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SYLVATROP
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January - December 2011 Vol. 21 Nos. 1&2
SYLVATROP, The Technical Journal of Philippine Ecosystems and Natural Resources is

published by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) through
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Cover: Mt. Magdiwata species: Eria profusa (top left); Rhynchoglossum

sp. (top right); Euphlebium rhodochilum (center) and Aquilaria
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species of orchid.
Cover layout: Adreana M. Santos

Sylvatrop, The Technical Journal of Philippine Ecosystems and Natural Resources 19 (1 & 2): 1 - 28
Community vulnerability assessment

to environmental changes in Caliraya
Watershed, Laguna, Philippines
Aurora A. Sodela-Jose
Planning Officer III
Planning and Management Information Services Unit
Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau
4031 College, Laguna, Philippines
Virginia R. Cardenas
Vice Chancellor for Community Affairs
University of the Philippines Los Baños
4031 College, Laguna, Philippines
Vulnerability assessment of Caliraya Watershed was conducted to

assess the degree of impacts of environmental changes in relation to social,
economic, and biophysical attributes together with the coping mechanisms
of the community to reduce these impacts.
A total of 361 randomly selected respondents from five direct-impact

study sites were interviewed. The survey revealed that the communities living
in the watershed are highly vulnerable to social, economic, and biophysical
stressors due to environmental changes such as conversion of land use to
agricultural farming and kaingin cultivation, increasing charcoal production,
in-migration of landless families, and economic activities of resorts and rest
houses, among others.
High level of social vulnerability was due to lack of knowledge on

tenure system, unmet basic needs of the family, and susceptibility to hazards
that greatly affect their well being. Economy in terms of income, livelihood,
employment, and agricultural productivity for home consumption was
highly vulnerable due to environmental changes. The very high biophysical
Keywords: vulnerability, environmental changes, community, watershed

2 A. S. Jose and V. R. Cardenas
vulnerability is perceivably brought about by poor management and

overexploitation of the natural resources in the watershed.
Overall assessment of the respondents showed that the community

was highly vulnerable to environmental changes. Results of the study opened
up significant issues and concerns that need immediate actions, particularly
on the coping mechanisms to mitigate and reduce the vulnerability of the
community.
Caliraya watershed was declared a forest reservation and protected area under Executive
Order No. 33 dated 26 July 1974. The area has its own special use as an upper
reservoir to support the water requirements of Caliraya and Kalayaan Hydroelectric
Plants in providing power sources in the Philippines. However, the Caliraya
Watershed is now degraded and polluted due to varying conflicting uses such as
agricultural food production, ecotourism, sports and recreation, home settlement
areas of informal settlers, resorts and rest houses development, and other multiple
uses. The increasing population within the watershed creates more pressure on the
natural resources, especially because alternative sources of sustainable livelihood are
unavailable. The human survival problems faced by the residents in the upstream and
downstream areas of the watershed had contributed to the degradation and pollution
of the area where the headwaters are located.
Despite the reservation status of the watershed, people’s escalated activities

threaten its sustainable productive and protective functions. The traditional practices
of intensive agriculture in combination with other factors such as illegal logging,
charcoal making, and extraction of both timber and non-timber products have caused
environmental changes to the forest ecosystem of the watershed. These activities
became widely practiced among the people due to lack of alternative sources of
income, as well as their distorted view or misconception that the forest is an
“inexhaustible resource”. Most of the people in the watershed think that they can
continuously use the resources without proper regeneration (NPC-ENFOR 2004).
The intensive upland farming activities within the watershed areas have
created problems on soil erosion and consequent decline in farm production. Removal
of trees that used to prevent or minimize erosion has depleted the soil fertility,
resulting in poor productivity. For over a decade now, the watershed resources have
been overexploited because of the unlimited needs of the people living in the area.
Forested watersheds are converted into range and agricultural lands, tourist resorts
(e.g., Lagos del Sol and Caliraya Lake Ridge Resort), leisure parks (e.g., Trans-Caliraya
Integrated Areas Development (TCIAD) and Japanese Park), estates for villas, rest
houses, and subdivisions which cause environmental degradation, soil erosion,
flooding, landslide, and desertification.
Community vulnerability assessment to environmental changes 3
Other significant environmental changes are the considerable recession of

water supply for domestic, irrigation, and hydroelectric generation. In the past, the
waterline of the Caliraya and Lumot Lakes considerably receded due to the El Niño
phenomenon. Assessment of the Caliraya-Lumot Watershed conducted by Coligado
et al. (2004) revealed that the significant reduction of rainfall due to prolonged drought
had consequently reduced the water volume in the watershed. Thus, groundwater
recharge from the tributaries draining into the lakes may have diminished as well.
The inability of the watershed to meet the increasing demands for goods
and services threatens its sustainability. The continuous degradation of the watershed
would have significant impacts on the people, most specially the rural poor living
within and in the surrounding communities of Caliraya Watershed.
Under these conditions, a research gap in assessing the vulnerability of a

community in a watershed needs to be filled. Limited studies were undertaken on the
social dimension of the impacts of environmental changes and its corresponding coping
mechanisms. Thus, the study was conceptualized to provide benchmark information
in coming up with workable and meaningful intervention policies and guidelines in
assessing the sustainability of watershed ecosystem and other sub-ecosystems. The
integration of the concept of vulnerability is a community-based approach for planning,
monitoring, evaluating, and assessing the sustainability of the watershed.
Objectives
The study was conducted to determine the degree of impacts of

environmental changes in relation to social, economic, and biophysical attributes
and the corresponding coping mechanisms to reduce these impacts.
Review of Literature
Anthropogenic human activities, increasing population, rapid industrialization

and urbanization, and other unplanned developments consequently affect people’s
lives and the environment as well. The magnitude of pollution, depletion of natural
resources, and degradation of the surrounding environment are global problems faced
today (PCARRD-UPLB 1999). Several studies have been conducted to determine the
factors that affect these problems. The analysis of these problems reflected mostly
the state of the physical and biological environment (e.g., water, air, soil, and land).
However, it excluded the vast concern areas of social environment, particularly the
concept of vulnerability.
Vulnerability concept
The concept of “vulnerability” is complex and dynamic. It evolved in a

variety of meanings such as the classical risk assessments addressing natural hazards
(Downing et al. 2003) and vulnerability assessments addressing global climate
change (McCarthy et al. 2001). The term “vulnerability” was applied to social as
well as biophysical systems. The work of Luers et al. (2003) presented a method of
quantifying vulnerability based on its exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity.
Several research projects have been undertaken globally based on the

concept of vulnerability (i.e., the works of Lasco et al. (2006)) which conducted
an integrated assessment on climate change impacts, adaptation and vulnerability
of watershed areas and communities in Southeast Asia. However, only few studies
can be noted locally using the concept of vulnerability such as the study conducted
by Bornales (2004) which assessed the vulnerability of Subanen community to the
changes in forest cover of Mt. Malindang National Park. Another research done
by Peras (2005) assessed the vulnerability and adaptation of the communities in
Pantabangan-Carranglan Watershed to the impacts of climate variability and extremes
using vulnerability indices of food, water, livelihood, and health in relation to socio-
economic factors.
Pressure-State-Impact-Response Model in vulnerability
The model of Pressure-State-Response (PSR) is a useful framework to assess

the relationships among the pressures human society puts on the environment; the
resulting state or condition of the environment; and the response of society to these
conditions to ease or prevent negative impacts from resulting pressures.
The Pressure-State-Impact-Response (PSIR) approach has been developed

further to fulfill a broader range of objectives. An example of this is the adaptation of a
Driving Pressures-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) approach (Turner et al. 2003). Other
studies have considered the brittleness or resilience of various systems to pressures
(Bricker et al. 2003). They focused on eutrophication and the susceptibility of various
systems to nutrient loading. The assessment of vulnerability to flood impacts and
damages conducted by Flood Hazard Centre by Takehiro Nakamura (UNEP 2002)
and Chris Hutton (UNCSD 2003) focused on the flood events associated with El
Niño and La Niña events. The floods have devastating effects in Asia, Europe, and
Africa where they seriously affect economic and social development. For instance,
it is estimated that the 1998 flood in Bangladesh cost over US$55 million in damage
to shelter alone. The direct economic loss incurred by the 1998 floods in China was
estimated at US$30 billion.
The intensity of natural hazards such as floods and other phenomena have
exacerbated unsustainable environmental and resource use practices, including
deforestation, inappropriate land uses, and poor management of water resources.
These phenomena and other events often need to be assessed by the different
stakeholders, specifically the households, vulnerable groups, or community and other
concerned agencies and social institutions. A framework based on the P-S-I-R model,
which also includes vulnerability of the system to each type of pressures has been
developed (Rissik et al. 2003). A key feature of this framework is the identification
of the links between indicators of pressure, state, and impact, ensuring that only
indicators relevant to local situations are selected. In addition, a risk assessment
process has been developed (Fig.1), otherwise known as the Vulnerability-Pressure-
State-Impact-Risk-Response (VPSIRR).
ISSUES AND VALUES

Stressors
Pressures Vulnerability Indicators Condition
Vulnerability Indicators
Pressures Condition
Risk
Management
Response Priority
Figure 1. Vulnerability-Pressure-State-Impact-Risk-Response (VPSIRR) approach in

the state of community vulnerability to environmental changes.
Materials and Methods
Study area
The study was conducted in Caliraya Watershed located on top of the

