

Temperature, light and soil have a significant effect on essential oil and
azulene content. On normal soil an average yield of flower is 6000 kg/ha. On
dry basis it is 1000 to 1500 kg/ha. While in saline alkaline soils the yields will
be 4000-5000 kg/ha. The seed yield will be around 150-200 kg/ha.

The oil is extracted from the flowers (air-dried) by steam distillation. Steam
of 7 atm/sq cm pressure is used from the steam generator. The oil gets deposited
on the inner walls of the condenser, then comes out. The whole process of
extraction takes about 5 hours. The yield of oil varies from 0.3 to 1.3%
depending upon the location, strain and the conditions and the fertility status
of the soil. Temperature, and light have significant effect in essential oil and
azulene content.
Bibliography
Farooqui A A and Sreeramu B S. 2001. Chammomile. Cultivation of Medicinal and
Aromatic Crops, pp 313-8. Universities Press India Pvt Ltd, Hyderabad:
Singh A. 1982. Cultivation of Matricaria chammomila. (In) Cultivation and Utilization
of Aromatic Plants, pp 653-8. Atal C K and Kapur B M (Eds). Regional Research
Laboratory, Jammu.
Srivastava L J and Johri A K. 1995. Chammomile, Advances in Horticulture, Volume
11 (Medicinal and Aromatic Plants), pp 796-802. Chadha K L and Gupta, Rajendra
(Eds). Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi.
Japanese Mint
CMentha arvensis Linn.)
Japanese mint (Labiateae) is also called Putiha papant, Japani Pudina, Japani
Mint, Japanese Mint and Putina.

It is native of Japan. It is found distributed in USA, south-east Asia and
Latin American countries. Japanese mint is commonly grown in India., China,
Thailand, Taiwan, Brazil, USA, Japan, Paraguay, Argentina, Vietnam, France,
South Africa, Italy, Yugoslavia, Hungary, UK and Bulgaria. In India it is
cultivated in Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand particularly in Tarai districts, eg.
Nainital, Badaun, Rampur, Moradabad, Barabanki and Lucknow. It is also
cultivated in parts of Punjab (mainly in Ludhiana and Jalandhar). In addition
Japanese Mint
to these it is also being cultivated in some parts of Madhya Pradesh, Bihar,

and Jammu and Kashmir.
Plant description
It is a perennial herb. It has rigid, pubescent branches and 60-90 cm tall.
Leaves are lanceolate to oblong 3.7-10 cm long sharply toothed or shortly
petioled and hairy. Flower are arranged in cyme which are usually sessile and
rarely pedunculate. The flowers are purplish and minute. Calyx is deltoid and
acuminate. Corolla is white to purple. Roots are just under the surface.

Sharma and Bhattacharya (1959) have studied cytology of Mentha arvensis
growing in Himalayas and reported its 2n = 90. European genotypes have 2n
= 72. Chinese variants are reported to have 2n = 96. Breeding work is being
done by Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow for
high yield of essential oil, high content of menthol and resistance to diseases
and pests. An ideal plant type should have erect branching nature, producing
vigorous bushy growth with high leaf stem ratio. The largest germplasm
collection is maintained by USD A Agricultural Research Service in USA.
Varieties
The Japanese mint has three horticultural types one with reddish purple
stems and broad obtuse leaves and the other two have green stems, broad or
narrow leaves with purplish-green stems and narrow leaves respectively.
Following are the popular varieties:
(i) Himalaya: Selection from Thai bud sprout released by
Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.
(ii) MAS-1: Yield of oil is around 290 - 293 kg/ha.(CIMAP, 1983).
(iii) Hybrid- 77: Evolved by crossing MAS-1 x MAS-2. It produces 762 q/
ha of fresh herb, 468 kg/ha essential oil containing 81.5% menthol
(from 3 cuts). It is resistant to leaf-spot and rust diseases. It has been
released by Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants,
Lucknow. (CIMAP Newsletter, 1985, 12 (3): 1-2.
(iv) EC-41911: It is interspecific cross between M. arvensis x M. piperita.
It produces 236.5 q/ha of herbage and 125.2 kg/ha of oil with 70%
menthol.
(v) Shivalik: It is a clonal selection from China. It is a high yielding variety
released by CIMAP, Lucknow.
Mentha arvensis oil consists of menthol (74.84%), 1 - menthone (10.21%),
isomenthone (4.15%), neo-menthol and menthyl acetate (5.84%) and
JAPANESE MINT 145
hydrocarbons (4.93%). The hydrocarbons include 1-pinene, 1-limonene,

caryophyllene, cadinene and some unidentified sesquiterpenes. In mint oil,
methyl acetate and terpenes are also found to be present.

It is the principal source of menthol in the world. It is used in treatment of
cold. It is also used in cough, mouth wash, cosmetics, scenting cigarettes and
flavouring cough drops. The peppermint oil is an excellent carminative, anti
septic preservative and gastro-stimulant. Its pleasing odour can influence
behaviour and induce alertness in patients. The oil of spearmint is rich in
carvone, a digestive and gastrostimulant compound. The oil of bergamot mint
is rich in linalyt ocelate and linalool and is used in cosmetic industries.
Japanese mint is grown in winters in plains while it is planted in autumn or
spring in temperate climates. The soil ideal for the growth of crop is medium
to fertile deep soil which should be rich in humus. The soil though should
have good water holding capacity but water logging condition should be
avoided. The pH of soil should be 6-7.5. A temperature of 20 - 25°C promotes
vegetative growth, but the essential oil and menthol are reported to increase at
a higher temperature of 30°C under Indian conditions.
Mints propagate via creeping stolons or suckers. Stolons may be obtained
from the previous year planting. About 400 kg stolons are required for planting
one hectare of land. The best time for attaining stolons is during the month of
December and January. A hectare of well established mint, on an average
provided enough planting material for about 25 hectares. The stolons are cut
into small pieces of 7-10 cm and are planted in shallow furrows about 7-10
cm deep with a distance of 45 x 60 cm manually or mechanically. After planting,
irrigation is done. Interculture, weeding, plant protection are attended. Gulati
and Duhan (1971) reported that by use of 90 kg of nitrogen/ha with high P and
K fertilizers, yield of 430.6 quintals/ha of fresh herb and 182.5 kg/ha of mentha
oil were obtained. Gupta (1995) reported that following crop rotations are
common in Uttar Pradesh.
(a) Maize - Mint-Potato
(b) Mint - Early Paddy - Potato
(c) Mint - Late Paddy - Sweet Pea
Plant protection
Insects: It is attacked by as many as 54 insect- pests and mites in India,
and of these 40 are recorded in Punjab. The major six of them are:
• Termites (Odontotermes obosus) leads to the wilting and finally death
of the plant (Gupta and Agarwal, 1963). Also the use of 3% Haftaf -
heptachlor dust @ 45 -55 kg/ha against termites is recommended.

• Red pumpkin beetle (Aulucophora fovicollis) affects leaves and
buds. The pest is checked by spraying of aldrin 0.02% during early
hours of day-break. Also spraying of malathion 0.1% is found to be
effective.
• Mentha leaf-roller (larvae of Syngamia abruptalis) sticks on the under
side of the leaf. They are controlled by spraying of aldrin 20 EC or
thiodan at 1 1 in 700 1 of water.
• Bihar caterpillar (Diacrisa obliqua Walter): Sagar (1989) has reported
outbreak of Diacrisa obliqua on Japanese mint in Punjab.
• Semi-loopers feeds on tender crown leaves. Spraying of endosulfan
(thiodan 25 EC) in 700 1 of water per hectare is effective.
• Cut worms (Agrotis flammatra) affects the young plants. Treatment of
soil with 25 kg of aldrin before plantation may control the pest.
Diseases
• Stolon rot is caused by Macrophomina phaseoli (Hussain and
Janardhan, 1965). It can be controlled by treating the disease free stolons
with 0.2% solution of captan. Also, the infected plant along with soil is
picked and is burnt to check its spread.
• Leaf blight caused by Alternaria sp. Spraying of any copper fungicide
checks the infection (Ganguly and Pandotra, 1962).
• Wilting caused by Verticillium alboatrum (soil borne pathogen) spreads
via root. The disease is controlled by treatment of soil with methyl
isocyanate. This operation is considered to be quite expensive
(Guenther, 1961)
• Rust caused by Puccinia menthae can be controlled by spraying of
dinitroamine at 2 kg a.i. per ha in 800 litre of water before sprouting of
plants in field.
• Powdery mildew caused by Erysiphae cichoracearum can be controlled
by spraying wettable sulphur at 0.5% containing 50% elemental sulphur.
The spaying should be given after every 15 days and should be repeated
3 or 4 times after appearance of the disease.
Harvesting
The harvesting is done after 100-120 days of planting. At this stage the
lower leaves start turning yellow. Harvesting is done in bright sunny weather
and is done by cutting the green herb by means of sickle 2-3 cm above the
ground. In case of delayed harvesting the leaves start to shed, leading to loss
of oil. Second harvesting is done after 80 days of first harvest and third done
successively after 80 days of second harvest.
JAPANESE MINT 147
Yield
The yield of fresh herbage depends on planting time and also on the inter¬
culture. On an average 40 tonnes of herbage/ha of Japanese mint and 20-25
tonnes/ha of Bergamot mint are produced. This in turn gives 250 and 100 kg/
ha of oil respectively. Under good management around 18 t/ha of herbage or
60 kg/ha of oil in spearmint crop is produced.
Extraction of mint essential oil

The distillation of oil is done by passing steam under pressure via the wilted,
chopped hay, packed in the distillation stills. The distillation units consist of a
steam boiler, charging stills and condenser for cooling the oil carrying vapours.
The condenser is kept cool by continuous running of cold water. This empties
its contents into a receiver - cum - separator which thus collects the mixture
of oil and water. The stills are fitted on both the sides of the boiler. The still
has a detachable wide open lid which allows mechanical or semi-mechanical
filling. The material is tightly packed to prevent the channeling of steam via
it. The still has inlet and outlet of steam for draining of excess water. Steam
gradually passes into the still while the cold water runs simultaneously in the
condensers. The pressure of the steam generated is around 100 - 120 lbs/sq.
inch. The super heated steam takes almost two hours to completely exhaust
the hay of its oil depending upon temperature and moisture of the hay inside.
The distillate is permitted to flow at a temperature of 105-115°F which facilitate
easy separation of the oil and water. Once the material inside is heated and
stays about 15 minutes, after passing the steam the oil-water mixture starts
flowing into the receiver then the steam pressure can be lowered. The steam
should be passed slowly and then should be increased gradually. In this way
80% of oil is received in first half of the distillation period and rest later on.
Bibliography
Anonymous. 1983. CIMAP Newsletter 10 (3): 17-8.
Anonymous. 1985. CIMAP Newsletter 12 (3): 1-2.
Bentely and Trimen. 1992. Medicinal Plants, p 18. Valley Offset Printer and Publishers.
Chambers L, Henritta and Hummer E Kim. 1992. Clonal repository houses valuable
mint collections in Cornvalis, Oregon. Diver 8 (4): 31-2.
Guenther E. 1961. The Peppermint oil industry in Oregon and Washington States.
Perf. and Ess. Oil Reco 52: 632-42.
Gupta R and Agarwal M K. 1963. Odontotennis obesus Ramb as a pest of Japanese
mint. I. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 60 (1): 285-7.
Gupta Rajendra. 1995. Japanese Mint. Advances in Horticulture Vol. 11, Medicinal
and Aromatic Plants p 689-716. Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi.
Ganguly D and Pandotra V R. 1962. Important diseases of mints and their control.
Bull. Regional Res. Lab, Jammu 1 (1): 52-64.
Gulati B C and Duhan S P S. 1971. Japanese mint in Nainital of Uttar Pradesh, Indian
Perfumer, 15 (pt 1): 1-11, (pt 2): 15-30 and (pt 3): 31-51.
Hussain A. and Janardhanan, K.K. 1965. Stolon rot of Japanese mint. Curr. Sci. 34(5):
156-7.
Sagar P. 1989. An outbreak of Bihar hairy caterpillar (Diacrisa obligua waiter) on
Japanese mint in Punjab. Indian Perfumer 23 (4): 240-1.
Sharma A K and Bhattacharya N K. 1959. Cytological studies of different species of
Mentha with special reference to the occurrence of chromosome biotypes.
Cytologia 24 (2): 198-212.
Champaka
[Magnolia Champace (L.) Baill, se Prerie syn\
Michelia champaka Linn.)
Champaka (Magnoliacea) is also called Champac, Champakakuning, Bunga

Cempaka Kuning (Ismail Saiain, 1993), Nama Thai Champi, Champaa

Champaka tree has ivory, light yellow, yellow-orange or white flowers that
offer very pleasant scent. This tree could be planted as a roadside tree (Comer,
1940 and 1952) or in a smaller garden, being a slower grower. The champaca
flower, with it’s very unusual floral scent, grows in Nepal, India, Malaysia,
and Indonesia. It is a sacred oil to both Buddhists and Hindus. For centuries
the oil from the flower has been used in the unique perfumes of both China
and India. Champaka is also commonly used to scent ceremonial incense.
Champaka is a large tropical evergreen tree with light yellow, yellow-orange
Champaka
or white flowers. In native lands it blooms in April and May then fruits in July
and August. Variety alba is a robust growing tree. These trees have soft wood
and are liable to be broken easily, hence, they are not grown near a house. It
has large beautiful glossy green leaves. On maturity, it may reach 30-35 feet.
It has no pests and is evergreen. The ‘alba’ does not set seed in growing areas
nor do cuttings sprout roots. Seeds have pink, reddish or brownish - reddish
colour.

Arora (1987 and 1998) stated that genetic diversity also occurs in the Indian
subcontinent in ornamental trees, shrubs, climbers, herbs, succulents, etc.
including champaka (Michel i a champ aka). There should be development of
high yielding variety resistant to biotic and abiotic stress and reduction in size
of plant for easy management practices.
Varieties
• Alba (alba in Latin is white) or creamy white of course has small white
blooms or creamy white blooms which are extraordinarily fragrant, is
of world fame. Its perfume is the world’s very expensive perfume.
Like Ylang-Ylang this has ultra exclusive scent. On warm humid nights,
the scents of Alba can easily be enjoyed several hundred feet away.
Even just driving in car the scent can be experienced. As the scent
exudes from the tree nectar insects appear frantic, driven like drug
addicts, bashing into each other to get to the heart of every flower on
the tree The kalba’ is a robust growing tree. It has large beautiful glossy
green leaves. It has a rounded shape. On maturity, it may reach 30-35
feet. It has no pests and is evergreen. The ‘alba’does not set seed in
growing areas nor do cuttings sprout roots.
• The orange or yellowish champaka, of course is not so fragrant, Because
the orange champaka sets seed, it is considerably more available.
• It is even more intensely fragrant than ‘alba’ while blooming almost
all year around. The flowers are 4-5 times larger than ‘alba’, but not in
South Florida where they appear about 3 times larger. The scent from
the flowers is so strong that people can’t believe it’s from a tree.
Parts used: Flower, essential oil, seed, leaves, juice, bark and wood.
Uses
• The tree is commercially used for perfume production in Philippines,
India etc. Its oil is available as concrete and absolute. Pure absolute
from fresh flowers is used to manufacture high grade perfume. There
is a new perfume named J’adore which uses this tree for fragrance.
• In Indonesia, the tan to white medium-hard wood is used for carvings.
CHAMPAKA 151
It is prized because a bitter alkaloid in the tissues makes the wood

insect resistant. It is also used for planking, doors, furniture, canoes,
and house-building.
• In other native countries, the tree’s leaves, juice and bark are used by
locals to cure problems including conjunctivitis, dandruff, lice and worm
infections.
• Champaka is also used to control gastritis, chronic arthritis,
emmenagogue and diuretic.
• Medicinal Plants of Thailand describe the dried flower as an ingredient
of Ya Horn, and used as cardiac tonic, nerve tonic, blood tonic, anti
nauseant, anti-pyretic, diuretic. Leaf; treatment of neural disorders. Stem
bark; anti pyretic (Promjit Saralamp, 1996)
Champaka can be cultivated by seed or by vegetative method.
By seed: Fresh, ripe seeds have to be treated with a fungicide. Germination
is fast with seed soaking. Soak in pure clean water. Rinse away water after
three hours and discard the water. One or two seeds are planted in 6 x 6
inches polythene bags filled with a mixture of soil and farm yard manure (1:
1). Use a pencil to make 10-12 holes in the bottom of each. A hot and humid
location is the best, in or out of the sun. Water is needed lightly to keep
moist. Do not let soil top dry. Indoors, in a cool or cold-dry or dark home is
a miserable environment to sprout the seeds. Warm to hot weather and high
humidity will stimulate sprouting. However, the seeds are somewhat slow to
sprout, so 6-10 weeks time will be required.
The day seeds sprout, move them to a hot, humid environment, such as
outdoors in sun or very light shade. Morning sun is always the best exposure.
Morning sun is not a requirement, but sun is required. Arrange a minimum of
6 hours as a good amount of time to get sun. Blazing hot direct sun should be
avoided for too long. One can check on root mass whenever it is time to
transplant. First cut the bag then invert the plant and soil into hand. If the tap
root and feeder roots look like they want more room, this is the time to
transplant at the permanent location. Organic soils with up to 50% sand will
work just fine.
In 2-3 years the first blooms appear. Blooming will improve every year. A
maturing tree over 365.76^457.2 cms will begin blooming more than once a
year. Mature trees will hold some flowers almost all year long with bursts of
heavy blooming during warm-hot weather months.
By vegetative method: Variety Alba does not produce seed. Propagation
from cuttings does not work either. The outcome is that the only way to have
an ‘alba’ perfume tree is by grafting. The ‘alba’ scion is grafted onto the
orange root stock and then, one can have the ‘alba’ champaka to enjoy.
Narayana Gowda and Nage Gowda (1989) reported that propagation of

champaka can be done by soft-wood-wedge grafting.
Plant protection
Occurrence of disease 60% in rainy season 45% in winter and 13% in
summer. Leaf spot (Shivanna, 2005) reported that the fungus Cadosporium
sp. causing leaf spot disease can be controlled by spray of proper fungicide.
Harvesting
Harvesting of flowers is normally done from April to June. Freshly harvested
flowers should be immediately shifted to essential oil extraction plant.

Essential oil from fresh flowers of Champaka are extracted by solvent
extraction technology by Sawari Agro chem.
Sahakar Nagar Pune-9, Maharashtra, India is a manufacturer having own
processing unit and a 10 acres farm. There is a consistency in quality of the
product.
Economic viability
Cultivation of champaka is very viable economically because champaka
red absolute by solvent extraction, sells @ X 15,5,000 per 1000 gm and
champaka white absolute by solvent extraction, sells @ X 16,5,000 per 1000
gm. Cost of production is not high.
Bibliography
Arora R K. 1988. The Indian gene centre - Priorities and prospects for collection. (In)
Plant genetic resources: Indian perspective, p 545. Paroda R S, Arora R K and
Chandel KPS. NBPGR, New Delhi.
Corner E.J.H. 1940 Wayside Trees of Malaya Vol 1. Government Printer, Singapore.
Corner E J H. 1952. Wayside Trees of Malaya, Vol 2. Government Printer, Singapore.
Ismail Saidin. 1993. Bunga-bungaan Malaysia, Dewan Bahasa and Pustaka, Malaysia
- mukasurat, p 200.
Narayana Gowda J V and Gowda V Nage. 1989. Propagation of champaka (Michelia
champaka L.) by soft wood wedge grafting. Crop Res. (2): 232.
Promjit Saralamp. 1996. Medicinal Plants of Thailand Vol 1. Mahidol University,
Bangkok, Mukasurat, 124.
Shivanna M B. 2005. Fungal diseases in forest nurseries in Shimoga district, Karnataka.
Department of Post Graduate Studies and Research in Applied Botany, Jana
Sahyadri, Kuvempu University, Shankaraghatta.
Sweet basil
(Ocimum basilicum)
Sweet basil (Labiateae Sub family: Ocimodeae) is also called Basil and French
Basil. Barbari. Tulsi. Babuyitulsi, Kamakasturi, Sajjagida, Tirunittru and
Tiruniruppaccai.

Sweet Basil is spread over the tropical, sub-tropical regions of both the
hemispheres ranging from sea level to 1200 ft high. Africa has 59 sp. of
Ocimum, South Africa has 19 species, Arabia have 11 species, Brazil with 11
species, India having 9 species. These are also found in warmer northern parts
of Australia and Philippines. The Ocimum was introduced in Europe from
India in 15th or 16th century by Arabs. Ocimum basilicum var glabratum (French
basil) is the only species of Ocimum cultivated on large scale. The places of
Sweet basil
its cultivation are France, UK, USA, Reunion, India and some countries of
Africa, Brazil and China (Farooqui and Sreeramu, 2001).
It can be shrubs, undershrubs or herbs, and can be biennial, triennial or
perennial in habit. The plant is quite branched. Usually the stem and twigs are
quadrangular. Young twigs can be greenish, purplish or brownish in colour.
The leaves are exstipulate, usually opposite and decussate. The leaves are
simple, petiolate, ovate or subovate with serrate or entire margin. Leaves,
stem and inflorescence have glandular hairs which secrete strongly scented
volatile oil.
Flowers are small and are arranged in whorls on a spicate or racemose
inflorescence. Bracts are small, petiolate or sessile. Pedicels are curved. Flowers
are hermaphrodite, zygomorphic and complete. Shape of calyx is characteristic.
Upper side of calyx tube is broader. The sympetalous corolla is bilabiate which
is characteristic of family Labiatae as a whole. The aestivation is imbricate, 4
stamens are declinate with filaments free. The disc is entire or 3-4 lobed. The
gynoceium is superior and bicarpillary, though the ovary is tetralocular. Fruits
have four 1-seeded nutlets enclosed in the enlarged membraneous, strongly
veined recurved calyx. The seeds are mucilaginous, usually being non-
endospermic.

Chromosome number of Ocimum basilicum is 2n=48 (Sobti and
Pushpangadan, 1975). Pushpangadan (1974), Sobti et al. (1976) and Sobti
and Pushpangadan (1977) carried out detailed cytological research on the genus
Ocimum. They presented data on various characters, i.e. chromosomal counts,
karyotype, floral biology, breeding behavior, compatibility relationships,
experimental hybridization and production of intra and inter specific hybrids,
induction of auto and allopolyploids and inheritance pattern of essential oil
constituents of six species of Ocimum. Sobti (1976) reported genetical basis
of chemical constituents of Ocimum basilicum. Pushpangadan (1974) found
that there existed considerable differences in several morphological characters.
Some of these characters are of great diagnostic value for the identification of
the species. He has correlated these morphological differences with those of
the chromosome karyotypes. On the basis of these cytotaxonomical
investigations, he divided the genus Ocimum. In case of Basilicum, he observed
herbaceous habit; petiolate bract; more conspicuous flower; seed being black,
ellipsoid and becomes mucilaginous when wet.
In Ocimum basilicum cross pollination is more common. To some extent
self pollination also occurs. The basilicum reveals interspecific crossing and
production of hybrids when they are brought together. These interspecific
SWEET BASIL 155
hybrids are either completely sterile or with partial seed setting. The hybrids
could be divided into two types (i.e. completely sterile and partially fertile
hybrids) on the basis of degree of sterility of the interspecific hybrids. All the
interspecific hybrids produced exhibited some abnormality during meiosis.
The major abnormalities encountered were impaired chromosomes at diakinesis
and metaphase -I, partial or loose pairing, precocious separation of bivalents,
abnormal division of univalents, failure of complete terminalization resulting
into non disjunction and bridge formation and formation or restitution nucleus
and micronuclei.
The methods suited for breeding better strains of Ocimum basilicum are:
(0 Population analysis and identification of promising plants, (ii) Study on
the genetic basis for the general and specific combining ability of desirable
traits and (iii) Recurrent selection and polycross of selected line to produce
synthetic seeds.
The criteria for selection of plants for polycross methods of breeding are to
be based on the target characters like herb yield, high oil yield, desirable oil
combination, etc., Breeding programmes should normally involve breeding
of selected lines followed by recurrent selection to develop the polycross hybrid
seeds. Breeding strategies may combine both the conventional and modem
molecular techniques to effect a genetic response for higher yield as well as
better quality of desired composition etc. are some more aspects of the genetic
upgrading.
Varieties
• Vikarsudha: It is a hybrid variety released from the Central Institute of
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CIMAP), Lucknow. Developed by
hybridization between exotic basil from Australia (EC331886-CSIRO
No. L.6323) and a local adaptive land race referred as Badaun local. It
yields 37.3 t/ha of herb and the oil content is 0.7% and the oil yield is
265 kg/ha.
• Kusumohak: This variety was released from the CIMAP, Lucknow from
seed raised progeny of the introduced strain from Argentina. In this
plant, the yield of linalool is high which is about 46% while moderate
amount of chavicol (38%) is also present. The yield is 134 kg/ha.
Uses
• The essential oil of Ocimum basilicum is used in flavouring medicines.
• The essential oil finds application in perfumery and the leaves in
flavouring of food.
• They are considered to be potential against carcinogenic hazards of
synthetic chemicals.
• The plant showing no side effects, also freshens the ecosystem.
• Ocimum basilicum have been considered to be very safe insect

controlling agent and also acts as chemosterilant.
Parts used: Leaves, tender shoot, flower and essential oil.
Chemical profile of essential oil given by Pushpangadan and Bradu (1995)
is mentioned below:
Varieties Essential oil *** identified by TLC and GLC
Major Minor Traces

(Less than 1%)
Ocimum basilicum G (45%), L, Mch, 1,8C1, a-p, Lm, B, El,

1. var minima Benth. Eu (25%) Oc, P-cy, C-oo ME, EC.
Ocimum basilicum Mch (38%), L 1,8. Cl, b-Ca, a-r, b-r, Lm,
L. var glabratum (35%) G-Eu, p-cy, Oc, L-ac.
Benth. (Chemotype B-El.
No. 1)
Ocimum basilicum Met (20%), P-ac, a-p, Mr, Eu, P-p, 4-Tr,
L. var purpurascence L (60%) 1,80. Ct; Cph, P
Benth.
Ocimum basilicum Met (45%), a-ac, p-Ca, G, a-r, b-r, Mr,

var trysiflora Benth L (60%) P-El, G-ac, Lm, Oc, G.
Ocimum basilicum Mch (50%), a-p, Oc, p, Mch, p-p,

var crispum Benth. L (28%) P-Ca, G, Eu. Mr, anl.
Ocimum basilicum G (35%), L 1, 80, Th, y-Gd, 4-Tr.

var Darkapal (35%), Eu (25%) B, Ct, Ant.
Expansion of chemical names

Ant: - Anetheol; B: - Borneol; B-ac: - Bornyl acetate; Cph: -Camphor,
Y-Cardinol; B-Ca: - Carene; Cao: - Caryophyllene Oxide; Ctl: - Citronellal;
Ct: - Citral; 1,80: -1,8 Cineol; p-Cy: - p-Cymene; p-El: - P-Elemene;
EC: - Elemicine; Eu: - Eugenol; G-Geraniol; G-a/G-ac: -Geranyl Acetate;
Lm: - Limonene; L: -Linalool; a-ac: - Linalyl acetate; Met: - Methyll cinnamate;
Mch: - Methyl Chavicol; ME: - Methyl Eugenol; Mr: -Myrcene; Oc: -Ocimene;
oc-p: - Pinene; r-Tr: - r Terpineol; Th: - Thymol y-Crd: - y Cardinol.
The major oil constituents of Ocimum basilicum consists of various terpenes
and phenolic compounds. The major oil contents are linalool, camphor,
geraniol, citral, methyl cinnamate, methyl-chavicol and eugenol. Linalool,
SWEET BASIL 157
camphor, citral and methyl chavicol are found as a single major constituents
of some types of Ocimum basilicum.
It can be grown on variety of soil and can tolerate varied climatic conditions.
Soil may be from rich loam to poor laterite, saline and alkaline to moderately
acidic. Water logged soils should be avoided. Heavy rainfall and humidity is
good for plant growth. Oil yield is increased in the long day and high
temperature climatic conditions. The crop can be grown annually from the
middle of February to the end of September and also during kharif season in
the plains of north or south India. The ploughing is done 2-3 times, FYM may
be added to the soil at the rate of 10-12 tonnes/ha before ploughing.
The propagation is done only by seeds and the sowing is done in nursery
and afterwards transplanted in the field. The nursery should be prepared by
adding well rotted farmyard manure and leaf mould to each bed at the rate of
1 kg/m2 in beds of 1 m x 4 m. Seeds are sown @ 10-15 g/bed and are sown in
lines 6 cm apart or broadcast over the beds. The seeds are covered by the
dusting of soil. The watering is done immediately after sowing and is repeated
after 3 to 5 days as per need. The transplantation of seedling is done when the
plants attain the height of 8-10 cm.
Transplantation is preferably done in the evening with an interspacing of
100 cm in rows 60 cm apart. Cloudy weather and fine drizzle are considered
to be an ideal weather condition for transplantation.
Plant protection
• The larvae of leaf roller among pests causes serious damage to the leaf
by sticking to the lower surface of leaf. They are controlled by spraying
Thiodon or Malathion (2 ml/1) with water.
• Leaf spot disease is caused by Coynespora cassicola (Berk & Curt)
Wie. Scab disease caused by Elsinoe arxii, causes little defoliation and
distortion of twigs.
• Blight of Basil caused by Aiternaria sp. affect leaves. Colletotrichum
capsici also causes leaf blight. Both these can be controlled by spraying
0.2% Dithane Z-72 or Agallol.
• Basil wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum affects the whole plant. This
disease can be controlled by dipping the seedlings in a solution of
Tafason or Agallol at the time of planting.
Harvesting
The lower leaves start turning yellow signifying that the plant is ready for
harvest. Harvesting is done by sickle. During harvest the flowering tops and
whole herb is cut. On the basis of parts harvested, two types of oil are extracted,
i.e. herb oil and flower oil. The flower oil has a superior note. The highest oil
quality is obtained by harvesting only flowering tops. Normally 3-4 floral
harvests are obtained in this crop. First harvest is done at the full bloom of
plant and then subsequent harvesting is done after every 15-20 days interval.
Finally the whole plant is harvested about 15 cm from the ground level leaving
enough for the regeneration of the crop. The harvested crop is dried in the
field for 4-5 hours so that it looses moisture.
Yield
The floral harvest yields about 3-4 t/ha of flowers and the final harvest of
the whole herb is about 13-14 t/ha (Farooqui and Sreeramu, 2001). The sweet
basil oil yield will be about 30-35 kg/ha from the flower and 12-22 kg/ha
from the whole herb. If only the whole herb is harvested and distilled, the oil
yield is about 30 kg/ha.
Distillation
The distillation of Ocimum should be done after 4-5 hours of drying, though
the quality and quantity of oil is not effected upto 6-8 hours after harvest but
further delay is not considered good for quality and yield of oil. The oil of
basil is obtained by hydro-distillation or steam distillation of the young
inflorescence or the whole herb. Extraction of oil through steam distillation is
better than extracting oil by hydro-distillation, as it takes less time and also
gives better yield of oil. The oil of Ocimum basilicum is lighter than water, a
smooth flow of condensate is to be assured by inserting a long stemmed funnel,
the end turning upwards. Thus, the distillate steaming from the condenser
flows first through the funnel and oil droplets rise slowly towards the oil layer
where they merge. Water keeps flowing out via siphon. Steam-distillation takes
1-1 Vi hrs to exhaust a charge completely.
Bibliography
Pushpangadan P. 1974. ‘Studies on reproduction and hybrdization of Ocimum sp.
with view to improving their quality’ PhD thesis, Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh, India.
Pushpangadan P, Sobti S N and Khan Reyat. 1975. Karyomorphological studies in
the genus Ocimum basilicum group. 18: 177-82.
Sobti S N. 1976. Genetical basis of chemical constituents in some essential oils.
Proceedings of Third Symposium on Current Developments in Essential Oils,
Fragrance and Flavor, 12-13 November 1976, Calcutta.
Sobti S N and Pushpangadan P. 1977. In Taxonomy, Cytogenetics & Cytotaxonomy of
Plants. Panjab University, Patiala.
Farooqui A A and Sreeramu B S. 2001. Ocimum, Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic
Crops, pp. 348-55. University Press India Ltd, Hyderabad.
Pushpangadan P and Bradu B L. 1995. pp. 627-55.
Kewda
(.Pandanus fascicularis Lam.)
Kewda (Pandnaceae) (Chopra et al. 1956) is also called Kewara, Ketki, Gagand,
Fragrant screwpine, Dhuli Pushpika, Mugali, Talamachidi, Tazhai, Thalay,
Key a, Kedki - Keya and Keori. Kaida, Thala, Kia Mara, Kyad Agegida, Tale
Mara and Kyad Agegida.

Kewda is found all along the coastal regions in India. Also found in Arab,
Iran and Burma. In India it is distributed in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Odisha and Gujarat (Farooqui and Sreeramu, 2001). In Odisha, Kewda is found
wildly in Ganjam district comprising Chatarpur, Gopalpur and Behrampur
tehsils. Also Balasara, Cuttack and Puri districts possess kewda plant growing
Kewda
widely (Dutta 1995). There are some plantation of Kewda in Badaun, Balia
and Ghazipur districts of Uttar Pradesh.
Plant description
Kewda plant is a densely branched dioecious shrub. It reaches up to the
height of upto 6 m, producing glaucous-green long acuminate coriaceous leaves
with thorny spines on the margin and mid rib. It has an ariel root to support
the growing plant. Flowering starts from 5 years of age and flowers till 40-50
years, maximum being at the age of 15-25 years. Male flower is the
economically important part because of its highly scented nature. The male
spadix is 25-50 cm long with numerous sub-sessile cylindrical spike enclosed
in a long white fragrant caudate or acuminate spathes. The spadix of female
flower is solitary. Fruit is an oblong or globose, syncorpous, yellow or red
when ripe.

Maharana (1993) identified and assembled several genotypes through
collection in Odisha state based on colour, size of thorns, plant height and
thorn traits. The thornless type possesses slender leaves producing very few
flowers. The dwarf type showed spreading growth habit and the plants were
distributed under upland situation and were also very shy in flower production.
Crop improvement for higher yield of essential oil, early flowering types and
resistant to diseases and pests needs due attention.
Varieties
Maharana (1990) has identified 4 good yielding types:
(a) Dark green leaves and large thorns.
(b) Light green leaves and large thorns.
(c) Dark green leaves and small thorns.
(d) Light green leaves and small thorns.
Per year flower production from 25 years old plants varies from 20 to 28
flowers. Aroma ranges from strongly scented to sweet scented.
Kewda and ketaki are commonly cultivated high yielding varieties in India.
Chemical constituents of kewda essential oil

It has Methyl ether or phenyl alcohol-66.68%, Depentene-6.24%, Linalool-
19.16%, Phenyl ethyl acetate^!. 65%, Citral-1.82% and Steropentene.
Parts used: Flowers for kewda essential oil and leaves and roots for
medicines.
Various uses
• The male spadix is used in perfumery for extraction of essential oil.
KEWDA 161
The principal perfumery products are Kewda water and Kewda attar
(essential oil).
• Kewda water finds its uses in flavouring syrups and soft drinks.
• Kewda attar is used in scenting soaps, cosmetics, boutiques, lotions,
snuff, hair oils and incense sticks.
• Kewda aroma in pan masala (betel) and zarda (tobacco) is very popular.
• The male flowers are packed and kept in wardrobes and boxes to give
fragrance to the stored material.
• Kewda oil is a stimulant, antispasmodic and relieves headache and
rheumatism (Chopra et al. 1956)
• The leaves of Kewda are used in making fancy articles like mats, hats
and bags. It is also used for paper making.
• Fibres from its long ariel roots are very strong and used in making
ropes and baskets.
• The terminal and tender buds are also eaten raw or in a cooked form.
• The leaves are used in the treatment of leprosy, small pox, scabies,
leucoderma, diseases of heart and brain.
• The juice of inflorescence is useful in rheumatic arthritis in animals.
• The plant is considered as a good soil binder.
The plant is grown on a fertile and well drained soil. It is a tropical species
and cannot withstand frost. It needs heavy rainfall. Kewada is vegetatively
propagated by suckers and cuttings (60-80 cm long and 8-10 cm thick) made
from non flowering branches and old stumps. The planting is done from June
to August. The spacing is kept 3-6 m depending upon genotype. Organic
manuring, interculture, weeding, irrigations etc. should be attended.
Plant protection
Generally kewda plants are not affected by any pests or diseases of serious
nature. Though leaf blight disease is seen in plants caused by Alternaria tenuis
and Botrydiplodia theobromae. These can be controlled by spray of proper
fungicide.
At five years of age the plant produces flowers. At this stage it also develops
20-25 ariel roots. The flowering increases with the increase of age. The flowering
occurs from July to October. Harvesting is done by hand by breaking stalk with
the help of a stick fitted with a hook. Knife is avoided since it damages the flower
bud.
Yield
At five years of age on average the production of flower is five flowers per
plant while at age of 20-25 years the flowering increases to 20 to 28 flowers
per plant. Flower yield of four types of clones classified on the basis of leaf
colour and growth of spines were reported. In 25 years old plantations, the
clones with dark green foliage produced 20-25 flowers. Clones having light
green foliage yielded 24-28 flowers per plant.
Extraction and yield of essential oil

Immediately after harvest of the plants the flowers are subjected to
distillation. The flowers of Kewda are processed to obtain the final products
as Kewda attar and Kewda water. Distillery consists of many distillation units.
Each unit has a big copper still (deg) and an earthen pot (handi) with a side
hole. This earthen pot is inverted over the still and connected to a copper
receiver vessel (bhabka) through a bent pipe (chonga). The receiving vessel is
half filled with sandal wood oil. The outer green spathe of kewda flower are
heated with water in the still. The number of spathe is responsible for the
quality of the end product. After heating it for 4-5 hours in an open furnace
(chulha) Kewda attar is formed. The receiving vessel is half-filled with sandal
wood oil, it absorbs the aroma of the vapour to form kewda attar. These
receiving vessels are kept cold by keeping them in cold water. At the end of
distillation the vessels are disconnected and kept overnight for settling. The
water layer at the bottom is separated from the oil through a small outlet at the
bottom. The water is used over again for subsequent batches of distillation
and this process is repeated a number of times. There is a need to develop
better innovative fuel efficient distillation. As much as 7000-10,000 flowers
on distillation yield about 1 kg of attar.
Bibliography
Chopra R N, Nayar S L and Chopra I C. 1956. Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants,
CSIR, New Delhi.
Dutta P K. 1995. Kewda, Advances in Horticulture: Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
Volume 11, pp 833-40. Chadha K L and Gupta, Rajendra. Malhotra Publishing
House, New Delhi.
Farooqui A A and Sreeramu B S. 2001. Kewda. Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic
Crops, pp 374-8. Universities Press Pvt India Ltd, Hyderabad.
Maharana T. 1990. Productivity and industrial use study in medicinal and aromatic
plants with special reference to Pandanus and Cymbopogon Annual Report.
Adhoc. Scheme, Orissa University of Agricultural Technology (OUAT),
Bhubaneshwar.
Maharana T. 1993. Final report of scheme - production and industrial use of medicinal
and aromatic plants of Orissa with a special reference to Pandanus and
Cymbopogon. Orissa Agricultural University, Bhubaneshwar, pp 1-47.
Scented geranium
Pelargonium graveolens L. (Her. ex Ait.)
Scented geranium (Geraniaceae) is also called Geranium, Pannirsoppu and

Pannir Patra.