Sierra Madre ranges in the eastern part of Laguna province. It is bounded by three
municipalities, namely: Lumban, Cavinti, and Kalayaan, encompassing ten barangays.
The study focused within the sub-watershed of Caliraya Lake covering five barangays,
namely: Caliraya and Lewin of Lumban; West Talaongan and East Talaongan of
Cavinti; and Sitio Magalolong, Pulot and Bae of San Antonio, Kalayaan.
Sample and sampling technique
Respondents of the study were household members who have gained

knowledge and experience over the years on the effects of environmental changes in
the watershed. Other respondents were key informants selected among the heads of
national and local authorities within the watershed, Nongovernment organizations
(NGOs), and other stakeholders in the area.
A sample of 361 individuals from direct-impact sites was selected using simple
random sampling with confidence level of 95%. Interview schedule was developed
consisting of close and open-ended questions. Primary data were comprehensively
supplemented by several interviews with key informants randomly chosen from local
government agencies (LGAs), local government units (LGUs), NGOs, and private
institutions.
Statistical analyses
Both quantitative and qualitative methods were applied to analyze the data
using Statistical Program of the Social Science (SPSS). Descriptive statistics such as
frequency counts, percentages, and means were employed to determine the degree of
impacts of environmental changes; the vulnerability indicators (i.e., social, economic,
and biophysical); and the coping mechanisms.
Critical variables and levels of vulnerability were analyzed by computing the

composite scores of various parameters used in the study. Means of the parameters
were obtained to determine the extent of vulnerability in relation to social, economic,
and physical dimension.
Results and Discussion
Characteristics of the respondents
Majority (69%) of the 361 respondents from five study sites were female,
relatively young (80%) aged 12 to 39 years old, married (69%), and had formal
education (97%), with an average of eight years stay in school or equivalent to second
year high school. Most households have an average number of two children attending
school. The average size of the family is five. The biggest family has 15 members.
More than half (58%) have only one member working for the family.
A large proportion (54%) of the respondents are native of the area while
the rest (46%) are local migrants. Respondents migrated to the area due to: marriage
(38.2%), employment (24%), the place was the residence of their parents (13%), and
more opportunities in the area (12%). Average year of residency is 23.8 years.
The respondents have a variety of occupations. Most of them are construction

workers (23%); employees (18%); and crop and livestock farmers (12%). Others are
workers at resorts, caddy/ball holders, speedboat operators, and drivers. Twenty-two
percent are engaged in off-farm work such as carabao-grass harvesting, “pandan”
weaving, and charcoal making. Twenty percent are engaged in small-scale business
while 17% are employed in resorts and rest houses as workers or maintenance crew.
Twelve percent are jobless or have no permanent jobs. The average annual income
of the respondents is P31,954.86.
Majority (80%) of the respondents do not own the land they are cultivating
while 73% are informal settlers. One-third (30%) of the respondents had obtained a
title or tax declaration, 0.6% are lessees, and 3% are caretakers of the land they use.
Majority (61%) own less than 500 m2 of land and about 14% own 1,000 to 6,000 m2
of land. Average area of land ownership is 1,036.36 m2.
Of the farmer-respondents, majority (77%) do not own the land they cultivate while
23% titled their own land. More than half (55%) are informal occupants/squatters who cultivate
the land while 25% are owners who farm their own land. Only 11% of them are lessees.
More than two-thirds (69%) of the respondents are not aware of any information
and technology on the watershed. Those who are aware acquired information and
technology on methods of forest production (31%) and conservation (77%) and
different farming methods (11%). Thirty nine percent of the respondents who are not
aware of the information and technology pointed out that the technical personnel
from the government and other agencies do not provide them such information or no
such information or news has been disseminated (17%) at all.
More than three-fourths (79%) of the respondents had no access to

information about the environment and natural resources concerns relevant to the
watershed. Only 21% had accessed information and technology through attending
meetings (44%) and trainings and seminars (39%). Generally, respondents have very
weak access and use of information and technology on watershed conservation and
protection.
Perception on the factors contributing to changes in the biophysical

characteristics of the watershed and its effects on people
Table 1 shows that the respondents' shared perception on the impacts of

environmental changes in the watershed is generally high (mean=3.46). The
drivers/pressures of environmental changes identified include: misconception on
ecotourism (mean=3.71), population growth (mean=3.65), and rapid development
and urbanization (mean=3.50). The respondents thought that these factors had the
greatest effect on the biophysical characteristics of the watershed at the community
level.
Perception of the micro/macro impacts of environmental changes
People’s shared perception of the micro and macro impacts of environmental

changes on three dimensions, namely, social and economic, environmental, and
physical were assessed using the five-point Likert scale where "1" correspond for
“very low” and "5" for “very high”. The five-point Likert scale determined the extent
of perceived impacts of environmental changes on the community.
Table 2 shows that “high impact” to social and economic (mean=3.04) is

attributed to increased health problems and cause of diseases (mean=3.43), loss of
income and livelihood (mean=3.25), and loss of people's lives (mean=3.19), among
others.
Degradation of the environment was identified as the change with the

greatest impact on the people (mean=3.46). These findings were further validated
by the key informants who mentioned the following impacts: loss of forest cover,
loss of biodiversity/habitat of plants and animals, increased runoff and erosion along
steep slopes and gullies, rampant “kaingin” and shifting cultivation, water pollution
due to domestic and commercial use, and increasing population of local migrants/
informal settlers in the area. Physical impacts showed a very high impact due to low
supply of power generation (mean=3.43) and damage of dam, infrastructure, and
other facilities (mean=3.42).
Table 1. Perception on the factors contributing to changes in the watershed’s biophysical characteristics
and its effects to people, shared perception (N=361).

Driver/Pressure Strongly Disagree Fairly Agree Strongly Weighted
Disagree Agree Agree Mean
F % F % F % F % F %
Rapid development 2 0.6 96 26.6 53 14.7 140 38.8 70 19.4 3.50
and urbanization
Misconception on 3 0.8 72 19.9 64 17.7 110 30.5 112 31.0 3.71
ecotourism
Population growth 16 4.4 62 17.2 61 16.9 114 31.6 108 29.9 3.65
Economic changes 9 2.5 57 15.8 116 32.1 134 37.1 45 12.5 3.41
Local governance 9 2.5 71 19.7 141 39.1 94 26.0 46 12.7 3.27
and accountability
Political will 11 3.0 78 21.6 145 40.2 80 22.2 47 13.0 3.21
Overall Weighted Mean 3.46
Community vulnerability assessment to environmental changes
Adjective Rating High
Scale: Rating:
1 – Strongly Disagree (SD) 0.00 - 1.66 = Low
2 – Disagree (D) 1.67 - 3.35 = Neutral
3 – Fairly Agree (FA) 3.36 - 5.00 = High
4 – Agree (A)
5 – Strongly Agree (SA)
9
Table 2. Perception on the macro/micro impacts of environmental changes on the community. 10
Shared Perception (N=361)
Driver/Pressure Very Low Low Fair High Very High Weighted
Mean
F % F % F % F % F %
Social and Economic
Loss of life 23 6.4 104 28.8 43 11.9 164 45.4 27 7.5 3.19
Human injury 46 12.7 121 33.5 61 16.9 123 34.1 10 2.8 2.81
Insecurity of land tenure 95 26.3 128 35.5 35 9.7 97 26.9 6 1.7 2.42
Increased health problem 14 3.9 92 25.5 39 10.8 158 43.8 58 16.1 3.43
and causes of diseases
Loss of income and 13 3.6 96 26.6 71 19.7 150 41.6 31 8.6 3.25
livelihood
Loss of employment 9 2.5 91 25.2 112 31.0 141 39.1 8 2.2 3.13
Loss of business and 10 2.8 92 25.5 126 34.9 125 34.6 8 2.2 3.08
market
Weighted Mean 3.04
Adjective Rating High impact
Environmental
Degradation of 7 1.9 77 21.3 132 36.6 32 8.9 113 31.3 3.46
the environment
Extinction of natural 7 1.9 80 22.2 137 38.0 47 13.0 90 24.9 3.12
resources
Pollution 1 0.3 30 8.3 150 41.6 168 46.5 12 3.3 3.44
A. S. Jose and V. R. Cardenas
Table 2. Continuation...
Driver/Pressure Very Low Low Fair High Very High Weighted

Mean
F % F % F % F % F %
Weighted Mean 3.34
Physical
Low power supply 3 0.8 68 18.8 145 40.2 62 17.2 83 23.0 3.43
Damage of dam, 8 0.8 61 16.9 153 42.4 73 20.2 71 19.7 3.42
infrastructure and
facilities
Weighted Mean 3.43
Adjective Rating Very high impact
Scale: Rating:
1 – Very low (VL) 0.00 - 1.66 = Least impact
2 – Low (L) 1.67 - 3.35 = High impact
3 – Fair (F) 3.36 - 5.00 = Very high impact
4 – High (H)
5 – Very high (VH)
11
In general, the respondents perceived a high impact of environmental

changes (mean=3.18) both in social and economic, environmental, and physical
aspects of the watershed. This implies that micro and macro impacts of environmental
changes made the people in the community vulnerable.
Degree of impacts of environmental changes
Table 3 shows the respondents’ perceived degrees of impact of environmental

changes in Caliraya Watershed. This was also done using a five-point Likert scale
which represents "1" for “very low” to "5" for “very high”. On the basis of the scale,
the degree of impacts of the environmental changes on the people and the community
were determined into (0.00 – 1.66) for “least impact"; (1.67 – 3.35) for "high impact";
and (3.36 – 5.00) for "very high impact". The overall perception of the respondents
on the various impacts of environmental changes was taken using the mean score of
each dimension.
Social and economic impacts
Social and economic impacts are indicators of negative conditions that

affect the welfare of the community such as: 1) displacement of people; 2) insecurity
of land tenure; 3) conflict of interest on the use and access of resources; 4) poor
peace and order condition; 5) loss of income and livelihood; and 6) increased health
problem and cause of diseases. Loss of income and livelihood (3.23), poor peace and
order condition (3.27), and increased health problems and cause of diseases (3.32)
were perceived to have the highest impact. The major impacts of the environmental
changes on the social and economic condition of the watershed were perceived
as “high” (mean=2.87), which makes the area vulnerable to occurrence of natural
phenomena or man-made disasters.
Environmental impacts
Respondents in the five barangays strongly felt the high impact of

environmental changes in the watershed. The most perceived negative impacts were:
low power generation (3.26); inadequate and poor quality of water for domestic
use (2.95); poor water quality and water pollution (2.89); and decrease in fish catch
(2.87). It was noted that landslides and flooding were perceived to have the “least
impact” on the people’s vulnerability.
Physical impacts

Physical impacts of environmental changes in the watershed consist of
damage to housing and properties, farmlands, dams and other infrastructures and
facilities, and unforeseen hazards. Table 3 shows that the overall perception of the
respondents on the physical impacts is “high”. It was noted that unforeseen and
unavoidable accidents were perceived to be highly possible to occur more. Damage
on the physical structures, assets, and their houses are another potential impact to
which they thought they are susceptible.
Extent of community vulnerability

"Vulnerability” is defined as people’s susceptibility to any stressors such as
risks or hazards, and their capacity (or lack thereof) to prepare, cope, and recover
from such hazards. Index of vulnerability constitutes indicators affecting the social,
economic, and biophysical dimensions of human welfare and their capacity to
respond to the impacts of the changes.
Social vulnerability
The indices of social vulnerability include: 1) tenure system; 2) basic needs of

the family; and 3) susceptibility to hazards. A five-point scale was used to measure the
perception of the respondents in terms of the adequacy of these indices, such as: "1"
for “very inadequate” to "5" for “very adequate”. The overall composite value of the
responses on the indices represents the rating of vulnerability. These are categorized
into very low, high, and very highly vulnerable.