Scented geranium originated in rocky slopes of cape provinces of South
Africa. Commercial production of geranium was done in southern France since
1800, Algeria since 1847, Reunion island in south-west Indian Ocean since
1880, Shevroy hills of south India since 1915, spread to Nilgiris around 1954
(Armugam and Kumar 1979). The geranium oil is being largely produced in
China and Egypt. Some quantity is being produced in India, Algeria, Morocco.
In India it is cultivated in Nilgiris, Kodaikanal, Palani, pomological gardens
at Coonoor. Now the crop has spread to plains around Bengaluru and
Hyderabad.
Scented Geranium
Scented Geranium is highly adaptable and drought tolerant perennial
aromatic bushy herb growing upto about 1.2 m. Leaves are alternate, stipulate,
simple, broadly cordate or ovate to almost circular, deeply 5-7 lobed, each
segment again lobed and toothed, pubescent on both surface and highly aromatic.
Inflorescence umbellate. Peduncle terete, hairy and longer than petiole, pedicels
shorter than flowers. Bracts free, celiate on outer side forming
an involucre. Flowers are pentamerous, bisexual and hypogynous. Calyx
free with hairy sepals. Corolla pink, zygomorphic, two posterior petals are
larger. Stamens 10 and filamentous. Ovary pentacarpellary and syncarpous.
Style hairy.
Parts used: leaves, flowers, tender shoots and essential oil.
Uses
• The rose like smelling oil extracted from the fresh herbage is used in
perfumery.
• It is used in scenting soaps as is long lasting and stable in alkaline
medium.
• Powders and creams are scented with geranium oil.
• Geranium gives two other products which are used in perfumery, i.e
concrete and absolute. Both possess fine smooth geranium odor, softer
and more tenacious than that of the distilled oil.
• It blends with all type of scents-floral and oriental and forms the basis
of high grade perfumes.
• It may be used to mix with otto of roses and rose attar.
• It is used for flavoring tobacco products, tooth powder and
ointments.
• It is used for pharmaceuticals preparations.
Chemical constituents of geranium oil

It contains large amount of alcohol, 60-70% primary citronellol and geraniol
esters, 20-30% geranyl acetate geranyl tiglate. Aldehydes and ketones were
also detected in the oil (Guenther, 1950). Some constituents of geranium oil
are myrcene, cis ocimene, trans ocimene, terpinolene, lis rose-oxide, trans
rose- oxide, cis linalool oxide, menthine trans-linalool oxide, caryophyllene
citronelyl formate, citonellyl acetate, geranyl formate, nerol citronelyl butyrate,
geranyl butyrate, geranyl tiglate, geranyl formate, nerol citronellyl butyrate,
geranyl tiglate and phenyl ethyl tiglate. Faraisse et al. (1983) used the GC gas
chromatograpy data to examine the chemical composition of the oils. There
are present several types of geranium oil of which Reunion is one of the best
and is commercially called Bourbon Oil. It has high content of citronellol
(Sharan Angadi and Kumar, 1995).
SCENTED GERANIUM 165
Varieties
• Algerian or Tunisian is grown in Nilgiris and is not suitable for wet
conditions.
• Bourbon or Reunion is grown in Nilgiris and Annamalai and is more
suitable for wet conditions and is preferred in plains (Prakash Rao,
2001).
• Egyptian strain having high geraniol content and is relatively resistant
to wilt.
• A clonal selection been developed from Algerian, i.e IIHR-PG-8 by
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru (Vasantha Kumar
and Srivastava, 2003). It gives very good yield of oil.
• Hemanti, Bipuli and Kunti are some other varieties released by Central
Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow for cultivation in
the north Indian elevated plains (Prakash Rao, 2001).
• Kelkar, Ooty are the other varieties available in this crop as good
selections.
Scented geranium grows well in well drained, light, deep red soils (Khan
and Dimri 1961). Geranium can be cultivated as biennial irrigated crop in
south India. Geranium is propagated through shoot tip cuttings and rooted
stem cuttings during the month of November. After the removal of all the big
leaves, 10-15 cm cuttings with axillary leaves and 3^1 terminal leaves are
given a slant cut at the bottom, dipped in 0.1% carbendazim, then in 2000
ppm IB A solution and are then planted in such a way that at least two nodes
are inside the soil. The watering of nursery bed is done daily. The root cuttings
are ready for transplantation after 60-75 days in the field. Partial shade is used
for nursery growing.
Land is ploughed, harrowed and planked well for good tilth. The rooted
cuttings from nursery are then dipped in 0.1% carbendazim and are planted in
the field at a spacing of 60 cm between the rows and 45 cm between the plants
during December-January months. Effect of N P and K on yield of oil has
been presented by Mani et al. (1981).
Plant protection
• In frost prone areas the crop is protected by sprinkling water (sprinkler
with 400 psi) every day in the evening or raising smoke at frequent
intervals during frost weather (Armugan and Kumar, 1979).
• Root knots are caused by nematodes (Meloidogyne hapla and M.
incognita), Aldicarb 16 kg/ha is found to be effective in reducing
nematodes incidence (Armugan and Kumar, 1979)
• Even termites attack the crop which is controlled by mixing 25 kg/ha.
• Wilting is caused by many fungi like Fusarium oxysporum var. radolens

(Sarwar, 1973), Rhizoctonia solani (Sarwar,1969; Raghvendra Rao and
Chaco, 1983; Kalra and Parameswaran, 1988) and Phythium sp. (Ranjit
Singh, 1958) etc. These are controlled by the application of benomyl
at 0.03% plus 0.5% tracel on 2 month old crop and repeating after each
harvest. Spraying should be done one month before harvesting and
once after harvesting, This brings down the infection from 80-90%
(Sarwar et al. 1982). Also the spraying of bavistin (0.1%) in the nursery
once in a month and after 2 months in the field reduces the infection as
reported in Ooty by Narayana et al. (1986).
• Leaf blight caused by Colletotrichum gleosporioides is controlled by
capitol 0.3% spray.
• Tip rot is caused by Gleosporium sp. and causes defoliation. The mutant
has been developed which is found to be resistant against the disease
(Eugene Sebastian, 2001).
• Grasshopper both adult and nymphs cause damage to leaves by making
hole. Spray quinalphos 2 ml or carbaryl (Sevin) 2 g/1.
• Leaf caterpillar (Helicoveropa amiigera)- Larvae damage inflorescence
by feeding resulting in foliage loss. For control spray methylparathion
1 ml or endosulfan 2 ml/1.
Harvesting
After 5 months of planting, first harvesting is done. Subsequent harvests
are taken at 3-4 month intervals for 2-3 years. During harvesting the tender
twigs and terminal portions of the plant are harvested. The crop is sprayed
with 0.1% of Benomyl solution and irrigated immediately after each harvest.
Uses
• Geranium oil is used extensively in most major food products including
alcoholic and non-alcoholic, beverages, frozen dairy desserts, candy,
baked goods, gelatins and puddings.
• It is found to inhibit the growth of several fungi that are pathogenic to
humans.
• It also has antibacterial property.
• Dermatitis in hypersensitive individual may be treated by geranium
oil which has been reported through recent data that geranium oil is
nonsensitizing, nonirritating and nonphotometric to human skin.
• Research work at the Indian Institute of Horticultural Research,
Bangalore has shown that the oil exhibits significant nematicidal activity
against root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and antifungal
activity against Colletotrichum gleosporoides which causes mango
anthracnose (Eugene Sebastian, 2001).
SCENTED GERANIUM 167
• Oil of scented geranium is widely used for manufacture of good

perfumes.

The distillation of oil by subjecting herbage to hydro-steam distillation.
Distillation equipment consists of boiler, distillation stills, condensers and
receivers. Steam is capable of taking out the oil from cells also steam distillation
gives better quality oil as compared to hydro-distillations. Herbage should be
packed evenly inside the still. So that the formation of steam channels can be
avoided and also the yield of poor oil can be avoided. Distillation still is usually
made of steel has a perforated metal sheet at the bottom to support the herbage,
kept over it. The condenser consists of many copper or stainless steel tubes
mounted inside a jacket. It has inlets and outlets for circulation of water. The
receiver receives the condensate (oil). The oil is distilled from the herbage.
The recovery of oil from the herb is about 0.2%. Since the oil is lighter it
floats on water. After the oil is collected water discarded. Distillation of one
charge by steam distillation requires about one and a half-hour. Prolonged
distillation may decompose the components imparting characteristic odour to
the oil.
The oil obtained by distillation should be completely moisture free before
storage. The removal of moisture is done by sprinkling anhydrous sodium
sulphate at 20-30 g/1. Stir it for 15 minutes, separating the water layer and
then filtering it through a filter paper. The oil should be then stored in a suitable
air tight and light proof container and stored in a cool place.
Yield
The strain IIHR- PG -8 yields 23-30 tonnes fresh herbage/ha containing
0.25-0.30% oil. Its yield potential is 65 - 90 kg oil (from 3 cuttings)/ha/year.
Yield and quality of essential oil are influenced by environmental factors
prevailing during harvesting and distillation. Storage of scented geranium
herbage beyond 24 hours after harvest at 30 degree Celsius resulted in oil loss
of 16%. The geranium crop can be tried to grow in other agroclimatic regions
like coastal places of Andaman Islands and Deccan Plateau for better land
utilization. Superior varieties with resistance to biotic and abiotic stress should
be developed.
Bibliography
Arumugam R and Kumar N. 1979. Geranium cultivation in Kodaikanal Hills. Indian
Perfumer 23 (2): 128-30.
Prakasa Rao E V S. 2001. Production Technologies for scented geranium. Compendium
of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Production Technology, pp 60-1.
Prakasa Rao E V S. 2001. Production technologies for scented geranium (Pelargonium
graveolens) Compendium 12.02.01 to 19.02.01 Highlights of Aromatic Crops
Research at IIHR, Bengaluru, Brain storming session on aromatic crops, 24 July

1998, IIHR, Bengaluru, p 11.
Eugene Sebastian J N. 2001. Extraction chemistry and utilization of geranium oil
compendium, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Production Technology: 60-61.
Eugene Sebastian J N. 2001. Compendium 12.02.2001 to 19.02.2001. Centre of
Excellence for Training Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru,
60-1.
Faraisse D, Sharf C S, Vernin G and Metzger J. 1983. Study of geranium essential oils
of various origins. IX International Cong, of essential oils, Singapore.
Guenther E. 1950. The Essential Oils, reprinted in 1972, Vol IV, pp 672-737. D. Van
Nostrand and Co. New York.
Kalra A and Parmeswaran T N. 1988 Root rot and wilt of Pelargonium graveolens.
Indian J. PI Patho. 6 (1): 82-3.
Khan M N A and Dimri B P. 1969. Commercial cultivation of aromatic plants in south
India. Indian Perfumer 13 (1): 12-6.
Mani A K, Dakshinamoorthy M and Sampath V. 1981. Effect of N, P and K on oil of
geranium. Indian Perfumer 24 (3 and 4): 35-6.
Narayan M R, Prakasa Rao E V R, Rajeswara Rao B R and Sastry K P. 1986. Pajoli
Journal, Oct-Dec 1986: 25-30.
Raghavendra Rao N N and Chacko C I. 1983. Annual Report Indian Institute of
Horticultural Research (IIHR), Bengaluru, pp. 112-3.
Rajeswara Rao B R, Prakasa Rao E V S and Narayanan M R. 1989. Rose geranium an
economical crop in the south Indian plains. Indian Horticulture 34 (2): 14-7.
Ranjit Singh P B. 1958. In Essential Oils and Aromatic Chemicals, Symposium held
at Dehradun, 6-9 October 1955, p 174.
Sarwar M. 1969. New and little known diseases and pests of aromatic plants in south
India. Indian Perfumer 17: 52-4.
Sarwar M. 1973. Impact of Fusarium wilt on the production of geranium oil. Indian
perfumer 17: 52-4.
Sarwar M, Parmeswaran T N, Shanmugam C and Narayana M R. 1982. Chemical and
cultural management of wilt of geranium. Indian Perfumer 26 (2-4): 122^1.
Sharan P Angadi and T Vasanth Kumar. 1995. Scented geranium, Chadha K L and
Gupta R (Eds) Advances in Horticulture: Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Vol II,
pp 667-84. Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi.
Vasantha Kumar T and Srivastava H C. 2003. IIHR-PG-8 a high yielding variety of
scented geranium (Pelargonium graveolens Herit).
Anise
(.Pimpinella anisum Linn.)
Anise (Umbelliferae) is also called Aniseed, Sweet Cumin, Jintan, Saunf, Dill
and Sulpha.

The word pimpinella was derived from Latin word dipinella and the word
anisum was derived from Arabian word anysun. Anise is a native of Egypt,
Greece, Crete and Asia Minor and was cultivated by the ancient Egyptians. It
was well known to the Greeks and was cultivated in Tuscany. Later on its
cultivation spread to central Europe. In Britain anise has been in use since the
fourteenth century, and has been cultivated in English gardens from the middle
of the sixteenth century. However, it ripens its seeds here only in very warm
summers, and it is chiefly in warmer districts. It is grown on a commercial
Anise
scale in southern Russia, Bulgaria, Germany, Malta, Spain, Italy, north Africa
and Greece. It has also been introduced into south America and India. In India
anise is being cultivated in certain pockets of northern and southern states.
Anise is a dainty, white-flowered umbelliferous annual, about 45.72 to 60.96
cms high, with secondary feather-like leaflets of bright green colour. The
cultivated plant attains a considerably larger size than the wild one.
Part used: Seeds and whole herb.
Varieties
The commercial varieties differ considerably in size, but the larger varieties
alone are accepted.
• The Spanish Anise, sold as Alicante Anise, are the largest and the best
adapted for pharmaceutical use, yielding about 3 per cent oil.
• Russian and German fruits are smaller and darker and are the variety
generally used for distillation of the volatile oil.
High yielding varieties resistant to diseases and pests should be developed.
Chemical constituents of oil

Anise fruit yields on distillation a fragrant, syrupy, volatile oil from 2.5 to
3.5% of which Anethol, present to about 90 per cent, is the principal aromatic
constituent. It has a strong anise odor and separates in the form of shining
white crystalline scales on cooling the oil. Other constituents of the fruit are a
fixed oil Choline, Acetaldehyde, Alpha-pinene, Alpha-terpineol, Alpha-
zingiberene, Anisaldehyde, Anisic-acid, Anisyl-alcohol, Ar-curcumene,
Ascorbic-acid, Bergapten, Beta-bisabolene, Beta-pinene, Boron, Caffeic-acid,
Calcium, Camphene, Chlorogenic-acid, Choline, Copper, D-carvone,
Dianethole, Estragole, Eugenol, Fiber, Furfural, Hydroquinone, Imperatorin,
Iron, Isoorientin, Isovitexin, Limonene, Linalool, Magnesium, Manganese,
Mannitol, Methyl-chavicol, Myristicin, P-cresol, Phellandrene, Phosphorus,
Potassium, Rutin, Scoparone, Scopoletin, Seselin, Squalene, Stigmasterol,
Trans-anethole, Umbelliferone, Zinc etc.
Uses
• In Virgil’s time, Anise was used as a spice. Mustacae, a spiced cake of
the Romans introduced at the end of a rich meal, to prevent indigestion,
consisted of meal, with Anise, cumin and other aromatics.
• In Germany and other countries, many cakes have an aniseed flavoring.
Anise is also used in flavoring of soups.
• It is largely employed in France, Spain, Italy and south America in the
preparation of cordial liqueurs (Delamer, 1861). The liqueur Anisette
ANISE 171
added to cold water on a hot summer’s day, makes a most refreshing

drink.
• The oil extracted from the seed is said to prove a capital bait for mice,
if smeared on traps. It is poisonous to pigeons.
• The leaves are useful for seasoning some dishes. Its fungicidal attribute
was proved by Singh et al in 1998.
• The essential oil of anise is a good preventive of mould.
• Anise enjoys considerable reputation as a medicine in coughs and
pectoral affections. In dry coughs where expectoration is difficult, it is
of much value. It is greatly used in the form of lozenges and the seeds
have also been used for smoking, to promote expectoration.
• The volatile oil, mixed with wine forms the liqueur Anisette, which
has a beneficial action on the bronchial tubes, and for bronchitis and
spasmodic asthma. Anisette if administered in hot water, is an immediate
palliative.
• For infantile catarrh, Aniseed tea is very helpful. It is made by pouring
half a pint of boiling water on 2 teaspoons full of bruised seed. This
sweetened is given cold in doses of 1 to 3 teaspoons full frequently.
• The stimulant and carminative properties of Anise makes it useful in
flatulency and colic. It is used as an ingredient of cathartic and aperient
pills, to relieve flatulence and diminish the griping of purgative
medicines, and may be given with perfect safety in convulsions. For
colic, the dose is 10 to 30 grains of bruised or powdered seeds infused
in distilled water, taken in wineglassful doses, or 4 to 20 drops of the
essential oil on sugar.
• For the restlessness due to languid digestion, a dose of essence of
aniseed in hot water at bedtime is much commended.
• Anise oil is a good antiseptic and is used, mixed with oil of peppermint.
• Langham (1683) says that for the dropsie, fill a cock with aniseeds and
shake well, afterward drink the broth.
• Oil of Anise is also used against insects especially when mixed with
oil of Sassafras and Carbolic oil.
• Essential oil is used for flavoring.
• Seeds are used for seasoning cakes, breads, and cookies.
• Leaves used in soups, sauces, and salads.
• Anise can help to induce production of milk in nursing mothers.
• Anise has excellent digestive property (Gangrade et al 1989; Homok,
1992; and Chevallier, 1996)
Anise is propagated by seeds. Sow the seed in light soil in June, where the
plants are to remain. When they come up, thin them and keep them clean from
weeds. Allow about ten inches each way. In cold climate seeds may also be
sown in pots in heat and removed to a warm site in May. It has light
requirements of sun. Water supply and sowing date are two important factors
those affect grain yield and essential oil content. (Randhawa et al. 1992; and
Fazecas et al. 1981). Saeed Zehtab-Salmasi et al. (2004) based on their
experiments have mentioned that for higher grain and essential oil production,
and for efficient use of water, anise must be sown early in the spring (April 4
to 16) in Tabriz. Water deficit during stem elongation and umbel appearance
reduced WUE in producing dry matter and essential oil, but irrigation disruption
during grain-filling period had no significant effect on WUE of anise. The
plant flowers in September, and if the season prove warm, will ripen in autumn,
when the plants are cut down and the seeds threashed out.
Processing
The fruit, or so-called seeds, when thrashed out, may be easily dried in
trays, in a current of air in half-shade, out-of-doors, or by moderate heat.
When dry, they are greyish brown, ovate, hairy, about one-fifth of an inch
long, with ten crenate ribs and often have attached stalk. They should be free
from earthy matter. The taste is sweet and spicy, and the odor aromatic and
agreeable.
Extraction of oil
Oil of anise is distilled from the fruits of Pimpinella anisum (Anise) and in
China from the Star Anise fruit, is colourless, or very pale yellow, with taste
and odor like the fruit. The oils obtainable from these two fruits are identical
in composition, and nearly the same in most of their characters, but that from
Star Anise fruit congeals at a lower temperature. The oil is employed for its
aromatic, carminative and stimulant properties. The bulk of the oil in commerce
is obtained from the Star Anise fruit in China. The oil extracted from Chinese
anise oil is harsh in taste
Marketing
According to a recent website M/S Herb India in Tuticorin, Kerala is
arranging marketing and export of Anise (Pimpinella anisum).
Bibliography
Chevallier A. 1996. The Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants, p 44. Wolfe Publishing
Ltd, London.
Delamer. 1861. Kitchen Garden, in Grieve Botanical. Com A Modern Herbal.
Fazecas I, Borcean I, Tabara V, Lazar S, Samaila M and Nistoran I. 1981. Studies on
effects of fertilizers and sowing date on the yield and essential oil content in
Pimpinella anisum in the years 1978-1980. Agronomie 18: 84-91.
Gangrade S K, Shrivastav R D, Sharma O P, Iyer B G and Trivedi K C. 1989. Influence
ANISE 173
of micronutrients on yield and quality of Pimpinella anisum. Indian Perfumer

33 (2): 142-6.
Homok L. 1992. Cultivation and processing of medicinal plants, pp. 338. Academic
Publication, Budapest.
Langha. 1683. Garden Health, in Grieve Botanical. Com A Modem Herbal.
Randhawa G S, Gill B S and Raychaudhuri S P. 1992. Optimising agronomic
requirements of anise (Pimpinella anisum L.) in the Punjab. (In) Recent advances
in medicinal, aromatic and spice crops. Volume 2. International conference held
on 28-31 January 1989, at New Delhi, India, pp. 413-6.
Saeed Zehtab-Salmasi, Aziz Javanshir, Reza Omidbaigi, Houshang Alyari and Kazem
Ghassemi-Golezani. 2004. Effects of water supply and sowing date on water use
efficiency of anise (.Pimpinella anisum L.), Fourth International Crop Science
Congress.
Sigh S P, Rao G P and Upadhyay P P. 1998. Fungitoxicity of essential oils of some
aromatic plants against sugarcane pathogens. Sugarcane 2: 14-7.
www.indianindustry.com. 2005. Pimpinella anisum manufacturer and supplier.
Directory of Indian Suppliers, http/www.indianindustry. com/spice/8396, html.
Patchouli
[Pogostemon Cablin (Blaco) Benth. syn P. patchouli Pill]
Patchouli (Lamiaceae) is also called Patcholii, Pacholi and Patchpan.

Origin of Patchouli is Phillippines, it grows wild in Malaysia, Indonesia
and Singapore. Commercially it is cultivated in Indonesia, Malaysia, China
and Brazil (Virmani et al. 1976). Vasantha Kumar (2001) reported that its
cultivation extends in Paraguay, Penang, West Indies, Subtropical Himalayas
and Deccan Peninsula. Now to limited extent it is cultivated around Bengaluru,
Mysore, coastal area of south India, Bengal and Asom (Vasantha Kumar, 2001).
Its cultivation is being extended to Odisha, and Arunachal Pradesh. It may be
cultivated in Andaman and Nicobar also. Production of patchouli oil in India
is negligible (about 150 kg/year). India is importing over 20 tonnes of patchouli
Patchouli
PATCHOULI 175
oil from Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and China. The total world production
is around 800 tonnes (Farooqi et al. 2000).
Patchouli is an erect, branched, pubescent herb. Leaves are ovate to oblong,
densely tomentose on both surfaces, petiole 6-8 cm. Stem densely tomentose
and swollen on the nodes. Spikes are terminal and axillary. Flowers are small
and usually in spikes. Corolla tube is white with purple streaks. Each lip of
corolla has two lobes, upper lip is longer than lower lip. Stamens are four.
Ovary is four-lobed, superior with two united carpels with a long style arising
from center (Cobley and Stele, 1976).

Chromosomal number of patchouli is 2n=34. The strain Johore along with
other four strains was evaluated at Indian Institute of Horticultural Research,
Bengaluru and Division of Horticulture of University of Agricultural Sciences,
Bengaluru. Oil of Johore is light yellow in colour and is of superior quality
and odour value. It contains 44.78% of patchouli alcohol. Ratooning capacity
was however found to be moderate.
Parts of use: Foliage, flower and essential oil.
Uses
• Essential oil is mainly used in the perfume industry.
• Patchouli oil has strong fixative property and helps to prevent rapid
evaporation of perfume and there by promotes tenacity.
• It is used in a wide range of soaps, body lotions, pre-shave and post
shave lotions.
• On blending with sandalwood oil it gives one of the attars widely used
in soaps, cosmetics, tobacco and in candescent sticks.
• Dry patchouli leaves may be used for scenting wardrobes.
• The leaves and tops are used in water for taking bath due to its anti -
rheumatic action.
• Decoction from the leaves with other drugs are used to treat cold,
headaches, vomiting, nausea and diarrhoea (Leung, 1980) in China.
• An allied species P. heyneanus is reported to have anti-cancer property
(Purushothaman et al. 1985).
• Patchouli oil is extensively used as a flavor ingredient in major food
products including alcoholic and non alcoholic beverages, frozen dairy
desserts, candy baked goods, gelatin, meat and meat products.
• Due to its insect repellent action, it has been used to drive away
mosquitoes, ants, moths, flies, gnats. To prevent woollen clothes and
expensive dresses from ravages of moths and insects, it is used in
wardrobe, almirah etc.

• All over orient commonly used for poisonous snake bites and stings of
various animals, mosquitoes etc. In case of poisonous snake bites like
cobra, etc. 100% pure oil is put on cotton/cloth and applied on the
bitten surface immediately as first aid and until reaching to the doctor
or find instruments to cut and clean the wound. After that 50% oil
mixed with 50% of any base oil such as cold pressed sesame, coconut,
sweet almond, grape seed, wheat germ or sandalwood oil is mixed and
applied twice daily until the wound gets completely healed. In case of
stings of various animals, bugs, mosquitoes 25% oil mixed with 75%
base oil could be applied until it gets normal.
• It has a unique quality of cell regeneration on the skin as well as kills
bacteria, mask bad odoor of the wounds and helps healing it.
• Due to its antifungal action, it has been used for skin infection, eczema,
ache, swelling due to infection, specially cracked skin scar tissues and
cracked foot collect athlete’s foot.
• It has excellent qualities of diruretic, carminative, antiseptic and
antiinflammatory.
• It is good as antidandruff. Take any herbal shampoo, use one gram
patchouli oil, mix it with 20 grams shampoo and keep it. During bath/
shower apply it on your head as well as hair and massage it for a few
minutes all over the skull. It will not only kill dandruff but also help
skin of the head to grow thick and strong hair. It also helps to keep hair
in its natural color, preventing them from getting grey.
• In scanty urine, Vi drop oil mixed with 4 gram basil seeds powder
(■Ocimum basilicum). This powder has been divided into 3 parts and
given three times in a day after meals. It cleans the system and calms
down excessive heat of the body.
• In Philippines an infusion of the fresh leaves is given in menstrual
troubles.
• The juice of leaves are used to repel leeches.
• Its use is said to cause sometimes loss of appetite and sleep and nervous
attacks. The Chinese, Japanese and Arabs believe it to possess
prophylactic properties.
Varieties
Five imported cultivars have been tested for several years at the Division
of Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, Indian Institute of Horticultural Research,
Bengaluru. The imported cultivars are: Singapore,Johore, Indonesia, Java,
Malaysia.
Among the five exotic cultivars tested, Java and Singapore strains showed
higher herbage yield while the oil content was less. But the Johore, Indonesian
PATCHOULI 177
and Malaysian strains showed higher oil yield of good quality.

Industrial tests have revealed that Johore is the best of all and therefore has
been recommended to farmers for commercial cultivation of patchouli
(Vasantha Kumar and Srivastava, 2002). Higher yielding varieties with
resistance to diseases and pests should be developed.
Chemical constituents of patchouli oil

Oil of patchouli is thick, the colour being brownish-yellow tinted green. It
contains coerulein, the vivid blue compound found in matricaria, wormwood
and other oils. Oil of patchouli contains 4(M15% of alcohol. This constituent
is not responsible for the aroma of oil. A ketone with orris like smell, other
two bases possessing a strong benumbing odour, ozulene and a sesquiterpene
alcohol, p-patchoulene, terpene, cadinene, benzaldehyde and patchouli alcohol
have been found in small amount by chromatography (Guenther, 1952; Bates
and Slagel 1962; Koul and Nigam, 1966). A crystalline fraction of
sesquiterpenic alcohol patchoul phenol have been identified. It is levorotatory,
with the specific gravity of 0.970 to 0.990 at 15°C. (59°F.). Patchouli oil is
soluble in paraffin oil, fixed oils and alchohol. It is insoluble in water.
Pathchouli is a hardy plant and can be cultivated in a wide range of soil and
climatic conditions. Plant grows best in damp and warm climate with evenly
distributed rainfall from 1,500-3,000 mm/annum with a dry spell no longer
than 12-14 weeks. Successful cultivation is also possible in plains at low
altitude, provided planting is done on ridges ensuring proper drainage in the
field. pH of soil should be about 6.5. Humidity of 75% is ideal for patchouli.
It grows successfully upto an altitude of 800-1050 m above sea level.
Propagation
The crop flowers under NE conditions but does not set seeds due to sterile
pollens hence propagated vegetatively by stem cuttings. Propagation is done
through (i) rooted terminal cutting and (ii) tissue culture plants. This is the
reason why quick propagation of the plant is not possible and extension of
plants on commercial scale is slow. The cost of planting material makes the
cultivation cost quite high which may often lead to less return in first year.
Propagation by cutting is generally preferred.
Nursery raising and transplanting

Stem cuttings from 9 months old branches of 10-12 cm length consisting
of 4-5 nodes especially with the terminal bud and crown of 2-3 leaves are
quite suitable. The basal end of the cutting should be neatly cut in oblique
form just above 1 cm below the node. Treatment with 1500 ppm indole butyric
acid of the basal end encourages rooting. The cuttings should then be planted
in nursery beds with the help of dippler at a spacing of about 10 cm or in 6 x
6 inches polythene bags. The cutting takes about 30 days for rooting in nursery
and in about 10 weeks they are ready for transplantation.
The field before transplantation is thoroughly ploughed and levelled.
Furadan @ 20 kg/ha (3% a.i) is mixed well into the soil a few days before
transplanting. Then ridges and furrows are formed. The ridges should be 25
cm high and 18-20 cm broad with 60 cm row to row distance. Plantation is
done at the space of 60 cm in rows. Transplantation in July-August result in
about 90% establishment.
Manure and fertilizers

Ten cartloads of FYM is mixed at time of field preparation. Before
transplanting 25 kg nitrogen, 50 kg phosphorus and 50 kg potash should be
applied. Thereafter nitrogen is given in 5 split doses after every harvest in
such a way that the crop receives first dose just after the harvest and other
dose after 2 months. In total, 150 kg nitrogen is applied to the crop.
Plant protection for patchouli:
• Leafblight disease is caused by Cercospora sp. on margin or top and
can be controlled by giving two sprays of Dithane Z-78 (0.5%) at
monthly intervals (Sarwar et al 1983).
• Fungus Altemaria alternata (Fr) Keissker also found to infect the plant
and can be treated by using fungicides dithane M-45 and captan.
• Wilting disease is caused by Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn. In this roots
and collar region of fully grown plant blackens and dies.
• Viral disease yellow mosaic has been found affecting the plant. Such
plants should be uprooted and burnt.
« Caterpillar and leaf webber are the two pests attacking patchouli plant.
They can be controlled by spraying metacid at 2% or methyl parathion
(Raghupathy et al. 1979; Sarwar et al. 1983).
• Root knot of patchouli caused by a nematode Meloidogyne incognita
can be controlled by suitable nematicides and proper crop management
practices.
Distillation of oil
Extraction is done by steam distillation process. The dried herbage is put
nicely into the herbage chamber of the machinery and steam is passed under
particular pressure (25 to 30 pounds/square inch) for particular time (8.5 hours).
In first half-hour about 40% oil is gained, rest is gained afterwards. The steam
takes away the patchouli essential oil. It passes through the condenser. Steam
gets condensed into water and oil vapour get condensed into essential oil.
Being lighter than water essential oil floats. Essential oil is then separated and
PATCHOULI 179
packed properly for sending to market.
Yield
A good crop yields about 2 tonnes of dry leaves per annum and about 60 kg
of oil/ha/annum.
Economic viability
Studies have indicated that in first year net profit is ^ 42,610 and in second
year net profit is ^ 48,614 as detailed below:
Total cost in first year cultivation and extraction of oil ? 21,390.00

Net earning in first year
64 kg oil yield @ ? 1000/kg t 64,000.00
Cost of cultivation and extraction ? 21,390.00
Net profit in first year/ha ? 42,610.00
Total cost in second year for cultivation and extraction ? 15,386.00
Net earning in second year
Yield 64 kg oil @ t 1000 per kg ? 64,000.00
Cost of cultivation and extraction ? 15,386.00
Net profit/ha in second year t 48,614.00
Harvesting
An index of harvest is that foliage colour changes from pale green to
brownish and a characteristic sweet odour of patcholi emanates. Subsequent
harvesting can be taken after every 3-4 months depending on the local
conditions. While harvesting, the length of top cuts should range from 50-60
cm. It is necessary to leave 6-8 cm at the basal region for regeneration.
Harvesting is done with the help of sharp sickle or secateure. The crop can be
maintained for about 2 years. After harvest the material is spread in thin layer
for 7-8 days and periodic turning is required for proper drying. Dried material
is pressed into bales and stored in cool dry place till distilled. Normally crops
have the life span of 18 months. Research should be done to increase its life
which may lead to the development of high yielding clones for longer durations.
Bibliography
Ahmed M. 2002. Patchouli an ideal aromatic crop of commercial importance, North
Eastern Development Finance Corporation Ltd, pp. 23-36.
Angadi S P and Vasantha Kumar T V. 1995. Patchouli. Recent advances in Horticulture,
Vol.ll {Medicinal and Aromatic Plants), pp 751-72. Chadha K L and Gupta,
Bates R B and Slagel R C. 1962. Beta-butnesene gamma-guaienea patchoulene and
guaioxide in essential oils. Chem. bid. 39: 1715-6.
Cobley L S and Stele W M. 1976. Introduction to the Botany of Tropical Crops,
Longman, London & New York.
Farooqi A A, Vasundhara M and Srinivasappa K N. 2000. Patchouli A Guide to the

Cultivation of Commercially Important Aromatic Crops. University of Agricultural
Sciences, Bengaluru.
Guenther E. 1952. Recent development in essential oil production- Patchouli oil.
Economic Botany 6(4): 355.
Koul G L and Nigam S S. 1966. Studies in Indian essential oils. Part 1 chromatography.
Perfume Essen. Oil Rec. 57(2): 19-7.
Leung A V. 1980. Encyclopedia of Common Natural Ingredient Used in Food, Drugs
and Cosmetics, p 261. John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Purushothaman K K, Sharda A, Mathuram V, Brinda P, Shashikala E and Rukmani S.
1985. Pharmacognostic and Chemotaxonomic studies in some Indian medicinal
plants.
Raghupathy A, Vadivel E and Kulasekar M. 1979. Occurrence of leaf webber
(Pachyzancia acegrotatis Zell) on patchouli (Pogostemon patchouli Benth) in
lower Pulneys, Tamil Nadu. Ind. Perfum. 23 (2): 131-2.
Sarwar M, Nary ana M R and Virmani O P. 1983. Patchouli and its cultivation in
India. Farm Bulletin No. 17, CIMAP, Lucknow.
Vasantha Kumar. 2001. Compendium, Indian Institute of Horticultural Research,
Bengaluru, pp 48-53.
Vasundhara M, K M Ramachandran and Farooqui A A. 2002. Prospects of promoting
patcouli cultivation. University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru.
Prabu M J. 2006. Patchouli: A suitable aromatic herb for intercropping. The Hindu,
September 7, 2006.
Vasantha Kumar T V, Srivastava H C and Shivananda T N. 2002. Johore—a promising
variety of patchouli, technology of its cultivation, extraction of oil and economic
viability. Workshop on commercialization of patchouli in NE Region. Dispur -
Guwahati Assam 9-11 April 2002.
Virmani O P, Gulati B C and Dutta S C. 1967. Recent production of some important
essential oils in India. Perfum. Essen. Oil Rec. 58(9): 618-21.
Srivastava H C. 2006. Pogostemon patchouli Pellet (Patchouli) Production and
Marketing of Medicinal and Aromatic Crops in India, Bengaluru, pp 275-82.
Tuberose
(Polianthus tuberosa Linn.)
Tuberose (Amaryllidaceae) is also called Gulcheri, Gulshabo, Rajnigandha,

Nilasampangi and Sugandharaja.

Tuberose was first reported to be cultivated in Mexico (1522). Later on in
16th century it was cultivated in Europe and then it spread to India and
Sri Lanka. Tuberose is grown largely in southern states of America, Italy,
France, South Africa, Taiwan, Egypt and in many tropical and subtropical
areas in the world. In India, cultivation of tuberose is confined to Ranaghat,
Kolaghat and Panskura in West Bengal: Devanahalli, Tumkur and Mysore in
Karnataka. East Godavari Guntur, Chitoor and Krishna Districts in Andhra
Tuberose
Pradesh; Coimbatore in Tamil Nadu and Pune and Thane in Maharashtra.

Highly priced scent ‘poison’ is made exclusively from tuberose essential oil.
Description of the plant

Plants of tuberose are small structured arising from tuberous rhizome.
Leaves are basal long narrow and very dense. Flowers are bisexual, usually
paired, appear in long simple terminal racemes. Perianth tubular or funnel
shaped. Perianth tube cylindrical expanded at top. Stamens are six in number
on the perianth and anthers are dorsifixed in the middle. Ovary is trilocular
with numerous ovules having three stigma. Fruit is a capsule, crowned by the
persistent perianth. Seeds are flat.