Table 4 shows an index of “high” social vulnerability (2.29). The well being
of the people in the watershed is greatly affected by their lack of knowledge on
tenure system, basic needs of the family, and susceptibility to hazards. Most of the
respondents felt that these were very insufficient to support their life condition.
Economic vulnerability
Table 5 shows that income and livelihood, employment, and productivity

for home consumption were generally perceived to be very low (33%) to fairly
inadequate (43%), rendering the people and the community vulnerable to the negative
impacts of environmental changes. The overall index of economic vulnerability was
high (mean=2.24). Findings of the study were supported by Bornales (2004) on the
adaptation and vulnerability of Subanen, an indigenous community to environmental
conditions in Mt. Malindang National Park. He found out that the vulnerability status
of the people is not only due to their exposure to harsh environmental conditions but
also due to their vulnerable economic conditions.
Table 3. Perceived degree of impacts of environmental changes in the watershed, shared perception (N=361). 14

Weighted
Driver/Pressure Very Low Low Fair High Very High Mean
F % F % F % F % F %
Social and Economic
Displacement of people 66 18.3 132 36.6 108 29.9 50 13.9 5 1.4 2.46
Insecurity of land tenure 76 21.1 162 44.9 82 22.7 35 9.7 6 1.7 2.26
Conflict of interest on use and 36 10.0 132 36.6 114 31.6 73 20.2 6 1.7 2.67
access of resources
Poor peace and order condition 11 3.0 77 21.3 93 25.8 164 45.4 16 4.4 3.27
Loss of income and livelihood 30 8.3 65 18.0 84 23.3 157 43.5 25 6.9 3.23
Increased health problems and 33 9.1 70 19.4 53 14.7 158 43.8 47 13.0 3.32
causes of diseases
Weighted Mean 2.87
Environmental
Loss of forest resources 53 14.7 63 17.5 187 51.8 47 13.0 11 3.0 2.72
Loss of wildlife habitat and 60 16.6 53 14.7 155 42.9 86 23.8 7 1.9 2.80
indigenous plant species
Poor water quality and polluted 60 16.6 44 13.9 130 36.0 112 31.0 9 2.5 2.89
bodies of water
Inadequate and poor quality of 67 18.6 44 12.2 126 34.9 89 24.7 35 9.7 2.95
water for domestic use
Low irrigation supply 181 50.1 86 23.8 53 14.7 35 9.7 6 1.7 1.89
Low power generation 63 17.5 45 12.5 87 23.5 70 19.4 98 27.1 3.26
Low river and stream flows 65 18.0 45 12.5 197 54.6 47 13.0 7 1.9 2.68
Decrease in fish catch 64 17.7 47 13.0 130 36.0 112 31.0 8 2.2 2.87
Flooding 227 62.9 68 18.8 41 11.4 20 5.5 5 1.4 1.64
Landslide 231 64.0 69 19.1 40 11.1 19 5.3 2 0.6 1.59
Decrease in agricultural land 74 20.5 62 17.2 178 49.3 41 11.4 6 1.7 2.54
productivity
Weighted Mean 2.30
Physical
Damage to housing and properties/ 63 17.5 69 19.1 133 36.8 89 24.7 7 1.9 2.75
assets
Damage to farmland 153 42.4 96 26.6 97 26.9 8 2.2 7 1.9 1.95
Damage to dam and other 59 16.3 74 20.5 137 38.0 86 23.8 5 1.4 2.73
infrastructures/facilities
Unavoidable/unforeseen hazards 64 17.7 55 15.2 114 31.6 123 34.1 5 1.4 2.86
Weighted Mean 2.57
Scale: Rating:
1 – Very low (VL) 0.00 - 1.66 = Least impact
2 – Low (L) 1.67 - 3.35 = High impact
3 – Fair (F) 3.36 - 5.00 = Very high impact
4 – High (H)
5 – Very high (VH)
15
Table 4. Extent of social vulnerability to environmental changes in the watershed, N=361. 16
Very Moderately Highly Very Highly Weighted
Social Factors Inadequate
Inadequate Adequate Adequate Adequate Mean
Adjective
F % F % F % F % F %
Description
Tenure system 123 34.1 66 18.3 109 30.2 57 15.8 6 1.7 2.33/ Highly
vulnerable
Basic needs of the family 117 32.4 64 17.7 164 45.4 11 3.0 5 1.4 2.33/ Highly
vulnerable
Susceptibility to hazards 122 33.8 109 30.2 107 29.6 21 5.8 2 0.6 2.09/ Highly
vulnerable
Adjective Rating Highly Vulnerable
Scale: Rating:
1 - Very Inadequate 0.00 - 1.66 = Least Vulnerable
2 - Inadequate 1.67 - 3.35 = Highly Vulnerable
3 - Moderately Adequate 3.36 - 5.00 = Very Highly Vulnerable
4 - Highly Adequate
5 - Very Highly Adequate
Biophysical vulnerability
The biophysical vulnerability index is the extent of the people's knowledge

in assessing the vulnerability of the watershed, making the household and community
susceptible to risks or hazards. The perception on the biophysical aspects of the
watershed was determined using a five-point scale in which the respondents rated
the item "1" if they “strongly disagree“ up to "5" points if they “strongly agree”. The
extent of knowledge of the respondent was computed using the composite scores
of eight statements. An overall weighted mean score of 4.35 was taken equivalent
to rating of “very highly vulnerable” to the biophysical condition of the watershed
(Table 6).
The very high biophysical vulnerability was perceivably brought about by

poor management and overexploitation of the natural resources in the watershed.
Majority of the respondents strongly felt that the biophysical vulnerability was due
to the poor management of the watershed's natural resources (mean=4.51); poor
water quality caused by human activities and economic development (mean=4.47);
exploited and degraded natural resources due to unsustainable livelihood for the
family (mean=4.42); and increased deforestation causing scarcity in water supply for
domestic use, irrigation, power generation, and other uses (mean=4.38).
Overall assessment of community vulnerability
The overall assessment of the respondents was that the community was
highly vulnerable (mean=2.63) to environmental changes (Table 7). Almost half of
them (49%) rated community vulnerability as moderate/fair while 35% rated it as
high.
The most vulnerable individual(s) or groups were the community (77%),

household/family (22%), and the elderly (18%) (Table 8). Respondents perceived
children as the least vulnerable group. Because of their low educational background,
maybe they did not realize that children are the most vulnerable groups.
The findings on the overall assessment of community vulnerability opened

up some significant issues and concerns for immediate actions and response coping
mechanisms to mitigate and reduce the state of vulnerability of the people and the
community.
Table 5. Extent of economic vulnerability of the household and community to the occurrence of negative impacts 18
of environmental changes in the watershed, N=361.
Very
Moderately Highly Very highly Weighted
Social Factors Inadequate Inadequate
Adequate Adequate Adequate Mean
Adjective
F % F % F % F % F %
Description
Income and livelihood 125 34.6 65 18.0 149 41.3 12 3.3 10 2.8 2.22/ Highly
Vulnerable
Employment 119 33.0 61 16.9 152 42.1 21 5.8 8 2.2 2.27/ Highly
Vulnerable
Productivity for home 73 20.2 118 32.7 104 28.8 63 17.5 3 0.8 2.46/ Highly
consumption Vulnerable
Scale: Rating:
1 - Very Low (VL) 0.00 - 1.66 = Least Vulnerable
2 - Low (L) 1.67 - 3.35 = Highly Vulnerable
3 - Fair (F) 3.36 - 5.00 = Very Highly Vulnerable
4 - High (H)
5 - Very High (VH)
Table 6. Extent of biophysical vulnerability exposing the watershed and community to hazard, shared perception
(N=361).
Social Factors Strongly Disagree Fairly Agree Strongly Weighted

Disagree Agree Agree Mean
F % F % F % F % F %
The watershed is rich in natural 11 3.0 155 42.9 195 54.0 4.51
resources, but they are not properly
managed by the people.
The environment and natural 14 3.9 182 50.4 165 45.7 4.42
resources are exploited and
degraded because of unsustainable
livelihood and income of the family.
Most upland areas have no forest 1 0.3 3 0.8 14 3.9 203 56.2 140 38.8 4.32
cover because of cutting of trees,
kaingin, shifting cultivation, and

other practices of the people.
Improper method of farming has 1 0.3 1 0.3 45 12.5 180 49.9 134 37.1 4.23
contributed to soil loss and erosion.
Deforestation is increasing fast, 1 0.3 2 0.6 23 6.4 167 46.3 168 46.5 4.38
causing scarcity in the water supply
for domestic use, irrigation, power
generation, and other uses.
19
Table 6. Continuation... 20
Social Factors Strongly Disagree Fairly Agree Agree Strongly Weighted