Tuberose has the characters of dichogamy and self incompatibility. Crosses
between ‘single’ and ‘double’ varieties produce fruits and seeds, if the
pollination is done within 3 days of flowering in female flowers. If the stigma
is pollinated at the bud stage till the first day of flower opening, the pollen
tube does not develop. However, the pollen tube develops normally if the
pollination is done after 3 days of flower opening. Crosses between ‘single’
and ‘double’ varieties produce fruits and seeds. On selfing neither double
varieties nor single varieties produce any seed due to incompatibility. However,
it has been found that several single varieties produce seeds on selfing.
Parts used: Flowers, leaves, bulbs, roots and essential oil.
Uses of tuberose
• Tuberose is an ornamental plant. The flowers are utilized in decorations.
• Tuberose flower oil is one of the most sought after and expensive
perfumery raw materials. This otto mixes with other essential oils.
• Tuberose oil is used to flavor candy, beverages and baked foods.
• The oil has been found to be added in the items like non-alcoholic
beverages like ice-creams and candy.
• The alkaloid present in the tuberose bulb causes vomiting.
• The bulbs are considered to be hot, diuretic and emitic.
• The bulbs are dried and powdered and used for treating Gynorrhoea.
(Watt, 1892)
• The bulbs are rubbed with turmeric and butter and applied as a paste to
remove small red pimples of new bom babies.
Improved varieties of tuberose are:
• Shringar: it is single type, yield about 16 tonnes of flowers/hectare
containing over 0.1% concrete. It was developed by the Indian Institute
of Horticultural Research (IIHR ), Bengaluru.
• Prajwal: It is single type. Yield is slightly more than Shringar. Released
TUBEROSE 183
from IIHR, Bengaluru in the year 2000. It may be used for extraction
of essential oil.
• Suvasini: It is double type and preferred as ornamental type. It is a
variety having excellent yield developed by IIHR, Bengaluru.
• Single: Its flowers are pure white with only one row of corolla segments.
It is preferred for production of essential oil. Concrete content is about
0.1%
• Semi-double: Its flowers are white with two to three rows of corolla
segments. It is a floricultural variety.
• Double: Flowers of this floricultural variety are white having more
than three rows of corolla segments.
• Pearl: Flowers of this floricultural variety are tinged with red in
‘Double’.
• Variegated: This floricultural variety has beautiful streaked leaves.
• Rajat rekha: It is an Indian mutant in which a single flower type with
silvery white streaks placed along the middle of the blade. It is a
floricultural variety.
• Swama rekha: This floricultural variety is an Indian mutant having the
flower of double type and the leaf margins are streaked with golden
yellow.
• Coloured tuberose types: IIHR, Bengaluru has developed light pink,
light green and yellow buded strains. These are new ornamental types
developed for first time in Asia. However, the yield of flower in this
plant is low. (Srivastava, 2002).
• High essential oil tuberose: In an ICAR adhoc research scheme in Indian
Institute of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru a strain was developed
which produced almost 0.25% concrete. However, this strain had very
poor yield of flowers (Srivastava, 2002).
For growth of export there is need to breed tuberose for high essential oil
content, its high quality and resistance to diseases and pests.Other floricultural
varieties are albino and exelsor.
Chemical constituents of essential oil

Tuberose essential oil is found to have methyl benzoate, methyl anthranilate,
benzyl alcohol, benzyl benzoate, butyric acid, phenyl acetic acid, methyl
salicylate, eugenol, geraniol, nerol, both free and as acetates and farnesol.
Methyl vanillin and piperomel is also found.
Tuberose plant is sun loving. It grows well in tropical and subtropical
climate. Ideal temperature is 20-35 degree centigrade. Over 40 degree
centigrade as well as low temperature and frost damages the plants and flower
quality. In mild climate, free from extremes of high and low temperature it
can flower throughout the year. Tuberose is susceptible to wide range of soil
varying from light sandy loam to clay loam. For tuberose at least one and half
feet deep well drained soil rich in organic matter with good water holding
capacity, pH ranging from 6.5- 7.5 is preferred. It is susceptible to poor drainage
conditions. The soil is exposed to sun during first ploughing. About 40 tonnes
of farmyard manure is mixed well in soil uniformly and second ploughing is
done one month before planting. Harrowing and cultivator are run cross wise
and field is well leveled.
Multiplication of tuberose is done commercially by bulbs. Spindle shaped
bulbs of average diameter of 1.5 cm or above free from disease should be used
for planting. Large bulbs (3-3.5 cm diameter) results in better quality and yield
of flower. Under Bengaluru and Mysore conditions it can be planted throughout
the year but to obtain highest flower yield April-May planting is the best. Bulb
should be planted at about 1 cm depth at a distance of 15 x 20 cm. It results in
3.33 lakh plants/ha. These sprout in about 10-15 days. Tuberose needs somewhat
more irrigation. Interculture, weeding, manuring must be attended.
Harvesting
Fully open flowers are harvested early morning and taken to extraction
house for extraction by organic solvents.
Yield and price

In first two years the variety Shringar (single type) yields about 16 tonnes
loose flowers/ha/year. In third year flower yield remains about 10 tonnes per
hectare. Yield of spike is about 5 lakh spikes/ha. Yield depends on agroclimate
and field management. Price of tuberose absolute is ^ 1,00,000/kg.
Plant protection
• Aphids and grasshopper attacking the plant can be controlled by
spraying 1% of melathion or rogor at the regular interval of 15 days.
• Red spider mites are controlled by metasystox or kelthane spray.
• Thrips attack can be prevented by spraying nuvacron or soil application
of thimet.
• Weevil feeds on leaves and this damage can be controlled by the
treatment of the soil.
• Root-knot nematodes cause death of the plant. For controlling it timik,
thimet or furadon are used.
• Fungi Sclerotium rolfsii attack the plant and is capable of causing severe
damage to the flowers. For controlling it, soil around the affected stem,
should be mixed with brassicol 0.75 W.P. (1% suspension) and Zineb
75 W.P. (drenching soil with 0.3% solution) should be done.
• Leaf spot caused by Alternaria polyantha. Spraying of 1 % of Bordeaux
TUBEROSE 185
mixture, 0.4% of Zineb or 0.5% of Ziram is recommended to treat the

disease.
• Spraying of sulphur is done to control the attacks by rusts and powdery
mildew.

The essential oil is extracted from flower of tuberose. The flowers are
subjected to processing in extraction machine. The flowers are dipped in food
grade hexane for 3 times, i.e. 40 m, 30 m and 20 m. Afterwards, the flowers
are discarded. The liquid (miscela) is heated at 60° C. The gasified hexane is
passed through a good condenser and collected for reuse. The remaining small
amount of thick liquid is passed into a vacuum drier. After drying, the matter
is called ‘tuberose concrete’. It is a brown coloured waxy material having the
true aroma of tuberose flowers. Traces of solvent smell from concrete is
removed by the help of vaccum drier. One kg of concrete is obtained from
1,000 kg of flowers normally.
To make the absolute, the tuberose concrete is dissolved in absolute alcohol.
At cold temperature of 3°C it is filtered properly. The resultant material is
called ‘Tuberose absolute’. It is semi-viscous brown coloured material having
the true odor of tuberose flowers. Quality parameters of the absolute are
determined by gas liquid chromatography. Tuberose absolute is used for
blending purpose to make high trade perfumes and other essential oil products.
Recovery of absolute is about 40% of the concrete.Tuberose absolute contain
methyl benzoate, methyl anthranilate, benzyl alcohol, benzyl benzoate,
eugenol, geraniol, nerol, famesol, methyl vanillin and piperomet.
Marketing
Tuberose concrete and absolute are exported to France, Italy, Europe and
Japan. Domestic consumption is negligible. Marketing of this high value
product needs proper attention by government. Price of tuberose essential oil
is ^ 1,00,000/per kg.
Economic viability
Tuberose gives good yield for two years. The total cost of cultivation and
extraction/ha for the first year is ^ 4,58,167 gross and the eaming/net return in
respect to/ha in the first year is ^ 24,1,833. The total cost of production and
extraction in the second year is ^ 2,88,500 and the earning or net profit/ha is
^ 5,71,500.
Bibliography
Bhattacharjee S K. 1995. Tuberose. Recent Advances in Horticulture, Vol. 11
{Medicinal and Aromatic Crops), pp 859-77. Edts. Chadha K L and Gupta

Chandra V. 1973. Cultivation of plants for perfumery industries at Lucknow. Indian
Perfumer 16 (1): 40-4.
Guenther E. 1952. Concrete and absolute of tuberose. The Essential Oils, Vol. 5,
343-8. D. Van Nostrand Co. Inc. New York.
Guenther E. 1956. Chemical Abstract 50: 8971.
Helleyer AG L. 1956. Senders Encyclopedia of Gardening, 22nd edition, p 389. W.H.L.
Collingridge Ltd.
Indira Raja M, Devrajan L, Kanakabhusani K. 1976. Studies on extraction of essential
oil from flowers. Madras Agricultural Journal 63 (4): 253-54.
Rose J N. Studies on Mexican and Central American Plants. No.3 Cnt US National
Herbarium 8: 1-55.
Srivastava H C and Sridhar C J. 2002. Tuberose (.Polianthus tuberose Linn.) for high
concrete and coloured floral buds. Plant Archives 2 (2).
Srivastava H. C. 2006. Polianthus tuberose Linn. (Tuberose). Production and
Marketing of Medicinal and Aromatic Crops in India, pp 283-9.
Steenstra. 1986. Tuberose. Recent Advances in Horticulture, Vol. 11 (Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants). Chadha K L and Gupta, Rajendra (Eds). Malhotra Publishing
House, New Delhi.
Ramchandraiah O S, Gautama O S, Azeemoddin G and Tirumala Rao S D. 1987.
Proc. viii PAFAI Seminar, pp 116-8.
Watt G. 1992. Tuberose. Dictionary of Economic Products of India, Vol 6, Part 1, pp
312-3. E H Allen and S W Publisher Co., Calcutta.
Damask rose
(Rosaxdamascena Mill.)
Damask rose (Rosaceae) is also called Tarunipushpa, Atimanjula, Simantika,

Khushbu Gulab and Scented Rose.
Distribution
It is distributed in Bulgaria, France, Italy, Turkey, USSR, China and India.
In India it is commercially cultivated in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh (Aligarh, Ghazipur, and Ballia), Rajasthan (Haldighati,
Pushkar and Udaipur) and Bihar. Total area in India is about 2500 hectares.
More area under damask rose is in northern plains, while north-western
Himalayas region are most suitable for its cultivation. Bulgaria and Turkey
are leading countries for production of rose oil. Morocco produces mainly
rose water. India, Pakistan, Egypt, China, France and the former Soviet Union
are among other countries which produce rose oil, rose water, concrete and
Damask Rose
absolute . Approximately 15 tonnes rose oil, rose concrete and absolute are
produced annually by these countries. Gulab attar is important in India which
is produced by blending of sandalwood oil with rose fragrance ( Kaul, 1995).
Plant description
Damask rose is a perennial hardy shrub with a long life span of 20-30
years under cultivation. The height of plant is 2-3 m. Several moderately
stout hooked falcate prickles are found on stem, intermixed with glandular
bristles. Leaves are compound, stipulate, imparipinnate having 5-7 leaflets.
The stipules are adnate. The leaflets are moderately large, ovate to oblong and
serrate. Flower is axillary, terminal in corymbose, occurring in group of 5-7.
They are of varied colouration from white, pink to red and have a sweet smell.
The pedicle possesses densely packed acicular and hispid glands. The sepals
are pinnate and persistent. Fruit is pseudobaccate made of several hard achenes
enclosed within a succulent calyx tube. The fruits are ovoid, bright red and
pulpy. Plants of damask rose has wide adoptability to various agroclimatic
conditions. Total life span of damask rose vary from 15 to 30 years including
2-3 years of gestation period.

Rosa damascena is considered of hybrid origin (Chandra, 1995). Genetic
studies have revealed that there are two types of damask rose. One type of
damask rose got developed from hybridisation of Rosa galbia x Rosa
phoenicea. Other type of damask rose known as Rosa bifera has been developed
by hybridisation of Rosa galbia x Rosa inoschata. Rosa damascena is a
tetraploid having 2n=28. (Patra et al. 1987) reported two morphologically
distinct types of rose plants intermixed under cultivation in district Aligarh
(Uttar Pradesh). These were dwarf and tall types. Dwarf type have one meter
height with short peduncles and drooping habit. It had 150 flowers/bush/year
and had oil content of 0.064 %. On other hand tall type was above one meter
with long peduncles and straight stem. It had only 30 to 40 flowers/bush/year
and had oil content of only 0.03%. Patra et al. (1987) have compared evaluation
of four clones, ie. RSL 31, 76, 87 and 88 with Bulgarian Rose and RL
19. They have found RSL 31 as the best strain.
Varieties
Several varieties mentioned below have been reported:
• Triginipetala is also called Kanzalik Rose and is grown in Bulgaria.
• Bifera is grown in Kannuaj district of Uttar Pradesh.
• Noorjehan has been developed by the Central Institute of Medicinal
and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow.
• Jwala and Himroz have been developed by the Institute of Himalayan
DAMASK ROSE 189
Bioresources Technology (IHBT), Palampur (Himachal Pradesh). These

varieties give consistently high flower and oil yield when grown under
recommended agronomic conditions.Jwala variety is suitable for
cultivation in sub tropical northern plains, mid hills and mild temperate
regions upto 1,200 m altitude. Himroz variety is suitable for cultivation
in mild temperate to cold temperate regions (1,200 to 2,500 m altitude
). It is winter-tolerant and grows in temperate areas without any visual
sign of winter injury to flower buds. There is a need of taking up varietal
improvement regarding yield and resistance to diseases and pests for
different agro-botanic, climatic and soil regions of India.
Chemical constituents of damask rose essential oil

The constituents of rose oil are Ethanol (1.2%), Rose oxide (1.3%), Linalool
(2.3%), Rhodinol, Nerol (12.4%), Geraniol (34.9%), Phenyl ethyl alcohol
(7.4%), Citronellol (23.9%), Eugenol (1.6%) and some unidentified
constituents (15.0%).
Parts used:Flowers for production of essential oil and other products
Uses
• It has an aesthetic importance world wide.
• Rose concrete, rose absolute, rosewater, rose attar, gulkand, gul-rogan,
and pankhuri have important uses in perfumery.
• The flower, essential oil and other extraction products are also highly
prized materials in the fragrance, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals,
nutraceuticals and food industries.
Damask rose prefers cold and dry mild temperate climate for producing
quality grade rose oil with higher oil yield. It also performs well on foothills
of Shivalik range and north Indian plains with adequate rainfall or irrigation.
Areas receiving high temperature coupled with high humidity, such as coastal
peninsula and other similar south Indian zones are not suitable for Damask
rose cultivation.
Damask rose plantations prefer bright sunny conditions and performs better
when sun shine is available during whole day, if not at least during forenoon.
It can not be cultivated under tree plantation.
Damask rose is propagated through one year old stem cuttings. It can also
be propagated by the sub-division of stem, lateral sprouts, water shoots and
seeds. Stem cuttings are used for raising nursery at the time of pruning during
November-December. The rooting occurs within a year and afterwards rooted
cuttings can be transplanted in main field. Planting can be done in monsoon
(July/Aug.) but winter season (November-December) is preferred.
The land should be nicely ploughed in April and May. In rainy season the
land should be again ploughed, green manured with Dhaincha (Sesbania
bispinosa) or Sanai (Crotalaria juncea). By the end of October the land is
again ploughed and leveled. Afterwards the field is divided into beds of 6 m x
4 m for laying out of irrigation system. Pits measuring 0.3x0.3x0.3 meter
should be dug 1 m x 1 m apart. The pits are filled up by mixture of farm yard
manure and soil (1:1). Best time for planting is October to December, however
it can be done upto February with availability of irrigation facility.
Irrigations are necessary during dry periods but the frequency can be reduced
when the plants get established in the field. About 10 to 12 irrigations/year are
required. Proper drainage is required.
A good crop needs 200 kg N/ha in 3 equal doses. Phosphorus @ 50 kg/ha
should be applied around main stem of plants at depth of 3 to 5 cm after
pruning. Potassium should be applied at the rate of 20 kg/ha around main
stem if the soil is deficient in it. Spray of 0.1% urea, 0.4% orthophosphoric
acid and agromine every fortnight from end of January till commencement of
flowering is supposed to enhance yield of flowers .
Pruning is carried out to maintain the plant of desired size, to remove injured
and diseased parts, to remove the terminal buds, to change the growth habit
and for taking quantitative yield of flowers (Mansingh et al. 2002). First pruning
should be done after two years of plantation from second to third week of
December. It should be repeated every year. Pruning is done above 50 cm
above ground. It takes 70 to 90 days after pruning to flower.
Plant protection of damask rose:
• The die back is due to Diplodia rosarium which are treated by copper
fungicides. Also the application of Bordeux mixture (2 : 2 : 50 ) just
after pruning helps in controlling it.
• Whitish or greyish spot on leaves are checked by application of
cyclohenionide either alone or with combination with sulphur. Dusting
with sulfan at 25 kg/ha is also effective.
• Black spot disease is caused by Diplocarpon resea and is treated by
spraying 2 : 2 : 50 Bordeux mixture.
• Chlorosis of rose leaves are treated with the help of 0.1-0.2% spray of
ferric sulphate.
• To prevent the plants from ants soil should be treated with a mixture of
50% DDT at 3g/plant.
• Termites attack can be checked by the application of aldrin 30 EC at
25-30 kg/ha. Aphid attack is controlled by spraying tobacco decoction
or Duasion 20 E.C.
Flowering in Rosa damascena occurs only once in a year, that too for only
DAMASK ROSE 191
25-30 days during early summer period, though exact flowering period varies
from place to place. Before sun rise, the plant has more concentration of oil,
so the plucking of flower should be done early in the morning. Flowers are
transferred to well aerated wooden baskets before processing. Piling up of
fresh flowers should be avoided to prevent the quality and quantity
deterioration. Flowers are processed for different products immediately after
harvesting. Heavy losses of oil content occur when flowers are stored for
period longer than 4-5 hours.
Yield and economic viability

In India Damask rose is cultivated in about 2000 hectares, mainly in sub
tropical parts of the state of Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. To improve the
productivity of rose flower and oil, CIMAP, Lucknow introduced the Bulgarian
clone of Damask rose in the field station in Kashmir in late seventies, which
showed the fresh flower yield potential of 7,000 kg/ha against 1,000-1,250
kg/ha of Indian clone cultivated in major rose growing areas in sub tropical
plains. The yield of rose flower also depends on the time, height and frequency
of pruning. Average flower yield in well managed plantation is about three
tonnes/ha/year after third year of plantation. No information is available on
total production of rose flower in India. However, according to a report
published by HBTI, Kanpur about 10,000 tonnes of rose flowers are consumed
for production of perfume products annually in Uttar Pradesh.
Gross retum/ha is 1. 25 to 1. 50 lakh/year. Total cost of production is about
0.6 to 0.7 lakhs. Net return is around ^ 65,000 to 80,000/ha/year.

Soon after harvesting, the flowers are processed by hydro distillation, by
which it yields rose water, attar and otto. The method of hydro distillation
includes the suspension of flower in the boiling water. The vapours are then
collected by condensation. In India, the extraction is done by firing a copper
vessel called ‘deg’ covered with a cover of copper called “sarposk”. The vessel
has the capacity of 50-100 kg of flower. The distillate is collected in a long
necked receiver kept immersed in cold water. The receiver is called ‘shopka’.
The distillation takes place in about eight hours. The rose water is then collected
as distillate in the receiver. The flower left after distillation is discarded.
Bibliography
Arora S K and Kapoor K K. 1982. Rose and Rose Oil Industry in India. Status Report,
Regional Research Laboratory (CSIR), Jammu Tawi.
Chandra V. 1995. Oil bearing rose. Advances in Horticulture (Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants Vol. 11), pp 847-58. Chadha K L and Gupta, Rajendra (Eds) Malhotra
Kaul V K. 1995. Cultivation of damask rose (Rosa damascene Mill)-a profile. Institute
of Himalayan Bioresource Technology, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, pp 1-4.

Singh Man, Singh Aparbal, Singh Soudan, Singh Kailash and Singh H P. 2002.
Optimum time of pruning and comparative performance of Indian and Bulgarian
clones of Damask rose in sub tropical climate of central Uttar Pradesh. JMAPS
24 (4).
Narayanswami V and Biswas K. 1957. Survey of rose growing centres and rose industry
in India, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi, pp 1-3.
Patra N K, Srivastava H K, Srivastava K K and Naqui A A. 1987. Association of oil
content with floral characteristics of Rosa damascene Mill. Indian J. agric. Sci.
57 (12): 938-40.
Sharma M L, Singh A and Gupta M N. 1985. Rosa damascene Mill-a source of natural
perfume. Indian Rose: 189-97.
Sandalwood
(Santalum album Linn.)
Sandalwood (Family: Santalaceae) is also called White Sandalwood, White

Saunders, Yellow Sandalwood, Chandan, Safed Chandan, Chandanam,
Srigandha and Chandana.

Sandalwood is one of the oldest known perfumery material and best known
of all aromatics (Venkatesan et al. 1996), having been in continuous use for
over 4000 years. It is a native of Indonesia, is the most valuable species, with
the wood containing upto 6% oil. It is currently being harvested from natural
stands in India, Indonesia etc. Unfortunately, the resource is being rapidly
depleted due to unsustainable harvesting. Sandalwood is a hemi-parasitic plant
Sandalwood
which is widely scattered in dry deciduous forests. In India it is distributed in

the dry scrub forest of Salem, Mysore, Coorg, Coimbatore, Nilgiris up to 900
meters altitude. It is also found in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Karnataka,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. The finest wood and oil has
traditionally come from Mysore, the fabled City of Sandalwood although there
is some beautiful oil now coming (in limited quantities) out of the forests of
Tamil Nadu.
Sandalwood is a evergreen small tree — a partial root parasite. The wood
of its stem, which grows from 12 to 13 meters high and girth of 1 to 2 m with
slender drooping as well as erect branching. The wood is straight-grained
and varies in colour from white when young to yellow or orange when
older. Its oval leaves are covered with whitish bloom; its small flowers,
varying in colour, grow in numerous cymes. The tree starts flowering at an
early age of 2 to 3 years. Fruit is drupe, purplish when fully matured and
single seeded. Heartwood light yellowish brown when freshly cut, turning
dark brown on exposure, and with further aging, to a dark reddish brown;
sapwood whitish. Texture very fine and even; grain straight, sometimes wavy;
dull to somewhat lustrous, with oily feel; heartwood with a strong fragrant
scent that persists.

Genetic diversity is a key factor in the formulation of effective conservation
strategies and germplasm management. Shashidhara et al. (2003) reported
the RAPD analysis done to determine the genetic variability in sandalwood.
The extent of genetic variation and relatedness of 54 sandalwood genotypes
procured from different geographical regions of India and western Australia
were studied using RAPD markers. Certain rare and genotype specific bands
were identified which could be effectively used to distinguish the genotypes.
The variation in RAPDs indicated that sandalwood germplasm within India
constitutes a broad genetic base. Principal component analysis clearly
differentiated the Indian genotypes from those of the Australian
genotypes.Results showed that RAPD markers could readily dissect the genetic
differences between genotypes thereby enabling the formulation of appropriate
strategies for germplasm management and selection of diverse parents for
sandalwood improvement programmes. A simple method of using presslers
increment borer on live sandal trees for heartwood estimation was done by
Kulkami et al. in 1996. Current status and future prospects of sandalwood
breeding has been discussed by Srimathi, 1996.
Genetic diversity within and between five Indian sandal provenances,
namely Marayoor (Kerala state), Bengaluru, Mandagadde and Thangli
SANDALWOOD 195
(Karnataka state) and Javadis (Tamil Nadu state), was investigated by Suma
and Balasundaran (2004) using metabolic enzymes, viz. peroxidase, shikimate
dehydrogenase, glucophosphate isomerase, malate dehydrogenase and esterase.
Ten of the eleven resolved loci (90.9%) were found to be polymorphic at least
in one of the individuals analysed. Observed heterozygosity, both at the locus
and provenance level, was higher than the expected heterozygosity in Hardy-
Weinberg expectations. The average rate of gene flow between the provenances
was found to be very low (0.069). An examination of the partitioning of genetic
diversity within and between provenances indicated that 78.3% of the observed
variation occurred between provenances and the rest of the variation within
provenances. The genetic relatedness of the five provenances was revealed by
the UPGMA dendrogram, which comprised of mainly two clusters. Bengaluru
and Thangli were the most genetically similar and Marayoor and Mandagadde
were the most diverse provenances. The low degree of genetic variability within
Santalum album provenances might be due to the fragmentation of a previously
large original population, resulting in loss of genetic variation, least amount
of gene flow between provenances and differentiation of population due to
random drift. Development of high yielding variety resistant to diseases and
pests should be done.
Variety: Mysore sandalwood yields best oil.
Parts used: Wood and Volatile oil.
Heartwood contains a volatile oil 2.5 to 6%, a dark resin and tannic acid.
The consti tuents of the oil are santalol which is the principal constituent present
to 90% or more. It is a mixture of two isomers known as a-santalol and, 6-
santalol (alpha-santalol and beta- santalol). The other components are aldehydes
and ketones, such as isovaleric aldehyde, santonone, santalone, esters, free
acids etc. Alpha- santalol and beta-santalol account for most of the odor of
sandalwood oil. Seeds yield 50 to 55% of a dark red viscid fixed oil containing
stearolic acid and santalbic acid (Shankaranarayana et al. 1996).

• Sandalwood is highly aromatic. It is used to make perfumes,
aromatherapy and in flavour industries.
• Sandalwood oil is excellent for the stresses of a hectic life as it helps
reduce tension, confusion, fear and obsessions.
• The oil is also widely known to be an excellent aphrodisiac
equally useful in cases of frigidity and impotence. It is also an anti¬
depressant.
• Sandalwood oil was used traditionally to treat skin diseases, acne,
dysentery, gonorrhea etc. In traditional Chinese medicine, sandalwood
oil is considered an excellent sedating agent.

• The wood ground up with water into paste is commonly applied to
local inflammations, to the temples in fevers, and in skin diseases, to
allay heat and pruritus. It also acts as a diaphoretic. In case of morbid
thirst the powder of the wood is recommended to be drunk in coconut
water. It is popularly used to treat urethral haemorrhage and kidney
afflictions. Externally the oil is an excellent application in scabies in
every stage and
• Sandal wood oil is antibacterial, antiseptic, astringent, carminative,
disinfectant, diuretic, expectorant, hemostatic, sedative, stimulant and
useful in acute dermatitis,bronchitis,cystitis and gonorrhea.
• It is useful in Infection, palpitations, sunstroke, urethritis and vaginitis.
• The oil can also be used for bronchitis and for inflammation in mucous
tissue.
• A decoction of the wood may be helpful for indigestion and fever
and externally for skin problems, especially those of bacterial
origin.
• Sandalwood cools and calms the entire body and mind. It affects the
circulatory, digestive, respiratory and nervous systems.
• It relieves fever, thirst, burning sensation and stops sweating. It is good
for fever or overexposure to the sun.
• Sandalwood is good for most of inflammatory conditions and for
cleansing the blood.
• The oil or paste is useful for most infectious sores or ulcers if applied
externally.
Bad effects of sandalwood

• Some people may experience severe lung congestion.
• Some people may experience mild skin irritation from application of
sandalwood oil.
• Santalol can cause dermatitis in sensitive individuals
• Upset stomach and skin itching have been reported with the use of
sandalwood and sandalwood oil (Blumenthal et al. 1998 and
Liniiger,1998)
Soil and climate

It grows in various soils (Kondas et al. ) subsisting well in clay, laterite,
sand, loam and very stony, rocky soil. In fact, trees growing in this kind of
soil are known to have more highly scented wood. However, red sandy loam
soil is most suited. Sandalwood prefers humid and hot climate.
SANDALWOOD 197
Nursery raising and planting

Viable seeds are produced after about five years and dispersed by birds
(Mangalraj Johnson, 1966). Seed beds are formed with only sand and soil in
the ratio 3:1 and are thoroughly mixed with nematicides ( Ekalux or Theimet
at 500gm per bed of 10 m x lm.) Around 2.5 kg seed is spread uniformly over
the bed, covered with straw, which should be removed when the leaves start
appearing on the seedlings (Rajan). Sandal suffers from a very virulent disease
caused by combined fungal and nematode infection. Seedbeds are to be sprayed
with fungicide Dithane Z-78 (0.25%) once in 15 days to avoid fungal attack
and 0.02% Ekalux solution once in a month to avoid nematode attack.
When seedlings have reached 4- to 6-leaf stage they are transplanted to
poly bags along with a seed of “tur dal” (Cajanus cajan), the primary host for
better growth of sandal. Seedlings are carefully removed from beds with all
roots intact; roots should not be allowed to dry. Shade can be provided for a
week immediately after transplantation. Watering is to be done once a day,
but excess moisture is to be avoided. Host plants are to be pruned frequently,
so that they do not over grow sandal and hamper its growth. Poly bags should
contain soil mixture of ratio 2:1:1 (sand: soil: farmyard manure). It has been
found that poly bags of 30 x 14 cm size are the best.Plantable seedlings of
about 30cm height can be raised in 6-8 months’ time. A well-branched seedling
with a brown stem is ideal for planting in the field.
Regeneration may also be done vegetatively by wood suckers or coppicing.
Tissue culture techniques for sandalwood has been reported by Lakshmi Sita
and Raghava Ram (1996).
Thinning and weeding

Organic manures like, farm yard manure (FYM), vermicompost, green
manure etc. may be given.
Weeding is to be done at regular intervals once in two months especially
before application of manure.
Manures and pesticides

These should be used as per requirement. To prevent diseases, bio-pesticides
could be prepared (either single or mixture) from Neem (kernel, seeds and
leaves), Chitrakmool, Dhatura, cow’s urine etc.
Irrigation
It is a rainfed crop. Young plant require watering in summer months at 15-
20 days interval till they are fully established.
Diseases and pests

Ghosh and Balasundaran have reported occurrence of spike disease of sandal
in Kerala which are odd, invasive attacks by a mycoplasma type organism.

With the progression of this disease, the new leaves become smaller and
narrower, more pointed and fewer, until they are nothing more than sparsely
scattered spikes. Of course, without leaves, there can be no life, and so the
tree dies pitifully, after 2-3 years. A genetical approach for control of spike
disease of sandal was suggested by Srimathi Kulkarni and Venkatesan.
Plant pests of sandal (Santalum album Linn.) were reported by Harshkumar
et al. (1996).
Harvesting
Sandal wood trees are harvested at the age of about 60 years. Due to over-
enthusiastic harvesting, this tree is now diminishing in abundance.
Traditionally, only mature trees (at least 60 years old) should be harvested.
This is logical in every way. Besides allowing the entire life cycle to occur,
immature trees lack a high oil concentration and the oil they do contain is of a
lower quality than that of a mature tree.
Extraction technology
Sandalwood is steam or water distilled from the heartwood and roots (not
the bark). The soft wood is first removed; the hard wood is chipped and then
converted into powder in a mill. The powder is soaked in water for 48 hours
and then distilled by steam distillation. Distillation takes place in 48 hours.
The oil is rectified by re-distillation and filtration. For determination of oil
content in small sandalwood samples a new technique has been reported by
Seshagiri Rao and Shankaranarayana et al. (1996). Traditionally, attars are
made using a deg, one of the predecessors of the modem still. A deg is an
ancient but still used distillation unit which delivers a superior oil in subtlety,
complexity, and richness, as the distillation takes place at a very low
temperature and for a long period of time. A deg distillation of sandalwood
can take 10 days. To make an attar, flowers, earth or a combination of spices
are placed in the main tub, and the receiver is filled with sandalwood oil,
preferably itself deg is distilled. The main tub is slowly heated and the aromatic
molecules are gently coaxed over to, received, and held fast in the sandalwood
bed.
Yield
A mature tree yields about 60 kilos of oil. Sandalwood is considered to be
a slow growing tree. It grows at the rate of 5 cm. of girth or more per year
under favorable soil and moisture conditions. The heartwood formation starts
around ten years of age. The following table gives an idea of growth and
development:
SANDALWOOD 199
Average heartwood formation per tree
Age (year) Girth at breast Yield of heartwood

height cm in (kg)
1 0 1 1
20 22 4
30 3 3 1 0
40 44 20
5 5 5 30
Economic viability
The retail rate of heartwood at the government emporium is about
^ 350/kg. market rate and the economics may vary. Aromatherapy accounts
for only a tiny percentage of world sandalwood use, with the bulk going into
the perfume and toiletries industry. The wood is also carved into religious or
artistic objects and exported. A very large percentage, including bark, sawdust
and waste material goes into the incense market, sometimes after having already
been distilled. Less commonly, the powder is used in beauty treatments to
smoothen the complexion.
Threats
Fire, grazing and most importantly exploitation of the wood for fine furniture
and carving and also oil are threatening the species. Smuggling has assumed
alarming proportions. Despite the strict laws in India governing the sandalwood
harvest, poaching of the new saplings that spring up still takes place during
the monsoon regularly. Also, even though Santalum album in India fruits twice
a year, in April-May are often destroyed in seasonal forest fires.
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416.
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Venkatesan K R, Srimathi R A and Kulkarni H D. 1996. Survey of sandal populations,in
Recent Advances (in) Research and Management of Sandal (Santalum album L.)
in India. Srimathi R A, Kulkarni H D and Venkatesan V R. xvi, p 416.
Aromatic Marigold
(Tagetes minuta Linn.)
Aromatic marigold (Family Compositae) is also called Genda in India and in

other countries Chinchilla, Chiquilla, Chilca, Zuico, Suico, Anisillo.

It is native to the temperate grasslands and south America, including the
countries of Argentina, Chile, Bolivia, Peru, and in the Chaco region of
Paraguay (McVaugh, 1943; Reiche, 1903; Perkins, 1912; Herrera, 1941;
Espinar, 1967). It is used as essential oil, a condiment, as a refreshing beverage,
and for medicinal purposes (Manfred, 1947;Freise, 1934;Parodi, 1959;Thays,
1910). In each case flowers, leaves and stems are utilized.Tagetus minuta is
often found growing in disturbed areas during early successional stages. This
affinity for disturbed sites has allowed the species to colonize many areas
Aromatic Marigold
around the world. Since the time of the Spanish Conquest, it has been introduced
into Europe (Jordano and Ocana, 1955), Asia (Cherpanov, 1981), Africa
(Hillard, 1977), Madagascar (Humbert, 1923), India (Rao<?r a/. 1988), Australia
(Webb, 1948), and Hawaii (Hosaka, 1954).
Description of the plant

Tagetes minuta is an erect annual herb reaching 1 to 2 m height. Leaves are
slightly glossy green, and are pinnately dissected into 4 to 6 pairs of pinnae.
Leaf margins are finely serrate. The undersurface of the leaves bear a number
of small, punctate, multicellular glands, orangish in colour, which exude a
licorice-like aroma when ruptured. Glands may also be found on the stems
and involucre bracts. Four or five fused involucre bracts surround each head.
There are typically 3 to 5 yellow-orange ray florets, and 10 to 15 yellow-
orange disk florets per capitula. The heads are small, 10 to 15 mm long, and
including ray florets, 10 to 20 mm in diameter. The heads are borne in a
clustered panicle of 20 to 80 capitula. The dark brown achenes are 10 to 12
mm long, with a pappus of 1 to 4 tiny scales and 0 to 2 retrosely serrulate
awns which are 1 to 3 mm long. Tagetes minuta is often referred to as a weed.
Cabrera (1971) states that “.... Spegazzini mentions that this plant is a common
weed of cultivation in the lower Rio Negro Valley....” Spegazzini and Cabrera
appear to not understand the native outlook on “weeds.” The farmers view the
“weeds” as a second crop. Many of the Latin American farmers who do not
practice industrialized agriculture will leave volunteer plants of Tagetes minuta
in their fields. This second crop is beneficial in several ways: first, rapid growth
of T. minuta quickly shades out other plant species that may be of less use to
the farmer, second, it can be harvested for personal use, or for sale in city
markets, and third, has been reported to aid in the retention of humidity in the
field (Jimenez-Osomio, 1991).
Tagetes minuta grows readily from seed sown directly into the soil (B.M.
Lawrence: unpublished report). Plant height varies with conditions. Based on
studies of herbarium material from the University of Texas and Lundell
Collection; Field Museum, Chicago; New York Botanic Garden; University
of Arizona; Michigan State University; and California Academy of Sciences;
single, open grown plants range from 0.5 to 1 m tall, yet when grown in dense
stands, a height of 2 m can be reached. Tagetes minuta thrives in full sun.
Competition for sunlight can lead to tall spindly plants with a low biomass.
Higher biomass is attained from spacing the plants 1 m apart, and removal of
the apical meristem at 30 days to stimulate branc hing. Meristem removal
may be done mechanically.
AROMATIC MARIGOLD 203
Plant protection
Pests do not appear to be a significant problem with Tagetes minuta in field
culture. Red spider mite and root knot nematode are often serious pests on
cultivated forms of Tagetes erecta Linn. (Steiner, 1941). In field studies in
Austin, Texas, these pests have not been found on T. minuta despite the presence
of large populations of these pests on T. erecta at the same site.
Harvesting
Harvest for use as a beverage or condiment is done manually by cutting the
main stem at ground level, since the entire above-ground portion of the plant
is considered useful. Plants over 1 m have individual branches cut off and
dried. The plant material is folded and tied into bundles using twine, grasses,
or a pliable branch of T. minuta . The bundles are hung in a dry place, out of
direct sunlight, to dry. Commercial hand harvesting is feasible due to low
labor rates in South American countries. Since the whole plant is utilized,
mechanical harvesting could be a viable option, and is used in essential oil
production.
Chemistry
It is rich in many secondary compounds, including acyclic, monocyclic
and bicyclic monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, flavonoids, thiophenes, and
aromatics (Rodriguez and Mabry, 1977).

• Tagetes minuta is commercially grown and harvested for its essential
oils which are used in the flavor and perfume industry as “Tagetes
Oil.” The oil is used in perfumes, and as a flavor component in most
major food products, including cola beverages, alcoholic beverages,
frozen dairy desserts, candy, baked goods, gelatins, puddings,
condiments, and relishes (Leung, 1980). Brazil is one major producer
of T. minuta for Tagetes Oil (Craveiro et al. 1988). Worldwide
production of the oil is around 1.8 tonnes.
• There is evidence that the secondary compounds in Tagetes are effective
deterrents of numerous organisms, including fungi (Chan et al. 1975),
fungi pathenogenic on humans (Camm et al. 1975), bacteria (Grover
and Rao, 1978), round worms in general (Loewe, 1974), trematodes
(Graham et al. 1980), nematodes (Grainge and Ahmed, 1988), and
numerous insect pests through several different mechanisms (Jacobsen,
1990; Saxena and Koul, 1982; Maradufu et al. 1978; Saxena and
Srivastava, 1973).
• Many closely related plant secondary compounds have demonstrated
medicinal value in humans (Kennewell, 1990; Korolkovas and
Burckhalter, 1976). In vivo human studies of the secondary compounds

of T. minuta have not been reported, although other Tagetes species
have been proven medically safe and efficacious (Caceres et al. 1987).
• Hethelyi et al. (1986), determined anti-microbial activity of five
secondary compounds in Tagetes minuta; beta-ocimene,
dihydrotagetone, tagetone, (Z)-ocimenone, and (E)-ocimenone. When
tested on 40 strains of bacteria and fungi, the essential oil of T. minuta
had a 100% inhibitory effect on Gram-positive bacteria, a 95%
inhibitory effect on Gram-negative bacteria, and a 100% inhibitory
effect on fungi.
• Hudson (1990) tested the many different secondary compounds for
anti-viral activity, and determined that thiophenes demonstrated the
greatest anti-viral action at the lowest doses, and with the least toxicity
overall. Of the thiophenes, molecules with two or more thiophene units
showed the highest activity. In all cases, the best success was against
viruses with envelopes. Hudson tested 32 thiophenes, evaluated their
efficacy and determined the 10 most effective ones. Atkinson et al(1964)
first reported the thiophenes found in Tagetes minuta. A comparison of
Atkinson’s results to those of Hudson, shows that 7 of the 10 most
effective anti-viral thiophenes are found in Tagetes minuta.
• The work of Hethelyi et al. (1986) and that of Hudson (1990) indicate
that the use of Tagetes minuta as a medicinal beverage by indigenous
people may have a valid biological basis, although in vivo work has
not been published. Further work is warranted, and could be used to
aid in the marketing of herbal products of Tagetes minuta.
• Chandhoke and Ghatak (1969), working with experimental animals,
determined that the oil of Tagetes minuta has hypotensive,
bronchodilatory, spazmolytic, anti-inflammatory, and tranquilizing
properties. These actions are in accordance with the reported folk use
of the beverage as a medical decoction. Given that generations of South
Americans have used T. minuta as a beverage and condiment, it seems
that use in moderation causes no ill effects.
• A beverage is prepared from Tagetes minuta by steeping a “half-
handful” of the dried plant in hot water for 3 to 5 minutes. The beverage
may be consumed warm or cooled, and may be sweetened to individual
taste (Neher, 1968).
• For medicinal use, a decoction made by steeping a “double handful”
of the dried plant in boiling water for 3 to 5 minutes is used as a remedy
for the common cold; including upper and lower respiratory tract
inflammations, and for digestive system complaints; stomach upset,
diaorrhea, and liver ailments. The decoction is consumed warm, and
may be sweetened to individual taste (Neher, 1968; Parodi, 1959;
Cavanilles, 1802).
• Tagetes rninuta is used as a condiment in Chile and Argentina. It is

popular in rice dishes and as a flavoring in stews. In northern Chile
suico is so highly prized that many people actively collect wild
populations to dry a sufficient supply to last the winter (Soule, 1993).
• The New World people have been using Tagetes minuta as a flavorful
beverage, a medicinal tea, and a condiment since pre-contact times
(Rees, 1817). The local names vary by region, most commonly found
in the literature as; chinchilla, chiquilla, chilca, zuico, suico, or the
Spanish term anisillo.
Scope of future development