Disagree agree Mean
Depletion and degradation of the 1 0.3 1 0.3 44 12.2 181 50.1 134 37.1 4.23
environment and natural resources
have destroyed the biodiversity
habitat of plants and animals.
Environmental consequences 2 0.6 4 1.1 49 13.6 165 45.7 141 39.1 4.22
such as flooding, landslide and
man-made disasters are caused by
human activities and economic
development.
Poor water quality changes are due 22 6.1 148 41.0 191 52.9 4.47
to human activities and economic
development.
Adjective Rating Very Highly Vulnerable

Scale: Rating:
1 – Strongly Disagree (SD) 0.00 - 1.66 = Least Vulnerable
2 – Disagree (D) 1.67 - 3.35 = Highly Vulnerable
3 – Fairly agree (FA) 3.36 – 5.00 = Very Highly Vulnerable
4 – Agree (A)
5 – Strongly Agree (SA)

Table 7. Respondents’ overall assessment of the vulnerability of the community to

environmental changes.
Overall
Weighted
Assessment Frequency Percentage Score
Mean
N=361
Very little/not much 42 11.6 42
Moderate/fair 177 49.0 354
High 126 34.9 378
Very high 16 4.4 176
Scale: Rating:
1 – Very little/Not much (VL/NM) 0.00 - 1.33 = Least Vulnerable
2 – Moderate/Fair (M/F) 1.34 - 2.67 = Highly Vulnerable
3 – High (H) 2.68 - 4.00 = Very highly Vulnerable
4 – Very High (VH)
Table 8. Individuals or groups most vulnerable to the impacts of environmental

changes.
Frequency*
Vulnerable sector Percentage
(N=361)
Community 276 76.5
Household/family 79 21.9
Elderly 65 18.0
Owners of resorts and rest houses 34 9.4
Children 14 3.9
* Multiple responses
Response coping mechanisms
Table 9 shows the percentage and the kind of assistance provided by different
social institutions to reduce the negative impacts of environmental changes. Two-
thirds (66.6%) of the respondents stated that there were no provisions from different
social institutions to reduce the negative impacts of environmental changes in the
community.
Table 9. Respondents’ perception of the provision of assistance by social

institutions to reduce the negative impacts of environmental changes.
Frequency
Response Percentage
(N=361)
Yes 41 11.4
No 320 66.6
Types of assistance (N=41)*

Livelihood 20 48.7
Loan 16 39.0
Health 15 36.6
Environment 10 24.4
Social institutions
Nongovernment organizations 32 78.2
(Jaycees, Couples for Christ,
and other religious groups)
Local government units 21 51.2
Local government agencies 6 14.6
(NPC, ERDB, etc.)
Only 11% reported the availability of support consist of livelihood opportunities

(49%), loan (39%), health services (37%), and information/technical assistance on
environment (24%).

The different social institutions that have provided support were: LGUs
(51%), NGOs (78%) (e.g., Credit Association for Rural Development, Jaycees,
Couples for Christ, and other religious groups) and LGAs (15%) for loans, health, and
environmental missions.
The respondents suggested some possible coping mechanisms according

to their needs to reduce the negative impacts of environmental changes (Table 10).
These include promoting community and kinship ties (52%), employing conservation,
protection, and rehabilitation measures (22%), adapting strategies for livelihood
program (13%), and public hearings and consultation on the problems, issues, and
concerns of the watershed (13%).
Table 10. Respondents’ suggested coping mechanisms to reduce the negative

impacts associated with environmental changes.
Response mechanisms Freq* %

(N=361)
Community and kinship ties 183 51.7
Helping each other/unity 150
Self help 28
Equality among constituents and government 5
Conservation, protection, and rehabilitation measures 79 21.9

Implementation of laws, regulations, and other policies 23
Water conservation measures 15
Clean and Green Program 12
Protection of the secondary forest 11
Reforestation and tree planting 8
Protection of the ecosystems and natural resources 8
Landscape plantation (vegetables, fruits, and indigenous 2
trees)
Adaptation strategies for livelihood program 48 13.3

Creation of sustainable alternative sources of income 29
Job fair and capital 16
Establishment of community cooperatives 3
Social acceptability 46 12.7

Public hearing and consultation 17
Values formation on caring for the watershed 17
Massive education and information awareness and 12
learning
Social institutionalization 8 2.2

Provision of technical assistance and other related 5
community programs
Involvement and participation in the community programs 3
Resettlement areas 2 0.6
Community and kinship ties are considered as an adaptation strategy to raise

awareness on the impacts of environmental changes in the watershed. It implies that
the members of the families are helping each other and sharing their goals, values,
and feelings in community affairs.
In relation to these, the respondents recommended ways and means for

different social institutions to reduce the impacts of environmental changes to the
community (Table 11). Local government units at barangay levels are suggested
to provide water system (18%). Meanwhile, alternative means of livelihood and
employment generation were suggested to municipal and provincial government units.
For the LGAs, the National Power Corporation (NPC) should likewise support needs for
improved water system (5%) and electric supply (4%). The Department of Environment
and Natural Resources (DENR) should engage in sustainable environmental livelihood
and agroforestry projects and activities. As part of the rehabilitation program of the
lake ecosystem, priority concerns include cleaning the waters by dredging, removing
water hyacinths, and other exotic species. The Department of Agriculture (DA) should
provide the farmers with high value agricultural crops and fruit trees and farm inputs
for soil productivity and conservation technology. Health services and vocational skill
development program should likewise be provided by nongovernment institutions
and organizations actively involved in the community.
Table 11. Respondents’ recommended ways and means for different social
institutions in the community to reduce the impacts of environmental
changes.
Institution Responsible Freq %

Local Government Unit
Barangay Level
Water system 66 18.3
Street light 51 14.1
Alternative livelihood or creation of jobs 43 11.9
Resettlement area 39 10.8
Road 34 9.4
Others [education (14); electricity (12); environmental 38 10.5
and waste management projects (7); telephone lines (5)]
Municipal Level
Road 14 3.9
Institution Responsible Freq %

Environmental protection program (i.e., waste disposal 11 3.0
and management, tree planting of indigenous forest
species, etc.)
Water system 8 2.2
Others [sport and recreation facilities (3); health and 6 1.7
wellness program (2); curfew hours (1)]
Provincial Level
Road 27 7.5
Others [health services (6); education (4); 14 3.9
environmental projects (3); and cooperative (1)]
Local Government Agencies

National Power Corporation (NPC) 17 4.7
Water system 15 4.2
Electricity
Implementation of laws and regulations on 10 2.8
watershed protection
Others [livelihood (4) and road (2)] 6 1.7
Department of Environment and Natural Resources
(DENR)
Water rehabilitation (dredging, removal of water 12 3.3
hyacinth and exotic species)
Sustainable environmental livelihood and agroforestry 6 1.7
Tree planting and reforestation using endemic species 4 1.1
Land tenure system 1 0.3
Department of Agriculture (DA)
Introduction of high value agricultural crops and fruit trees 4 1.1
Soil productivity and conservation 2 0.6
Mechanized farm implements 1 0.3
Nongovernment Organizations (NGOs)

Health services and medicines 10 2.8
Training on vocational skills 1 0.3
Conclusion

The community vulnerability assessment recognizes that people and
community are susceptible to the impacts of environmental changes, thus, their
capacity (or lack thereof) to prepare, cope, and recover if such hazards occur needs
to be identified. The determinants of community vulnerability are: characteristics of
individuals, social-psychological behaviors of household and community, perceived
degrees of impact of environmental changes, response coping mechanisms, and the
state of vulnerability in the dimension of social, economic, and biophysical aspects.
Based on the findings of the study, impacts of environmental changes on

social and economic, environmental, and physical characteristics were high and
perceivably brought about by poor management and overexploitation of the natural
resources of the watershed. Respondents strongly felt that the community’s social,
economic, and biophysical vulnerabilities were due to water quality changes. Scarce
water supply for domestic use, irrigation, power generation, and other uses are
caused by human activities and economic development, exploited and degraded
natural resources due to unsustainable livelihood, and rampant cutting of small trees
in the forest.

These impacts of environmental changes significantly affected the well being
of the household and community, as well as the integrity of the watershed. If coping
mechanisms will not be institutionalized to reduce these impacts, these problems
may arise.