• Tagetes minuta can be used for a hot or cold refreshing beverage. In
taste tests at the University of Texas, subjects reported that the flavor
is slightly sweet and anise-like and mild.
• Currently, many nations are actively seeking alternative cash crops to
replace cultivation of illegal drug plants. Several species of Tagetes
have been investigated, including Tagetes minuta (Bernal and Correa,
1991; Arora, 1989). Tagetes minuta as a herbal beverage has the
potential to become a new crop for many of the hither-to drug growing
areas.
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Mexican vanilla
(Vanilla planifolia Jacks, ex Andrews)
Mexican vanilla (Orchidaceae) is also known as Vanilla Pod, Vanilla

Vine,Vanilla Beans and Vanilla.
Origin and distribution of vanilla

Mexican vanilla is most expensive spice traded in international market. It
is the source of natural vanillin a major flavoring compound used in ice cream
and other soft drink preparations. The vanilla beans contain 1.2 to 2.9% vanillin.
Commercially used vanilla bean is obtained from different species of Vanilla
eg. Vanilla planifolia Andrews (Mexican vanilla), Vanilla pompona Schiede
(West Indian Vanilla) and Vanilla tahitiensis J M Moore (Tahiti Vanilla). The
most important is Vanilla planifolia Andrews (Mexican Vanilla). The vanilla
is a Spanish word which means a small pod. This species is cultivated in
Vanilla
MEXICAN VANILLA 209
Bourbon, Indonesia, Guatemala, Costa Rica, Uganda, China, India, Papua

New Guinea, Tonga, Fiji, Tahiti and Philippines. In India it is mainly grown
in Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and to some extent in Karnataka. Vanilla
import is mainly done by United States, France and Germany. In the world
there are about 36.000 hectares under vanilla and the world production is
4285 tonnes/year. In India, production of cured vanilla beans is 3 to 5 tonnes/
year. Until 19th century Mexico had the monopoly of growing vanilla. But
after wards Madagascar and Indonesia grows the majority of the world’s crop.
Madagascar an island of Africa is the largest producer of vanilla beans in the
world and that vanilla is known as Madagascar (Bourbon) vanilla. The word
Bourbon means the Bourbon islands such as Madagascar, Comoro, Seychelles,
and Reunion. Madagascar (Bourbon) vanilla is considered to be the highest
quality available. It is described as having creamy, sweet, smooth, mellow
flavoured pulp. Indonesia is the second largest producer of vanilla which is
astringent, woody and phenolic. Madagascar (Bourbon) and Indonesia produce
about 50% of the world’s vanilla crop.
Mexico, where vanilla orchid originated , grows only a small percentage of
the world production. Mexican vanilla is described as creamy, sweet, smooth
and spicy. Tahiti vanilla grown from a different species is flowery, fruity, anisic
and smooth. Vanilla is a labour intensive crop. That is why it is so expensive.
Plant description
It is a climber with succulent leaves, long succulent green stem, greenish
white aerial roots growing from opposite side of leaves by which it clings to
support. Flowers have velamen which prevent pollination. Fruits are known
as beans or pods.
Important chemical constituents are: vanillin - phenollic aldehyde, benzoic
acid, vanillic acid, formalic ester and anisic alcohol .
Cultivation technology of vanilla

Vanilla is propagated throughvegetative means by stem cuttings. Strong,
healthy and actively growing young vines are used as planting material. If
longer cuttings are planted they will grow faster and come to flowering early.
Usually, one meter cuttings are preferred as planting material. Less than 50
cm length cutting should not be used for direct planting in field. Vines once
flowered and yielded should not be used as planting material as they will not
sprout and establish. The planting material collected may be cut into pieces of
Vi to 1 meter length depending on availability of vines.
Vanilla rooted cuttings raised in polythene bags are also used as plating
material. 6" x 6" polythene bags filled with potting mixture of 1:1:1. (soil,
farm yard manure and sand). Two cuttings from young vines which are healthy
and disease free, can be planted in the poly bags during January-February
and kept under a tree or under shade of pandal and watered regularly. The
rooted plants will be ready for planting during June-July. It is an easy method
of propagation.
Source of vanilla cuttings

* Vanilla farmers are the main source of planting materials.
• Some farmers associations also supply the planting materials through
its members.
® Vanilla rooted cuttings are also available in spice board’s departmental
nurseries.
® There are some private nurseries meeting the planting material demands.
Tissue culture technique for vanilla propagation

Traditionally vanilla is propagated by stem cutting which is reportedly
uneconomical as it involves sacrifices of almost whole plant because its growth
is monopodial in nature. Therefore, tissue culture technique has emerged more
or less as alternative source for large scale production of planting material
within a short span of time. The technique is described below:
Source plant maintenance and collection of ex-plant.
Actively growing shoot from healthy, disease free, high yielding plant should
be maintained properly in protected area. Give regular prophylactic foliar spray
with 0.2% Bavistin or indofil once in two weeks.
Nodal segment 2-3 cm long should be collected from second or third node
to fifth or sixth nodes on actively growing shoot. The best time to do it is
November to May, August to September or when there is no regular rain. If
the explants are taken during rainy season some loss of primary culture is
likely to occur due to high rate of contamination.
Initiation of asceptic culture/priniary culture establishment

(a) Surface sterilization and preparation of ex-plant: Nodal segments
(explants) should be thoroughly washed in mild detergent solution
before subjecting them to surface sterilization procedures. Surface
sterilization is carried out by suspending the explant in 0.08% mercuric
chloride solution for 12 minutes preferably under vacuum. Two-three
drops of surfactants such as Tween 20 or Teepol should be added to the
sterilant. If vacuum can not be provided swirl the content well during
the treatment. Sterilant is then drained off and the explant washed
thoroughly with several changes of sterile distilled water. Subsequently
the explants contained in sterile blotting papers, trimmed and blot dried
prior to inoculation to nutrient medium.
MEXICAN VANILLA 211
(b) Culture medium, primary culture initiation and establishment:

Murashhige and Skoog (1962) medium or Knudson (1946) medium +
BAP 1 mg/1. AA .0.1 mg/1; D. Biotin 0.1 mg/1, Ca pantothenate 0.1 mg/
1; Sucrose 3% and Agar 0.65 gm/1 pH of the medium should be 5.8.
The explant should be inoculated on to this medium followed by
incubation under 18 hour photoperiod (1000 lux) at 25 ± 20°C. Axillary
bud starts sprouting by the second week of culture initiation.
Shoot multiplication
Composition of medium is the same as that for culture establishment .
Subcultures can be initiated after 30-35 days of initial inoculation of primary
culture - a length of more than one centimeter. For this the new sprouts should
be separated from the original explant by razor edge scalpel and transferred to
fresh medium for further multiplication. Further subculture can be carried out
at 40-45 days interval on fresh medium of the same composition.
Shoot elongation and rooting

Elongation and rooting of shoots can be facilitated in a single medium in
case of vanilla. In this case composition of medium is different as given below.
MS/KC + 0.1 mg/1 KN; 0.1 mg/1 NAA; Sucrose 2% and Agar 0.65% .
Shoot initiate elongation and strike roots within 20-30 days and within 50-60
days attain 6-8 inches length of shoot with 3 to 4 leaves and 2 to 3 roots.
Transfer to pots, hardening and acclimatization

The plantlets (8 to 10 cm long) are removed carefully from culture vessels
and gently washed under tap water to remove agar. It is followed by suspension
of plantlets in 0.1% bavistine solution for 15 minutes. The plantlets are then
transferred to micropots containing soil rite or pure river sand and watered
immediately. Subsequently they are covered with clear plastic and kept under
green house condition. Regular sprays of water have to be provided.
Alternatively the plantlets are directly placed in mist chamber where
intermittent mist facility is available. If found necessary the plantlets should
be sprayed with Knop’s or Hoaglands solution once in a week. Thereafter
they are progressively hardened by gradually reducing humidity and shade
for 4-5 weeks.
After hardening the plantlets should be transferred to potting mixture and
allowed to get acclimatized in the green house or nursery for two months or
when the plantlets attain a length of atleast one foot in length.
Based on the actual cost involved in the production of 3,560 plantlets of
vanilla through tissue culture, cost of production of one plantlet was found to
be ^ 5.64.
Biotechnological firms selling vanilla plants

1. Biotechnology Division,
M/S Indo American Hybrid Seeds,
17th Cross, 2nd A Main,
Banasankari II nd Stage, Bengaluru 560 070.
2. Biotechnology Division,
M/S AVT & Co.,
Plot No 10 & 11, CEPZ, Cochin 682 030.
3. M/S Growmore Biotech Ltd.,

41 - B Sipcot phase-II,
Hosur, Tamil Nadu 635 109.
4. M/S A G Biotech,
Bachupalli Post,
Qutbhallapur, Hyderabad 500 072.
Improved planting technology of vanilla

Vanilla vines are planted close to the base of the support tree. Three or four
based nodes from where leaves are removed are laid in the loose soil and
gently pressed. The top end of the vine is tied to the support tree enabling the
vine to grow. Base of the plant may be mulched with organic material like
coconut husk, straw, leaves etc. The ideal time for planting is when the soil is
moist but rainy season should be avoided. Planting in May-June or August-
September depending on intensity of rain will be ideal. It takes 4 to 8 weeks to
strike roots and to show initial sign of growth from any of the leaf axil. Rooting
will be early in younger vines.
Provide shade to vanilla

Vanilla performs well under 50% shade condition. So the shade should be
regulated to provide the required amount of shade. Overcrowding of plants
should be avoided and proper aeration should be provided for better growth
and to avoid diseases.
Application of manure
Vanilla needs lot of organic matter for proper growth. Decomposed cattle
dung, compost, leaf manure etc. may be added. A thick layer of organic debris
around the plant helps to retain moisture and aeration and gives a loose soil
structure for the roots to spread.
MEXICAN VANILLA 213
Cultural operations in vanilla

As the roots are very tender confining to surface layer of soil, it should not
be damaged by any cultural operation. Damaging of the root zone by poultry
should be avoided. Timely irrigation should be provided especially in early
years of growth. Weekly irrigation of 2-3 litres of water/plant is enough. For
older yielding vines also irrigation is required. Weed growth around the plant
and support tree should be removed from time to time. The weeds can be used
to mulch plant.
Growth of vanilla plants

The vines should be allowed to grow upwards on the support tree and if
necessary the vines should be tied to the support tree. The vines may be allowed
to grow to a height of 1.20 to 1.50 meter and allowed to hang down. Such
branches should be brought back to the ground. Later it is brought up by
providing support. Then the vines are trailed up and down for the first two
years so that the plant produces enough vines to form bearing branches. The
bearing branches are not allowed to touch the ground and before that it is
pruned to enable flowering and fruiting.
Flowering of vanilla
Normally flowering starts in the third year in a healthy plant. Generally
only one time flowering is noticed in a year. Inflorescence is formed in the
axil of leaves on the previous years growth. Pruning the tip of the vines and
stopping irrigation helps in profuse flowering. Depending on the elevation
flowering occurs in December to March and it takes 45 days from initiation of
inflorescence to flowering.
Vanilla support tree management and pruning

The support tree should be allowed to form branches in different directions
at a height of 150 to 200 cm above the ground and it should be pruned to
provide the required shade. More number of branches will be useful for the
growth of vines.
Pruning of support tree should be done before onset of heavy rains to allow
in more sunlight. Another light pruning should be done just before the beans
are harvested to facilitate their maturity and initiate flower bud formation for
the next crop.
Hand pollination in vanilla

Natural pollination in vanilla is difficult as stigma is prevented from coming
into contact with anther by a flop like projection called “rostellum”. Therefore
hand pollination is essential for production of beans. This can be done by
holding a tooth pick or pointed bamboo splinter in the right hand to push back
the rostellum and pressing the pollen sac with the left thumb to smear pollen
grains to the stigma. Artificial pollination should be done on the same day of
flower opening, otherwise unfertilized flowers drop off in a day or two.
Pollination should be done in the morning hours from 6 am to 12 noon. A
skilled worker can pollinate 1,500 to 2,000 flowers in a day. Generally one
flower opens in an inflorescence in a day and thus the inflorescence may be in
flower for nearly 3 weeks.
It should be ensured that maximum pollen should fall on the stigma. After
pollination and fertilization the beans start developing quickly and obtain full
size within 5 to 6 weeks. The unfertilized flower that failed in pollination will
fall on next day. The beans take 9 to 11 months to attain maturity.
Plant protection
Vanilla faces threat from following few diseases:
Fusarium Wilt: It is caused by the fungus Fusarium oxysporum Schlecht.
The disease is more prevalent in younger plantation especially during monsoon.
The infection starts at leaf axil and spreads to inter node region resulting in
rotting and drying of the stem above the part of infection. The fungus also
causes leaf rot on the plant. Regarding the measures to be undertaken to keep
the malady under check, it is advised to remove and burn the diseased and
dead tissues and provide adequate drainage to the plantation. Spraying and
drenching carbendazim 0.1% against the disease is quite effective. Addition
of organics which encourage growth of antagonistic microflora also reduces
intensity of the disease. Spray of 1% Bordeaux mixture also helps in controlling
the disease.
Phytopthora rot: It is caused by the fungus Phytophthora meadii. It causes
rotting of beans, leaves and stem. It is more severe during monsoon especially
in shaded and poorly drained soils. Spray 1% Bordeaux mixture and drenching
the soil with copper oxychloride control this disease. Uproot the diseased
vines with root system cut into pieces and burn. Do not use the same knife for
cutting the diseased and healthy vines. Do not touch the healthy vine after
touching diseased vine without cleaning the hands. Do not use any plant
material taken from diseased plants.
Harvesting of vanilla
Stage of harvest is one of the important factors to determine the quality of
the processed beans. Time required for the fruits to mature from the date of
pollination is 9 to 10 months. The beans should be harvested when they are just
ripe and at this stage the blossom-end of the fruit turn yellow. It is necessary to
harvest the beans at the right time because immature ones produce an inferior
product and if picked too late they will split from the blossom end. The split
beans are not only difficult to process but are also considered inferior in quality
MEXICAN VANILLA 215
after processing. During the harvest period, the vanilla plantation should be
visited every day so that the beans ready for harvest are gathered by side ways
pressure of the thumb at the base or cutting with a sharp knife. Vanilla harvesting
season in Madagascar extend from June to early October. About 60 to 70 beans
of 15 to 18 cm in length are found to make one kilogram green beans.
When the beans are harvested they have neither flavor nor fragrance due to
absence of vanillin at that time. Beans develop the properties after lengthy
process of curing. Due to enzymatic action several glucosides, various
aldehydes, aromatic esters, protocatechic acid, benzoic acid, vanillic acid and
anisic alcohol are also formed and all these compounds together give the
fragrance of natural vanilla. Many curing process have been developed in
various vanilla growing countries to meet the quality requirements of vanilla
market.
Curing technique of vanilla beans

The curing of vanilla beans or pods has been defined as their controlled
ripening (Lionnett, 1959). It is a process of alternatively sweating and drying
beans until they loose most of their moisture - as much as 80% in curing
Mexican beans (Correl, 1953). Curing is the extremely important stage in
production because during this process they undergo the enzymatic reactions
responsible for characteristic flavor of vanilla.
Traditional curing methods

A number of procedures have been evolved for curing of vanilla. They are
all characterized by four phases (Thesdose, 1972).
• Killing or wilting: This stops further vegetative development in the
fresh beans and initiates enzymatic reactions responsible for the
production of aroma and flavour. Killing is indicated by development
of brown colour of the bean.
• Sweetening: This involves raising temperature of the killed beans to
promote the desired enzymatic reactions and to provoke rapid drying
to prevent harmful fermentations. During this operation the beans
acquire a deeper brown colouration and become quite supple, and the
development of an aroma becomes perceptible.
• Slow drying: The third stage entails slow drying at ambient temperature,
usually in shade, until the beans have reached about one third of their
original weight. During this stage production of different fragrances
takes place.
• Conditioning: In this final stage, the beans are stored in closed boxes
for three months or longer to permit full development of the desired
aroma and flavour.
Bourbon method of curing

The most important curing method is Bourbon method. Bourbon vanilla is
considered to be the best quality vanilla in the world trade. Bourbon method
for curing of vanilla beans was developed by Purseglove et al. (1988). It has
following four stages
Stage 1: On arrival at curing factory, the beans are sorted according to
degree of maturity, size and split and unsplit types. Batches of
beans, weighting 24-30 kg are loaded into open cylindrical
basket, which are then plunged into container full of hot water
heated to 63-65°C over a fire. Batches of beans of top 3
qualities are immersed for 2 to 3 minutes, while smaller and
split beans are treated for less then 2 minutes. This is called
scalding . The warm beans are rapidly drained, wrapped in a
dark brown cotton cloth and are placed in a cloth lined sweating
box. The beans acquire dark brown colour in 24 hours.
Stage 2: Next day the vanilla is taken out of the sweating box and
inspected to separate those which have not been properly killed.
The properly killed beans are spread on dark, coloured cotton
covers and placed on ‘dryers’ which are slotted supports of
bamboo placed 70 cm above ground. This process is known
as ‘sunning’. The exposure lasts for a total of 2 to 3 hours.
After this period, the edges of the covers are folded over the
beans and kept as such to retain their heat as much as possible.
The sunning area must be sited on a dry, easily drained ground
and at some distance from road in order to avoid contamination
from dust. These operations are repeated for 6 to 8 days during
which, the beans lose moisture and become supple.
Stage 3: This stage involves slow drying in the shade for period of 2 to
3 months. The beans are spread on racks, mounted on supports
and are spaced 12 cm apart in a well ventilated room. During
this slow drying the evolution of fragrance continues. Repeated
sorting enables picking of beans which have become
sufficiently dried retaining desired moisture content.
Stage 4: Conditioning of the beans takes about 3 months for completion.
Modified bourbon method for curing of vanilla

Bourbon vanilla is considered to be the best quality vanilla in the world
trade, hence this method of processing has been suitably modified and followed
in India. Modified bourbon method for vanilla curing also involves following
4 steps explained above, but the duration taken for different steps is different
and the temperature, relative humidity requirements etc. are quantified.
Step 1: Killing: The beans are sorted according to size. Sorted beans
MEXICAN VANILLA 217
are put in either a bamboo basket or gunny bag and immersed

in hot water for scalding. Bigger beans are dipped for 5 minutes
and smaller beans for 3 minutes. The water is rapidly drained
and the beans are placed in woolen lined wooden box. Scalding
is done at a temperature of 68°C. Afterwards it is brought down
to about 5°C. Temperature of water is a critical factor as higher
temperature deactivates the enzymes responsible for
conversion of vanillin and other flavour inducing components.
Properly killed beans turn brown in colour within 24 hours.
The scalding helps in disruption of cell structure and release
of enzymes. Care should be taken not to attempt scalding at
temperature more than 70°C.
Step 2: Sweating: It is the most critical stage in curing of vanilla.
Enzymes responsible for conversion of vanillin and related
compounds are most active in this phase. The killed beans are
spread on woolen cloth in sun and allowed to gather
temperature. When the temperature of the beans attains about
55°C (too hot to hold with bare hands). They are wrapped in
woolen clothing and kept in sun for a hour more and then
stored in woollen lined wooden box for sweating for rest of
the day. Sunning may take one-and-a-half hour to three hours
depending on location and also part of the day. It is observed
that exposing the beans to sun on a raised platform about one
meter above the ground is better than exposing them directly
on the ground. It is better to allow temperature to rise slowly
than expose the beans suddenly during hottest part of the day.
Process of sunning and sweating have to be continued for 8 to
10 days.
At the end of sweating period the beans attain chocolate
brown colour, become very supple and loose 40-50% moisture.
Weight of the beans is reduced by 50-60%. Arana (1994)
compared traditional sun drying/sweating procedure with an
electric oven chamber set at 45 °C in which the humidity was
kept high. Over-sweating and drying was found to have
advantage in that the incidence of mould was less, a shorter
time was required and the procedure was less expensive.
Step 3: Slow drying: This step helps in removing the excess moisture
and bringing it down to the desired level. At end of sweating,
moisture comes down to 50 to 60% . It has to be brought down
to 25 to 30%. It is achieved by spreading the beans on wooden
racks in a well-ventilated room at ambient temperature.
Moisture is lost slowly, the beans become deep chocolate

brown in colour. The beans have to be observed regularly
during this stage to check for attack of mould. Due to loss of
moisture weight of beans comes down to 70 to 75 % less at
the end. Vanillin and related compounds continue to be formed
during this stage. Slow drying process may take 10 to 15 days.
Step 4: Conditioning: Conditioning is done after the moisture in the
processed bear is brought to desired level by slow drying
process. The beans are bundled according to the size and into
bundle of known weight. These are wrapped in butter paper
and stored in airtight containers under ambient temperature
for about 2 to 3 months. Various biochemical reactions such
as esterification, etherification, oxidative degradation etc. takes
place during conditioning and volatile aroma compounds are
formed. At conditioning stage the beans have to be examined
carefully to avoid mould or mite damage. When stored at low
temperature vanillin crystals are formed on the beans which is
called frosting. Jones and Vincente (1949) have reported that
35 to 45°C temperature was found to accelerate conditioning
and the product had superior aroma compared to those
conditioned at lower temperature.
Uses of vanilla
Vanilla is one of the most popular food flavour in ice cream, backing and
chocolate industries in United States and many other countries. It is also used
in flavouring of beverage, cakes, confectionaries, custards, pudding and also
in manufacture of soaps , perfumes and pharmaceuticals. Vanilla is generally
used in the form of an extract from the cured beans. In the manufacture of
chocolate the beans are usually ground finely with sugar and included with
chocolate.
Quality parameters of cured vanilla