Recommendations
There is an urgent need for community education and information

awareness about the social, economic, environmental, and physical consequences
on the impacts of environmental changes (e.g., forest degradation, pollution, and
rampant cutting of small trees for charcoal making, among others). The community
development adaptation strategies should be in accordance to the needs felt by the
people in reducing the impacts of environmental changes.
Strengthening community participation, mobilization, and organization both

at household and community levels are very important development work that have
to be done by barangay units and the NPC in collaboration with LGAs and NGOs.
Raising public awareness and people empowerment by promoting high level of
consciousness and literacy on the causes and effects of the environmental degradation
and resource depletion must be recognized.
These findings raised some significant issues and concerns for immediate
action and response coping mechanisms to mitigate and reduce the state of
vulnerability of the people and the community. The priority concerns include
sustainable environmental livelihood and agroforestry projects and activities, using
high value crops and fruit trees, among others. In improving the efficiency of economic
relations, social capital can help increase people’s income and their productivity for
home consumption.
Recognizing the various problems, policy review and assessment need to be

undertaken by all concerned stakeholders in managing the watershed. There is also
an urgent need for monitoring, evaluation, and sustainable assessment of existing
laws, policies, and programs as well.
Acknowledgement
This article is part of the completed thesis dissertation of the first author entitled
”Community Vulnerability Assessment to Environment Changes in Caliraya Watershed, Laguna,
Philippines” supported by the Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research
in Agriculture (SEARCA) and Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources
Research and Development (PCARRD). The authors also wish to express their gratitude to the
advisory committee composed of Dr. Federico A. Cruz, Dr. Elvira S. Talatayod and Dr. Antonio
J. Alcantara for their unwavering support and guidance in undertaking this research.
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Tree species composition and

physiognomy of Kinabuhayan River
riparian zones, Mt. Banahaw-San
Cristobal Protected Landscape
Amalia E. Almazol
Assistant Professor
Department of Forestry and Environmental Science
College of Agriculture, Southern Luzon State University
Lucban, Quezon
Sofio B. Quintana
Regional Technical Director
Department of Environment and Natural Resources
Region 3
The study was conducted to determine the tree species composition

and physiognomy of Kinabuhayan River riparian zones, Mt. Banahaw-San
Cristobal Protected Landscape in Quezon Province. Specifically, it aimed
to determine the dominant species association, species richness, and forest
structure of the area as influenced by trees. Quadrat sampling technique of
vegetation analysis showed that there were 37 families represented by 59
genera, 75 species, and 183 individuals. The dominant species associations
at different elevations were composed of families represented by species
thriving typically in primary forest along streams and moist areas at low
and medium altitudes. The area is diverse but there was no complete
similarity on species composition between and among elevations. In terms
of physiognomic characteristics, smaller diameter classes dominated the
trees in the area emphasizing that it is on its late succession stage and still in
dynamic phase of development.
Keywords: tree species composition, physiognomy, Kinabuhayan River, Mt. Banahaw-San

Cristobal Protected Landscape, riparian zones
30 A. E. Almazol and S. B. Quintana
Mt. Banahaw is a rainforest mountain with an average of 262 rainy days per year. It
is a watershed that sustains water for the creeks, rivers, and falls draining to Laguna
de Bay and Tayabas Bay. These bodies of water sustain the domestic, irrigation, and
recreation needs of people living near the area. Many people believe that some of the
rivers have “healing power”, thus, they dip into the water believing that their illnesses
will be cured. The forest of Mt. Banahaw is an important refuge for many species of
plants and animals which act as protectors of watersheds. As a watershed, it provides
water to over a million people living in the provinces of Quezon and Laguna (Gascon
2002). This watershed also plays a very crucial ecological role in soil and water
conservation.
Vegetation study is very important since the ecosystem of Mt. Banahaw is

always affected by people visiting the area. They constantly alter the environment
by gathering woods for fuels and/or for building tents especially during holy week.
Vegetation study is also affected by the dynamism of organisms. On a daily basis,
plants grow and die. All organisms are linked together in a community, any change
affects many organisms within it. Certain conditions within the community are keys
to the kinds of organisms that are found associated with one another. Over a long
period of time, it is possible to see trends in the way the structure/physiognomy of
the community changes (Enger and Smith 1998). Physiognomy, according to Gascon,
(2000) describes the general/overall outer appearance of the plant community
determined by the life forms of dominant plants.
There are many studies conducted regarding the floristic composition of Mt.
Banahaw. These studies were encoded in a database for Mt. Banahaw. However, no
study was ever conducted focusing on the riparian zones. Since Mt. Banahaw is a
watershed with many tributaries contributing to the main river, it is very important
to know its floristic composition and physiognomy. Furthermore, according to
the Environmental Research Development Proceedings (1998), forest depletion
is connected to global warming and other climatic factors. A comprehensive and
accurate inventory is important because of the very incomplete and inadequate
knowledge on natural vegetation and of flowering plants. Therefore, basic floristic
study of the area is necessary.
The result of the study will contribute to the list of endangered and threatened
flora species in Mt. Banahaw. It could also provide additional information on the Mt.
Banahaw database. Particularly, it will give some insights and baseline data for the
proposed study of flora and fauna on the major rivers in the said protected area. It
could likewise serve as a basis in making policies regarding biodiversity conservation
of the landscape.
Tree species composition and physiognomy 31
Objectives

The study was conducted to determine the tree species composition and
physiognomy of Kinabuhayan River riparian zones, Mt. Banahaw-San Cristobal
Protected Landscape. Specifically, it attempted to determine the: 1) tree species
growing on the banks of Kinabuhayan River; 2) dominant species associations
at different elevations of the River; 3) differences in terms of species richness per
elevation; and 4) structure of the forest in the area.
Ecosystem may be defined at a range of scales from an individual leaf up to

the level of the whole biosphere. Studying the forest community is very important
because it is at this scale that humans can make best sense of the nature and the
various vegetation cover of the earth. Human activities change vegetation cover
thus, conservation and environmental management practices and policies should be
applied.
Forests provide huge benefits. Aside from supplying wood and other
products, they store a vast amount of genetic information, regulate the climate and
flow of water, protect and enrich the soils, control pests and diseases, pollinate useful
plants and disperse their seeds, safeguard water quality, offer beautiful landscape,
and enrich us spiritually (Kaimowitz 2002). They provide a wide range of economic,
social, cultural, and environmental benefits and services, including food, medicine,
and shelter. Forests are also protectors of watersheds. Trees trap the large amounts of
carbon dioxide that contributes to global warming (Enger and Smith 1998).
Riparian forests border streams, rivers, and lakes which occasionally include
emergency flood drainage areas. These areas absorb storm runoff, provide valuable
wildlife habitat, and are often used for picnic sites and hiking or nature trails (Grey
1996). According to Mortimer and Mortimer (1996), forested areas along the streams
fulfill other needs of the community at large by sorting water and by helping prevent
stream bank erosion, which in turn decreases sedimentation downstream. These
areas protect and enhance the aquatic environment as well. Shading the water keeps
it cooler, an essential condition for many desirable aquatic species. Buffer strip also
provides wildlife habitat and can be managed for special forest products.
Enger and Smith (1998) stated that deforestation significantly impacts climate.
If the trees are removed, flooding is more common and much valuable water is lost as
runoff. Riverbanks have special erosion problems as water level often changes, leaving
greater parts of the banks exposed, which are generally bare of vegetation. The most
severe kind of erosion is caused in streams carrying bedload. Most vulnerable are the
outside curves, where the flow is scouring and undercutting the banks.
Forest community structure, according to Frank (2004), can be described

from top to bottom consisting of a canopy level, understory level, brush and shrub
level, and herbaceous layer on a forest floor. It can also be described both horizontally
and vertically. In the horizontal level, part of the structure are patterns of openings,
closed forest, and tree size are part of the structure (Olympic Learning Center, 1998).
Richards (1936) believed that not only the formation types based on structure and
physiognomy is important but also the floristic association. This does not mean that
the species composition will be exactly the same in all localities. Whittaker (1960)
stressed that vegetation is subtle in its response to the environment, varied in structure
and composition, expressive of the biological productivity of the land and interesting
and aesthetically appealing to man. Dansereau (1957) as cited by Mueller-Dombois
and Ellenberg (1974) said that the primary elements of the structure are growth form,
stratification, and coverage. Some environmental factors influencing plant distribution
include moisture, light, soil, and distribution behavior (Weier 1992).
This study used descriptive method of research. Quadrat sampling technique

of vegetation analysis was applied. The study was conducted at Kinabuhayan River,
Barangay Kinabuhayan, Dolores, Quezon (Fig. 1) from May to June 2005.
The sampling area was confined to the Kinabuhayan River riparian zone
approximately located between the geographic coordinates of 14o02’02” North
latitudes and 121o26’42” to 121o27’27” East longitudes. Dolores, Quezon belongs to
Climatic Type II. It is characterized by pronounced maximum rain period from August
to December without any dry season. It lies at river altitude between 400 masl and
800 masl. Only 3.15 km of Kinabuhayan River was subjected to the study. The total
length of the river was not determined because of the limited capacity of the authors
to know its boundaries. Moderate to steep slopes, narrow channel, and vertical cliffs
on both sides of the river characterized the area.
Research procedure
Quadrats measuring 20 m x 20 m were established for every sampling station

on both sides of the river. There were two sampling points per 100 m difference in
altitude equivalent to four quadrats per range of elevation. At elevation 700-800 masl,
only two quadrats were established per sampling point because of the kaingin at both
sides of the river.
Tree species composition and physiognomy
Figure 1. Location map of Mt. Banahaw-San Cristobal Protected Landscape [Gascon 2002 (left) Mallari et al.
undated (right)].
33

Global Positioning System (GPS) was used in determining the geographic
location and elevations. Box compass was used for bearing determination of each
tree sampled. Meter tape was used in measuring distance and quadrat establishment,
diameter tape for diameter measurement, and Abney hand level for height determination.

Species collection was done for herbarium/voucher specimen and further
identification. Identification was done through comparing available illustrated works
and utilization of taxonomic keys and references such as literature and manuals.
Further validation was done with an expert. For vertical and horizontal diagram of
the forest, box compass was used to get the bearing of each tree and the diameter tape
for the diameter at breast height (dbh). Distance from plant to plant and the length
and width of the crown on its four coordinates were measured and determined using
meter tape. The data gathered from each plot were plotted and drawn to scale in an
illustration showing the overall appearance of the forest for each elevation.
Data analysis

Tree species compositions at different elevations were analyzed using
Sorenson’s formula for index similarity (Castillo 2001). The index has the following
formula:
CS = 2j
(a+b)
Where: CS = coefficient of similarity

j = number of species found in both sites
a = number of species in site A
b = number of species in site B
Note: index of dissimilarity = 1 - CS
The indices are designed to equal 1 in cases of complete similarity and 0 if

the sites are dissimilar and have no species in common.

Density Index by Simpson assumes that the proportion of individuals in an
area adequately weights their importance to diversity.
D = __1__
∑ (Pi)2
Where: D = Diversity
Pi = Proportion of species i in the total sample
The index goes to 0 to the total number of species. An index of 1 indicates

that all of the individuals in the area belong to a single species and if D=S, every
individual belongs to different species.
Ordination by Principal Components Analysis (PCA) using Multivariate

Statistical Package (MVSP) for Windows Version 3.0 by Warren L. Kovach (1998)
was used to determine the species association. PCA is a multivariate method of
characterizing the variability of a set of variables in terms of new set of variables
with reduced dimensionality but with little loss of information as possible. The new
composite of variables are uncorrelated and are called principal components.
Other formulas were (Mueller, Dombois, and Ellenberg 1974):
Density = number of individuals per species per quadrat

Basal Area (BA) = 0.7854 d2
Dominance = sum of the basal area values per species
Frequency = number of quadrats the species occur

number of quadrats
Relative Density = Density of a species x 100

Total density of all species
Relative Dominance = Dominance of a species x 100

Total dominance of all species
Relative Frequency = Frequency of a species x 100

Total frequency of all species
Importance Value = Relative Density + Relative Dominance +

Relative Frequency
Tree species composition

The total area of all the quadrats established along the 3.15 km portion of
Kinabuhayan Riverbanks is 0.56 ha. The tree compositions of the area sampled (Table
1) were composed of 37 families represented by 59 genera, 75 species, and 183
individuals. These species were typical in the forest habitat found at low and medium
altitudes ascending to 1,350 m.
The presence and importance of the following trees suggest that the
trees in the area are remnants of the primary trees. These are: 1) Sanglai (Ahernia
glandulosa Merr.) Flacourtiaceae; 2) Parugan [Endocomia macrocoma (Miq.)] de
Wilde ssp. prainii (King) de Wilde) Myristicaceae; 3) Binuang [Octomeles sumatrana
(Miq.)] Datiscaceae; 4) Balukanag [Chisocheton cumingianus (C.DC.)] Harns.
ssp. cumingianus) Meliaceae; 5) Magabuyo (Celtis luzonica Warb.) Celtidaceae;
6) Balumti (Macaranga dipterocarpifolia Merr.) Euphorbiaceae; 7) Philippine maple
(Acer laurinum Hassk. Apud Hoeven and de Vriese) Aceraceae; 8) Anongong isahan
(Turpinia simplicifolia Merr.) Staphyleaceae; and 9) Bagtikan [Parashorea malaanonan
(Blanco) Merr.]. Presence of Dipterocarpaceae suggests that the trees in the area are
remnants of primary forest. Binuang [Octomeles sumatrana (Miq.)] Datiscaceae and
the Moraceae Family represented by genus Ficus also thrive in primary forest along
streams and moist areas of low and medium altitudes (Rojo 1999).
Dominant species associations at different elevations

Species with higher Importance Value (IV) are known ecological dominants. A
relatively few species or species groups generally exert the major controlling influence
by virtue of their number, size, and production. These organisms have synergy rather
than competitive relationships. These species or groups of species largely control the
energy flow and strongly affect the environment of all other species (Odum 1971).
The species with highest IV are those with the highest population density, occupying
the greatest space or cover and with high frequency of occurrence.
The two species with higher IV at 400-500 masl were Bagtikan [Parashorea
malaanonan (Blanco) Merr.] Dipterocarpaceae and Moluccan sau (Albizia
falcataria) Leguminosae. At 500-600 masl the dominants were Balumti (Macaranga
dipterocarpifolia Merr.) Euphorbiaceae and Balukanag (Chisocheton cumingianus
(C.DC.) Harns. subsp. cumingianus) of Meliaceae. At 600-700 masl, it was found
out that Loktob (Duabanga moluccana Blume) of Sonneratiaceae dominated the
area. It was associated with Philippine maple (Acer laurinum Hassk.) of Aceraceae.
Sanglai (Ahernia glandulosa Merr.) of Flacourtiaceae and Anongong isahan (Turpinia
simplicifolia Merr.) of Staphyleaceae were found associated with each other at 700-
800 masl.
Species diversity

Species diversity generally refers to the number of species (species richness
and species variety) and the distribution or proportion of individuals among species
Table 1. List of tree species found along Kinabuhayan River riparian zone.
Family Name Scientific Name Common Name

Aceraceae Acer laurinum Hassk Philippine maple
Actinidiaceae Saurauia latibractea Choicy Kolalabang
Annonaceae Polyalthia dolichophyllia Merr Lanutan sapa
Apocynaceae Alstonia scholaris (L.) Br. var . scholaris Dita
Araliaceae Polyscias nodosa (Blume) Seem Malapapaya
Boraginaceae Cordia aspera G. Forst. Anonang lalaki
Canarium asperum Benth. Ssp. asperum
Burseraceae Pagsahingin
var. asperum
C. calophyllum Perk Pagsahingin bulog

Celtidaceae Celtis philippinensis Blanco var. philippinensis Malaikmo
C. luzonica Warburgh Magabuyo
Combretaceae Terminalia citrina (Gaertner) Roxburgh ex Marich Binggas
Dipterocarpaceae Parashorea malaanonan (Blanco) Merr. Bagtikan
Euphorbiaceae Claoxylon elongatum Merr. Malalipa
Endospermum peltatum Merr. Gubas
Macaranga dipterocarpifolia Merr. Balumti
M. hispida (Blume) Muell-Arg Lagapak
Melanolepis multiglandulosa (Reinw. Ex Blume)
Alim
Reinchenbach. F. et Zoll.
Neotrewia cumingii (Muell.-Arg.) Pax & K. Hoffm. Apanang
Ebenaceae Diospyrus pyrrhocarpa Miquel Anang
Fagaceae Lithocarpus celebica (Miq.) Rehd. Celebes oak
Flacourtiaceae Ahernia glandulosa Merr. Sanglai
37

Guttiferae Callophylum obliquinervium Merr. Dangkalan
Garcinia cordata Merr. Ges-ges
Icacenaceae Stemonurus luzoniensis (Merrill) Howard Mabunot
Lauraceae Persea Americana Mill. Avocado
Litsea urdanetensis Elm. Dilak manuk
L. garciae Vidal Bangulo
Neolitsea paucinervia Merr. L. Bohian ilanan
Leguminosae: Papilioniodae Erythrina subumbrans (Hassk.) Merr. Rarang
Leguminosae: Mimosoidae Albizia lebbekoides (DC.) Benth Kariskis
A. falcataria Moluccan sau
Curran urung
Loganiaceae Fagraea auriculata Jack ssp. parviflora Leenh.
Lythraceae Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers. Banaba
Malvaceae Alseodaphne longipes Quiz & Merr. Babulo
Grewia multiflora Juss. Danglin
Pterospermum celebicum Miq. Bayok-bayokan
Meliaceae Aglaia diffusa Merrill Malasaging
A. luzoniensis (Vidal) Merr. & Rolfe Kuling manuk
Chisocheton cumingianus (C. DC.) Harns subsp.
Balukanag
Cumingianus
C. pentandrus (Blanco) Merrill. Subsp. Pentandrus Katong matsing
Dysoxylum arborescens (Blume) Miq Kalimutain
D. cumingianum C. DC. Tara-tara
Toona calantas Merr. & Rolfe Kalantas
A. E. Almazol and S. B. Quintana

Moraceae Ficus sp. Ficus
Guttiferae Callophylum obliquinervium Merr. Dangkalan
Garcinia cordata Merr. Ges-ges
Icacenaceae Stemonurus luzoniensis (Merrill) Howard Mabunot
Lauraceae Persea Americana Mill. Avocado
Litsea urdanetensis Elm. Dilak manuk
L. garciae Vidal Bangulo
Neolitsea paucinervia Merr. L. Bohian ilanan
Leguminosae: Papilioniodae Erythrina subumbrans (Hassk.) Merr. Rarang

Leguminosae: Mimosoidae Albizia lebbekoides (DC.) Benth Kariskis
A. falcataria Moluccan sau
F. congesta Roxb. Malatibig
F. gul Laut. Et. K. Schum. var. gul Butli
F. irisana Elmer var. irisana Aplas
F. variegate Blume var. sycomoroides (Miq.) Corner Dulalog
F. heterpoda Miq. Alangas
F. magnoliifolia Blume Kanapai
F. minahasse (Teijsm de Vr.) Miq. Hagimit
F. pellucido-punctata Griff Baleteng tilus
Paratocarpus venenosus (Zoll. & Morr.) Becc subsp. Malanangka
Papuanus (Becc.) Jarr.
Paratrophis philippinensis (Bur.) F. Vill. Agus-us
39

Endocomia macrocoma (Miq.) de Wilde ssp. prainii
Myristicaceae Parugan
(King) de Wilde
Myrtaceae Cleistocalyx operculatus (Roxb.) Merr. & Perry Malaruhat
Syzygium cutiflorum (Elm.) Merr. Lipoteng gubat
Leptospermum flavescens J. Sm. Malasulasi
Nyctaginaceae Pisonia umbellifera (J. R. et. G. Forster) Seem Anuling
Phyllanthaceae Bredelia insulana Hance Subiang
Rubiaceae Canthium sp. Canthium sp.
Coffea Arabica Linn. Kape Arabica
Mussaenda macrophylla Wall Kamaligi
Timonius sp. Timonius
(evenness or equitability). Density index by Simpson assumes that the proportion of

the individuals in an area adequately weights their importance to diversity. The index
goes from 0 to the total number of species. An index of 1 indicates that all of the
individuals in the area belong to a single species and when the index is greater than
1 or D = S, it means every individual belongs to different species as shown in Table
2 indicative of the diversity in the area.
Table 2. Diversity index or species at different elevations.