According to Purseglove et al. (1988), the primary quality requirement for
cured vanilla beans is the aroma/flavour character. Factor of significance in
quality assessment are the general appearance, flexibility, the length and vanillin
content. The relative importance of these quality attributes is dependent upon
the intended end use of the cured beans.
Top quality beans are long, flirty, supple, very dark brown to black in colour,
somewhat oily appearance, strongly aromatic and free from scars and
blemishes. Low quality beans are usually hard, dry, thin, brown or reddish
brown in colour and posses a poor aroma.
Beans with an average moisture content of 32% has well developed, pleasant
MEXICAN VANILLA 219
aroma and high degree of flexibility (Arana and Kevorkian, 1943). These
scientists also found that 50 to 54% moisture tended to have a slightly fermented
aroma and were less pleasant. The moisture content of top grade beans is 30
to 40%. It may be as little as 10% in lower grades.
Grading of vanilla
Properly cured and dried vanilla beans are dark brown and supple enough
to be twisted around the finger without rupturing. Before being packed they
are smoothned and straightened by being drawn repeatedly through the fingers.
This massaging helps to bring out some of the oil which exudes during
fermentation and gives the beans their characteristic lustiness.
If vanilla beans are not used then they are subjected to attack from mildew.
Once the beans permeated with the attack of mold it is practically impossible
to eliminate it and the value of the beans is much reduced. The mouldy portion
is cut away and the remainder of beans known as “cuts” is sold to perfumery
and soap industries etc. Not all the “cuts” are the result of mould. They also
consist of beans of inferior quality.
Those beans which have split during the curing process are also set apart to
be sold as “split”. Beans with more than 36% moisture are considered to be
subjected to moulding.
The beans are classified into several groups primarily as to quality and
length, before being packed. The best are without defects being oily, smooth,
strongly aromatic and essentially black or very dark brown. Usually six
kilogram of green beans produce one kg of commercial vanilla. Second class
beans are somewhat defective in that they are over dried, less aromatic, have
a rough exterior and are somewhat reddish. Split beans, which have lost some
of their perfume comprise the third class.
Geographic classification of vanilla

Vanilla beans of commerce have been divided into 5 principal geographic
types : 1. Mexican, 2. Bourbon, 3. South American (including west Indian
vanilla and pompona), 4. Tahite and 5. Java. Beans were originally from islands
of Reunion (Bourbon) only, but they now include all beans grown in
Madagascar, Comoros, Seychelles islands and other countries. South American
beans are grown mainly in French West Indies. Tahiti beans are an inferior
vanilla grown in the French group of Society Islands. The crop is large in
Tahiti but the beans have less flavour. Java beans are grown in Indonesia.
Value addition in vanilla

Various value added forms of vanilla beans such as vanillin extract, vanillin
tincture, vanillin oleorasin, vanilla powder, vanilla paste, perfumery vanilla
tincture, vanilla absolute etc. are available in national and international market.
Vanilla extract is the hydro alcoholic solution containing the extracted aroma
and flavour principles of vanilla beans and may also contain added sweetening/
thickening agents such as sugar and glycrene. It is prepared by direct extraction
or by dilution of concentrated vanilla extract known as vanilla oleoresin.
Another product, vanilla tincture is prepared by maceration of one part of
vanilla beans by weight to ten parts of aqueous alcohol by volume and added
sugar and 38 percent of ethyl alcohol. This extract is mainly used for
pharmaceutical purpose. Vanilla oleoresin is the semi-solid concentrate
obtained by complete removal of solvent from vanilla extract. For the
preparation of oleoresin aqueous isopropanol is generally used. Vanilla powder
is the pure powdered vanilla or a mixture of vanilla powder or vanilla oleoresin
with sugar, starch or gum acacia. Perfumery vanilla tincture is prepared by
maceration of vanilla beans with perfumery alcohol. It is used for perfumery
application.
Another value added product of vanilla beans is the vanilla absolute. It is
prepared by direct alcohol extraction of vanilla beans followed by alcohol
washing of oleoresin prepared by extraction with hydrocarbon solvents like
hexane etc. It is the most concentrated form of the vanilla aroma. It is often
used in perfumes and other aroma based products. Because it is so expensive,
most soaps and scented merchandise are made from synthetic vanillin. Vanilla
absolute is used in very valuable end product in small quantities, often mixed
with other fragrances in perfumes.
Synthetic vanilla
It is an interesting fact that 97% of vanillin used as a flavour and fragrances
is synthetic. It synthesized from other compounds, such as eugenol (major
fraction of clove oil) and as a byproduct from the break down of lignin in the
manufacture of paper from wood pulp. Extracts of vanillin derived from sources
other than vanilla beans are usually labeled “imitation vanilla”. Vanilla bean
extract is more expensive, but has a better flavour than imitation vanilla. One
part of vanillin is equivalent to 400 parts of cured vanilla beans.
Vanillin (4-hydroxy-3-methoxy benzaldehyde) is classified chemically
as a phenolic aldehyde. In its pure form, it is a white/slightly yellow needle
shaped solid at room temperature with a melting point 80-81°C. Vanillin is
not very soluble in water, only one gram of vanillin will dissolve in 100 ml of
water at room temperature; however it is freely soluble in organic
solvents like ethyl alcohol, ether, chloroform, glacial acetic acid, carbon
disulphide etc.
The synthetic vanillin is identical to natural vanillin in all respects.
Lignin derived vanillin is cheaper and offers an inexpensive product by
substituting synthetic vanillin. Whether it originated in the bean or is
synthesized from lignin, standard chemical analysis indicates the identity, and
MEXICAN VANILLA 221
quantity of the compound. But inspecting the carbon atoms in the vanillin
with a technique called Stable Isotope Ratio Analysis (SIRA) can identity this
adulteration.
SIRA is based on the fact that not all carbon atoms have the same mass of
the carbon atoms found in nature, 98.9% have a mass number of 12, a 1.1%
have a mass number of 13. However, the ratio of these isotopes is slightly
different for natural vanillin than for synthetic vanillin. The synthetic vanillin
is enriched in C12 isotope. This happens because of difference in biochemistry
of the vanilla orchid. The vanilla orchid carries on photosynthesis by the
crassulacean pathway. Most plants, however, including trees, use the calvin
pathway, which involve a great number of chemical reactions. Because C13 is
heavier than C12, C13 reacts more slowly. Not as much gets through each of
the chemical reactions in photosynthesis. This results in a lower percentage of
C13 in lignin than in synthetic vanillin. However the unscrupulous producers
have also evolved methods to adjust the C13 / C12 ratio in the synthetic product
to more closely match that of natural vanillin. The easiest way adopted is the
removal of the methoxy group containing C12 and the replacement with another
methoxy group containing C13. This could also be identified by removing the
methoxy group and testing for the presence of C13 using mass spectrometry.
Although the advances in chemical synthesis are great, natural vanilla will
always be one of those delightful spices.
Yield and economics of vanilla cultivation

Yield depends on age of vines and method of cultivation. Normally it starts
yielding from third year and it increases till the fifth year. Afterwards yield
can be maintained by appropriate pruning, cultural practices, shade regulation,
plant protection etc. Based on yield level, replating could be done by 10 years.
With reasonable management, normal yield of 1500 kg to 3000 kg of green
beans or 300 to 600 kg of cured beans per year per acre is obtained . Average
price of unprocessed good quality green beans ranges between ? 600 to 900
per kilogram. Processed beans fetch ? 7,500 to 10,000 per kilogram in
international market.
As technology in India for vanilla is not well developed. For large scale
processing many farmers are satisfied with just growing and selling the green
beans. Considering the fact that cost of production is rather average, no shortage
of planting materiel and profit is attractive, farmers are finding vanilla
cultivation very attractive specially as intercrop with other perennial crop in
their homesteads.
Scope of future development of vanilla

• Development of high yielding varieties resistant to diseases and pests.
• Further improvement on curing technology
Bibliography
Arana FE. 1944. Vanilla curing and its chemistry. USDAFed. Expt. Station, Mayaguez
Puerto Rico. Bull No. 42, USDA Washington DC.
Arana F E and Kerorkian A G. 1943. Relation of moisture content to quality of vanilla
beans. J. Agric. University, Puerto Rico 27: 105-16.
Cemuda C F and Laustalot A J. 1948. Vanilla curing. USDA fed. Expt station,
Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, Report for 1947, USDA. Washington DC.
Correl D. 1953. Vanilla - its botany, history, cultivation and economic importance
Econ, Bot. 7: 291-358.
Jones M A and Vincente G G. 1949. Criteria for testing vanilla in relation to curing
methods. J. Agric. Res. 78: 425-35.
Koshi John. 1988. Good prospect for vanilla in westemghat. Spice India, Nov 6-7.
Koshi John. 1999. Vanilla development programme in india. Vanilla workshop at
Kochi on 5 July 1999.
Knudson C. 1946. A new method for germinating orange seeds. American Orchid
Society Bulletin 12, 77.
Lionnett J F G. 1959. Seychelles vanilla - II curing and marketing of the crop. World
Crops 11: 15-7.
Mary Mathew K, Rao I S, Pradip Kumar K, Madhusoodan K J and Potty S N. 1990.
In vitro system in vanilla. Plant Tissue Culture and Biotechnology Emerging
Trends, Kavi Kishore P B (Ed),pp 171.
Murashige T and Skoog F. 1962. A revised medium for rapid growth and bioassay
with tobacco tissue culture. Plant Physiology 15: 473.
Purseglove J W, Brown E G, Green C L and Robbins S R J. 1988. Spices, Vol. 2.
Tropical Agriculture series, Longivan Scientific and Technical, England.
Rao Y S, Marry Mathew K, Pradip Kumar K, Madhusoodan K J and Naidu R. 1994.
Tissue culture studies on spice crop, bid Rev. of life Sci. 14: 129.
Rao Y S, Mary Mathew K, Pradip Kumar K, Madhusoodan K J and Polty S N. 1996.
Economics of in vitro propagation of vanilla and ginger. Proc, of PLACROSYM
XII: 209.
Theodose R. 1972. Traditional methods of vanilla preparation and improvement
techniques at the Antalaha Station, Proc. Int. conf. Spices, Trof. Prod, lust. London
71-7.
Index
A Collectotrichum fuscum 39
Abelmoschus moschatus 103 Colletotrichum gloeosporioides 65
Agrotis flammatra 146 Colletotrichum hibisci 105
Aleurites fordii 64 Commiphora wightii 30
Aloe 1 Crotalaria juncea 190
Aloe barbadensis 2 Curvularia andropogonis 129
Ambrette 103 Curvularia eragrostidis 124
Ammi majus 10 Cymbopogon flexuosus 121
Ammi visnaga 10 Cymbopogon martinii 126
Anethum graveolens 108 Cymbopogon pendulus 122
Anise 169
Anomala polita 90 D
Aonla 83 Damask rose 187
Apium graveolens 113 Datura 34
Armillaria mellea 54 Datura stramonium 34
Aromatic Marigold 201 Davana 117
Artemisia pallens 117 Diacrisa obliqua 146
Ascochyta humuli 54 Diaphania nilgirica 90
Ashwagandha 96 Digitalis lanata 38
Aulucophora fovicollis 146 Digitalis purpurea 37
Dill 108
B Dioscorea floribunda Mart 41
Benfonsa stylophora 85 Diplocarpon resea 190
Botrydiplodia theobromae 161 Ditylenchus destructor 55
Botrytis cinerea 55
E
C Elaeis guineensis 64
C. arundinaceum 18 Entamoeba histolytica 14
Celery 113 Ergot 25
Cephaelis ipecacuanha 13 ergotism 26
Cercopora jasminicola 135 Erysiphae cichoracearum 146
Cercospora apii 115 Erysiphae polygoni 70
Cercospora cannabis 54
Cercospora humuli 54 F
Chammomile 139 Foxglove 37
Champaka 149 French jasmine 131
Chayavanprash 18 Fusarium oxysporum 80
Chemical constitution 2
Chlorophytum borivilianum 17 G
Claviceps purpurea 25 Geranyl acetate 128
Clitocybe tabescens 65 Gleosporium 166
Glycyrrhiza glabra 46 Mexican vanilla 208

Guggul 30 Mulahathi 46
H N
Helicoveropa armigera 166 Nutritition 19
Helopeltis theivora 75
Henbane 57 O
Hendecasis duplifaciallis 135 Ocimum basilicum 153
Heterodera humuli 55 Odototermes obesus 135
Honey Plant 10 Opium Poppy 67
Hops 51 Orabanche papaveris 70
Humulus lupulus 51
Hyocymus muticus 58 P
Hyoscyamus niger 57 Palmarosa 126
Pandanus fascicularis 159
I Papaver somniferum 67
Ipecac 13 Patchouli 174
Isabgol 76 Pelargonium graveolens 163
Periwinkle 5
J Pernospora arborescens 70
Japanese Mint 143 Peronospora plantaginis 79
Jasminum grandiflorum 131, 132 Pestalotiopsis mangiferae 124
Jasminum sambac Ait 132 Phyllanthus emblica 83
Jasmnum auriculatum 132 Phytophthora infestans 44
Jatropha 61 Phytophthora meadii 214
Jatropha curcas 61 Phytophthora nicotianae 105
Pimpinella anisum 169
K Piper longum 72
Kewda 159 Plant a go ovata 76
Khasi Kateri 92 Pogostemon Cablin 174
Kusumohak 155 Polianthus tuberosa 181
Pseudomonas cannabina 55
L Puccinia menthae 146
Lemon Grass 121 Pythium ultimum 80
Leveillula tauriea 90
Liquorice 46 R
Liriomyze trifolii 115 Rauvolfia serpentina 87
Long Pepper 72 Rhizoctonia bataticola 49
Rhizoctonia solani 55, 80
M Ricinus communis 64
Macrophomina phaseoli 146 Rosa 187
Magnolia Champace 149 Rosa b if era 188
Manihot esculenta 64 Rosa phoenicea 188
Matricaria chamomillae 139
Medicinal yam 41 S
Meloidogyne incognita 166 Saccharum officinarum 64
Mentha arvensis 143 Safed Musli 17
INDEX 225
Sandalwood 193 Tuberose 181

Santalum album 193 Typhula humulina 55
Sarpagandha 87
Scented geranium 163 U
Sclerotinia libertiana 55 Ureolella tami 55
Septoria digitalis 39
Septoria humuli 55 V
Septoria petrosalnii 115 Vanilla planifolia 208
Solatium viarum 92 Varieties 2
Sweet basil 153 Verticillium alboatrum 55, 146
Syngamia abruptalis 146 Vikarsudha 155
T W
Tagetes erecta 203 Wealth of India 59
Tagetus minuta 201 Withania somnifera 96
MEDICINAL
-AND-
AROMATIC
The book - Medicinal and Aromatic

Plants - presents an integrated
account of contemporary status of
agricultural research and production
technology for profitable cultivation
of forty-one medicinal and aromatic
plants as commercial crops in India.
These plants are grown by marginal
farmers, who face a wide gap
between yield recorded in research
farms and individual growers. The
book will serve the purpose of
helping growers to raise their crop
yield. The book gives valuable
information on several facets of crop
improvement, crop production and
chemical compositions, and will be
useful to students, industries and
progressive farmers.

Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of India

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H.C.

DIRECTORATE OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN AGRICULTURE

Director (DKMA) : Dr Rameshwar Singh

Incharge (English Editorial Unit) : Dr Aruna T Kumar

Chief Production Officer : Dr V K Bharti

All Rights Reserved

Published by Dr Rameshwar Singh, Project Director, DKMA, Indian Council of Agricultural

Celery (Apium graveolens Linn.) 113

Aloe is also called Gheekanvar. Its family is Liliaceae.

Origin and distribution

Genetics and breeding

Parts used: Leaf, pulp and juice.

Periwinkle (Family Apocyanaceae) is also called Sadabahar, Sada Phuli,

Origin and distribution

Genetics and breeding

chromatography and mass spectrometry. Most important are Vincristine and

Parts used: Whole plant is used for medicinal purpose.

• Root alkaloids Ajmalcine and Serpentine are used for allopathic

Constabel F, Rambold S Chatson, K B, Kurz W G W and Kutney J P. 1981. Alkaloid

Honey plant (Umbelliferae) is also called Madhugid.

Origin and distribution

Genetics and Breeding

Parts used: Flowers and fruits.

Harvesting and thrashing

Ipecac (Cephaelis ipecacuanha (Brot.) A. Rich) of the family Rubiaceae is

high content of saponins.

takes long time. There are two methods of scrapping:

Yield and Price

methylsevgide acts as a prophylytic drug as well as it helps in the control

Sastry K S M. 1995. Ergot. Advances in Horticulture (Medicinal and Aromatic Plants,

Guggul (Burseraceae.) is also called Indian Bdellium. It originated in Africa

are glabrous, sessile or subsessile, obvate, serrate (sometimes serrate only

Gum tapping and pruning

From the time of making an incision a small quantity of guggal gum is

Datura of Solanaceae is also called Thom Apple. It originated in south America.

It contains 0.3-0.5% of tropane alkaloids, chiefly hyoscyamine and small

Cultivation by seed sowing

Foxglove (Scrophulariaceae.) is also called Tilpushpi. Its origin was west

exstipulate. Flowers are zygomorphic, pentamerous, hypogynous and bisexual.

Genetics and breeding

• In case of burns it is more selective in preserving the cells severely

Medicinal yam (Dioscoreaceae) is also called Greater Yam. It originated in

Genetics and breeding

Medicinal yam root and leaf

Soil and climate

Support for the plants

Manure and fertilizers

Harvesting and processing

Liquorice (Leguminoesae) is also called Sweetwood, Mulahathi, Jetimad,

Parts used: Roots and underground stem.

prevent diabetic related complications.

of fungi, i.e. Rhizoctonia batciticola, Sclerotium sp. and Fusarium sp.

Yield and price

Scope for future development

Hops (Cannabinaceae, Duke 1983) is also called Common hops

Origin and distribution

Medicinal and other uses

Many fungi cause diseases in hop plants: Armillaria mellea, Ascochyta

Rhizoctonia solani, Sclerotinia libertiana, S. sclerotiorum, Septoria humuli,

Yields and economic viability of hops

Henbane (Solanaceae.) is also called Black Henbane, Khurasani Ajavayan,

Origin and distribution

Parts Percentage of alkaloids (dry weight basis)

Leaves 0.04 -0.08