Elevation (masl) Diversity Index
400-500 19.37
500-600 26.03
600-700 9.66
700-800 37.79
In Figure 2 at Quadrat 3 of elevation 400-500 masl (A1Q3), eight species

were found only in the area such as Lanutan sapa (Polyalthia dolichophyllia),
Pagsahingin bulog (Canarium calophyllum), Malaikmo (Celtis philippinnensis),
Binggas (Terminalia citrina), Mabunot (Stemonurus luzoniensis), Malanangka
(Paratocarpus venenosus), Kamaligi (Mussaenda macrophylla), and Timonius spp.
Meanwhile, Loktob (Duabanga moluccana) was only present in Quadrat 1 of
elevation 600-700 masl (A3Q1) while Celebes oak (Lithocarpus celebica), Agus-us
Figure 2. Ordination by Principal Components Analysis using Multivariate

Statistical Package (MVSP).
(Paratrophis philippinensis), and Lipoteng gubat (Syzygium cutiflorum) were found

only in Quadrat 1 of elevation 700-800 masl (A4Q1). Those species make the area
different from the others.
Forest physiognomy
Physiognomy is the form and structure of natural vegetation describing the

general/overall outer appearance of the plant community determined by the life forms
of the dominant plants (Gascon 2000). In this case, the physiognomy is affected by
trees in the area.
Diameter classes
In Figure 3, more individuals with 10-20 cm diameter are found at 400-500

masl and 600-700 masl while 21-30 cm diameter class are found at 500-600 masl
and 700-800 masl. It markedly suggests that the stand has been subjected to natural
and man-made alterations or disturbances. It has been further confirmed with few
individuals of trees with 50 cm and above in diameter found at different elevations. The
presence of kaingin at the lower (400-500 masl) and middle portion (600-700 masl) of
the river is one of the indicators of the disturbances in the area; hence, the trees are
still on their regeneration phase. The upper (700-800 masl) portion of the river is being
maintained by the community for their water sources even though it is the farthest area.
Figure 3. Distribution of diameter classes of trees at different elevation.

Table 3. Similarity and Dissimilarity Index between species at different elevations.
Elevation (masl) Similarity Index Dissimilarity Index

400-500 & 500-600 0.30 0.70
400-500 & 600-700 0.17 0.83
400-500 & 700-800 0.15 0.85
500-600 & 400-500 0.30 0.70

500-600 & 600-700 0.15 0.85
500-600 & 700-800 0.31 0.69
600-700 & 400-500 0.17 0.83

600-700 & 500-600 0.15 0.85
600-700 & 700-800 0.26 0.74
700-800 & 400-500 0.15 0.85

700-800 & 500-600 0.31 0.69
700-800 & 600-700 0.26 0.74
Height classes

Generally, more trees belonged to 11-20 m height class as observed from
three elevations except on 600-700 masl (Fig. 4). The trend is decreasing showing
lesser number of individuals with 21-30 m and 31-40 m above height classes. It
is indicative of periodic disturbances in the area. The presence of high number of
individuals with 21-30 m height class at 600-700 masl indicate preservation activities
in the area. The people in the area reserved or left those trees uncut for future use.
Trees with this height belong to only one species, the Loktob (Duabanga moluccana
Blume). It is noteworthy that the species were found in group.
Horizontal structure

Bagtikan [Parashorea malaanonan (Blanco) Merr.] of Dipterocarpaceae and
Binuang [Octomeles sumatrana (Miq.)] of Datiscaceae were the largest trees present
on the two elevations at 400-500 masl (Fig. 5) and 500-600 masl (Fig. 6), respectively.
These two species have the largest crown area which overshadows the other species.
These areas were characterized by steep slopes wherein overcrowding of species was
possible, hence, the canopy overlaps. At elevation 600-700 masl (Fig. 7) and 700-800
Figure 4. Distribution of height classes of trees at different elevations.

masl (Fig. 8), the canopy also overlaps but no species with larger crowns dominated
the other. The presence of gaps between the canopies was noticed. Almost all trees
at the two higher elevations exhibit spreading branches. These areas have moderate
slope topography.
Vertical structure

At 400-500 masl (Fig. 9) and 500-600 masl (Fig. 10), few individuals
dominated the area overshadowing all the other species. Considering its horizontal
structure, it has been stated previously that these species were the Bagtikan [Parashorea
malaanonan (Blanco) Merr.] of Dipterocarpaceae and Binuang [Octomeles sumatrana
(Miq.)] of Datiscaceae. At elevations 600-700 masl (Fig. 11) and 700-800 masl (Fig. 12),
stratifications were very different from the two lower elevations. More trees belong to
co-dominant and intermediate species, implying that the trees exhibited larger crown
canopy length, width, and diameter because of its greater exposure to sunlight. The solar
radiation determines the “condition of existence” to which organisms most adapt. The
solar energy received by the green plants contributes to the ecosystem’s productivity
(Odum 1971).
Figure 5. Horizontal structure at 400-500 masl.

45
46


47
48

Figure 9. Vertical structure at 400-500 masl.

49
50


51
52
Figure 12. Vertical structure at 700-800 masl

Conclusions
Within the conditions under which the study was conducted, the following
conclusions were formed:
1. The tree species composition is typical to forests found at low and medium
altitudes ascending to 1,350 m. They are represented with species thriving in
primary forests along streams and moist areas at low and medium altitudes.
2. Species associations at different elevations were dominated with tree

families such as Dipterocarpaceae, Leguminosae, Euphorbiaceae, Meliaceae,
Sonneratiaceae, Aceraceae, Flacourtiacee, and Staphyleaceae.
3. The forest tree community at different elevations is diverse but no two

communities have the same sets of species. No two communities have
complete similarity in terms of species richness.
4. The presence of more individuals belonging to smaller diameter classes may

suggest that the forest area is in a late secondary succession and dynamic
phase of development.
Recommendations

Based on the results of the study, the following recommendations are hereby
made:
1. Species with high IV should be protected. Such species were as follows:

Bagtikan [Parashorea malaanonan (Blanco) Merr.]; Balumti (Macaranga
dipterocarpifolia Merr.); Balukanag (Chisocheton cumingianus C.DC. Harns
subsp. cumingianus); Loktob (Duabanga moluccana Blume); Philippine
maple (Acer laurinum Hassk.); Sanglai (Ahernia glandulosa Merr.); and
Anongong isahan (Turpinia simplicifolia Merr.). These species could be used
as reforestation species on the areas wherein there are gaps between canopies
since they thrive well in the area.
2. Species known to have medicinal value should be propagated in plantations.

These species are Malapapaya [Polyscias nodosa (Blume) Seem]; Dita (Alstonia
scholaris (L.) Br. var. scholaris); Malaikmo (Celtis philippinensis Blanco var.
philippinensis); Gubas (Endospermum peltatum Merr.); Avocado (Persea
americana Mill.); Banaba [Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers.]; Kalantas (Toona
calantas Merr. & Rolfe); and Anuling (Pisonia umbellifera) (J. R. et. G. Forster
Seem). These could be later used for research purposes.
3. To further explore the flora of Mt. Banahaw-San Cristobal Protected Landscape,

similar study should be done not only on the headwaters of Kinabuhayan River
but also in the riparian zones of other major rivers.
4. Other studies dealing with faunal composition should also be done in the
study area and in the riparian zones of other major rivers of Mt. Banahaw–San
Cristobal Protected Landscape.
5. The non-timber species thriving in the area should be known and their
economic value should be determined to ensure proper protection of the plant
community.
Acknowledgement
The authors express their gratitude to For. Ronald C. Garcia, Prof. Pastor Malabrigo,
SLSU College of Agriculture Faculty, Dr. Cecilia N. Gascon, and the SLSU for funding the research.
Literature cited
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Surigao del Sur, Philippines. Ph.D. dissertation. UPLB, College of Forestry and Natural
Resources, College, Laguna.
Enger, E.D and B.F. Smith. 1998. Environmental Science: A study of interrelationships. 6th ed.
Mc Graw-Hill. 1010 pp.
Frank, E. 2004. 19:20 pst. Avail from: http://www.Uark edu/mise/ents/measure eastern.
Gascon, C.N. 2000. Manual in ecology. Southern Luzon Polytechnic College, Lucban,
Quezon. p 30.
Gascon, C.N. 2002. Mt. Banahaw: Physical, biological and management features. Foundation
for Philippine Environment, SYNRGOS, ASEAN Regional Center for Biodiversity
Conservation and Southern Luzon Polytechnic College, Lucban, Quezon. 98 pp.
Grey, G.W. 1996. The urban forest comprehensive management. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
New York. 90 pp.
Kaimowitz, D. 2002. Forest valuation: From science to fiction to money on the table. ASEAN
Biodiversity. 2(2): 10-15.
Kovach, W.L. 1998. Multivariate Statistical Package (MVSP) Version 3.0 for Windows. Trial
Version Software Program.
Mallari, N.A and A.C. Diesmos. Undated. Faunal diversity of Mt. Banahaw de Tayabas and
implications for conservation priorities. Haribon-Birdlife Philippines Programme Manila
and UPLB, College, Laguna.
Montimer, J. and M. Bunny. 1996. Shelter and shade: Creating a healthy and profitable
environment for our livestock with trees. Green Park Press, Jackson MS. 161 pp.
Mueller and Dombois and H. Ellenberg. 1974. Aims and methods of vegetation ecology. John
Wiley and Sons. New York. 547 pp.
Odum, E.P. 1971. Fundamentals of ecology. 3rd ed. Sanders Company. West Washington
Square, Philadelphia.
Official Olympic National Rainforest Site, U.S.D.A. Avail from: http://www.f.s.us/16/olympic.

ecomgt/unescosys/structur.htm
Richards, P.W. 1936. Ecological observations on the rainforest of Mt. Dulit, Saraoak. I. II, J.
Ecol. 24:1-37.
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Whittaker, R.H. 1960. Vegetation of the Siskiyou Mountain. Ecology Monong. 30:279-338.
Survey of marine turtle nesting sites

in the Philippines
Angelita T. Viloria
Biologist III
Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau
Diliman, Quezon City
Three of the five species of endangered marine turtles nest in

coastal areas around the Philippines. The green turtles (Chelonia mydas)
nest in white sandy beaches of Turtle Islands, Tawi-Tawi; the hawksbills
(Eretmochelys imbricata) nest in coral rubbles along the coast of Misamis
Oriental, Davao del Sur, Davao del Norte, and Surigao del Sur while the
olive ridleys (Lepidochelys olivacea) nest in metallic gray sandy beaches of
Bataan, Zambales, and Batangas. Joint DENR and Local Government Units
(LGUs) conservation and protection activities were carried out in the said
nesting beaches. The LGU of Davao City has initiated the establishment
of the nesting beach at Punta Dumalag, Matina Aplaya, Davao City as a
critical habitat of the critically endangered hawksbill turtles. The Provincial
Government of Zambales declared the whole coasts of Zambales as critical
habitat for the olive ridley turtles.
In 1980s, the identified marine turtle nesting sites declared as marine

turtle sanctuaries were solely managed by the DENR. In 2001, the DENR
tapped the assistance of LGUs in managing the confirmed nesting beaches.
Marine turtles are reptiles that live in the sea. Adult female turtles come up the beach to
lay eggs in isolated sandy beaches far from human interventions.
After reaching the age of sexual maturity (25-50 years), a marine turtle migrates
thousands of kilometers from its feeding area to its breeding area. One month after
Keywords: marine turtle nesting beaches, Philippines

58 A. T. Viloria
mating, the female turtle comes up the beach to lay eggs. A nester can lay 80 to 120
eggs, three to five times in one nesting season with an internesting interval of 10 to
15 days. It is believed that a female turtle returns to lay eggs at the same beach where
she was hatched.
Five of the seven species of marine turtles in the world are present in the
Philippines. Three of the five species were found to nest in the Philippine coastal areas.
These are the green turtle (Chelonia mydas) (Fig. 1), hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys
imbricata) (Fig. 2), and the olive ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) (Fig. 3). The
loggerhead (Caretta caretta) (Fig. 4) and leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea)
(Fig. 5) forage in Philippine waters.
Since early 1980s, surveys have been conducted by the Pawikan Conservation
Project (PCP) to identify nesting sites of marine turtles in the Philippines. Some of the
identified nesting beaches declared as marine turtle sanctuaries have been managed
solely by the DENR. Unfortunately, in the late 1980s to early 1990s, marine turtle nests
which are laid in other nesting beaches were not totally monitored and protected.
The population of marine turtles is now on the verge of extinction.

Conservation and protection of the species is a global concern. Marine turtles
are listed as endangered in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade
in Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES). The hawksbill turtle is listed as
critically endangered in DENR Administrative Order (DAO) No. 2004-15, Series
of 2004. The green, olive ridley, loggerhead, and leatherback turtles are listed as
endangered species in the same DAO.
To conserve marine turtles, both the species and habitat need to be protected.
Management of identified nesting beaches is, thus, very vital. In the Philippines, the
DENR through the PCP of the Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau (PAWB) is tasked
to implement a nationwide conservation and protection program on marine turtles.
One major activity of the project is the survey of nesting beaches nationwide. In each
identified nesting beaches, joint DENR-LGU community-based conservation projects
will be carried out.
In 2001, the Philippines signed the Memorandum of Understanding on the

Conservation and Management of Marine Turtles and their Habitats in the Indian
Ocean and South East Asia (MOU-IOSEA). The country is committed to implement
the objectives specified in the Conservation and Management Plan (CMP) which
is part of the MOU. One of its objectives is to forge partnership with LGUs, Non-
Government Organizations (NGOs), People’s Organizations (POs), academe, private
sector, and other interested institutions.
Survey of marine turtle nesting sites 59
Figure 1. Green turtle (Chelonia mydas).
Figure 2. Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata). Photo courtesy of

PENRO-Puerto Princesa City, Palawan.
60 A. T. Viloria
Figure 3. Olive ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea). Photo courtesy of

Ramon Flores.
Figure 4. Loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta). Photo courtesy of DENR

Region 5 - Calabanga, Camarines Sur.
Figure 5. Leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea). Photo courtesy of

CENRO-Tagbilaran City, Bohol.
Conservation measures are now undertaken in some identified nesting sites
in partnership with some LGUs, NGOs, POs, academe, and the private sector. The
PCP intends to involve these partners including beach resorts owners in managing the
identified nesting sites. Nests laid in nesting beaches will be protected, in situ or ex
situ, whichever is applicable.
This paper aims to provide a basis in tapping the assistance of LGUs with
identified nesting sites to participate and support the marine turtle conservation
program of the DENR.
Nesting beach survey refers to the ground and/or aerial surveys conducted to
gather information on the number of nesting and non-nesting emergences occurring
on a beach. Nesting beach surveys are the most widely implemented monitoring tool
employed by researchers at different nesting beaches across the globe and are an
important component of a comprehensive program to assess and monitor the status
of sea turtle populations (Schroder and Murphy 1999).
62 A. T. Viloria
A long stretch of sandy beach is not a guarantee of being a suitable nesting

habitat for marine turtles. Interviewing coastal residents (Diez and Ottenwalder 1999)
and ground survey (Schroeder and Murphy 1999) are the best techniques that can be
used to identify and confirm potential nesting beaches. Fishermen, as well as coastal
residents are likely to have some knowledge on sea turtles – their occurrence and
mating and egg-laying season. Using the information gathered in interviews, coastal
areas which are reported to have nesting or some related activity (e.g. consumption or
marketing of marine turtle eggs) should be visited during the appropriate season (Diez
and Ottenwalder 1999). The most obvious confirmation of nesting is the presence
of crawls, nesting pits or egg shells on the beach. Reported nesting beaches should
be traversed by foot to search for crawls, nesting pits, or egg shells (Schroeder and
Murphy 1999).
Interpreting other data such as relevant physical features of the nesting beach
can be generalized. The different species of marine turtles have different nesting
beach preferences. Green turtles nest in open habitat with white sandy beaches.
The hawksbills traverse rocks or shallow coral rubbles to nest in heavily vegetated,
low profile beaches. The olive ridleys prefer to nest on beaches separated from the
mainland by coastal lagoons or estuaries (Diez and Ottenwalder 1999).
Once the survey results are complete, identified nesting habitats should be
regularly monitored and a conservation plan should be designed and implemented.
The overall goal of any conservation plan for marine turtles is to promote
the long-term survival of their populations, including the sustained recovery of their
depleted stocks and the safeguarding of critical habitat integrated with the well-
being and needs of human communities with which they interact (Eckert 1999).
Specific objectives should include: 1) identification of nesting/breeding sites, 2)
identification of population and regular monitoring to assess the trends, 3) assessment
of the conservation status of the population throughout their range, 4) identification
and quantifying of important sources with direct and indirect mortality, 5) effective
protection of nesting beaches and migratory corridors, and 6) achieving public support
for program goals and objectives.
Over the years, some local government officials have come to recognize that
marine turtles are shared resources that require shared responsibility. Cooperative
mechanisms are required in managing shared resources. Thus, for a conservation
program to succeed, every effort must be made to involve all relevant sectors and
stakeholders in planning and, ultimately, in implementing activities (Eckert 1999).
Methodology
Sites were selected based on reports submitted by DENR Regional and Field
Offices, LGUs, NGOs, POs, and concerned citizens. Three to four municipalities that
were reported as nesting sites were selected per year. A team, composed of two to
three personnel from the PCP, assisted by one or two personnel from DENR Regional
and/or Field Offices, conducted the survey.
The survey involved interviews of key informants using the form on habitat
survey of marine turtles. Key informants include fishermen or residents who personally
encountered nesting marine turtles in their area. Key informants were asked on the
specific location, month, and species of marine turtles that nested in their locality.
Data included in the report were supported by evidences such as photographs, eggs,
egg shells, live turtle hatchlings, hatchlings found dead in nest, pipped eggs, and
unhatched eggs.
The survey form includes questions on species occurrence, size, location,

habitat type (nesting, feeding or developmental), threats, awareness, and the
respondent’s personal profile, among others. The interview was based on the standard
procedures used by marine turtle researchers and experts worldwide.
The data pertaining to nesting sites were tabulated in the habitat survey forms
after each activity. Table 1 and Figures 6-8 present the area and geolocation of the
nesting beach by region including the species that nest in each site.
Region IV-B has the most number of confirmed nesting beaches among all
the regions.
Turtle Islands in Tawi-Tawi has been declared as the Turtle Islands Wildlife
Sanctuary (TIWS) pursuant to Presidential Proclamation No. 171, dated 26 August
1999.
Today, partners of the DENR on marine turtle conservation include Bagac and
Morong in Bataan, coastal areas of Zambales Province, Lian in Batangas, Magsaysay
in Misamis Oriental, Davao City in Davao del Sur, Island Garden City of Samal in
Davao del Norte, and Hinatuan in Surigao del Sur. Partnerships were formalized
either through a Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) or MOU.
Table 1. List of confirmed marine turtle nesting beaches in the Philippines from 1992-2007. 64
Region Area Geolocation Species

1 Manangat, Cauayan, Ilocos Sur 120º 3600’E; 17º 5400’N Olive ridley
1 Brgy. Cabangtalan, Sinait, Ilocos Sur 120º 4500’E; 17º 8800’N Olive ridley
1 Brgy. Biao, Sta. Maria, Ilocos Sur 120º 4560’E; 17º 3870’N Olive ridley
1 So. Tawi-tawi, Brgy. Poro, San Fernando, La Union 120º 2800’E; 16º 6200’N Olive ridley
1 Brgy. Poro, San Fernando City, La Union 120º 2900’E; 16º 6200’N Olive ridley
1 Purok 3, Brgy. San Francisco, San Fernando City, La Union 120º 3100;’E; 16º 6150’N Olive ridley
1 Brgy. Bacuit Norte, Bauang, La Union 120º 3200’E; 16º 5600’N Olive ridley
1 So. Cabungaoan, Brgy. Ilio-ilio, Burgos, Pangasinan 119º 7800’E; 15º 9500’N Olive ridley
3 Brgy. Sinabacan, Candelaria, Zambales 119º 9300’E; 15º 6600’N Olive ridley
3 Porac, Botolan, Zambales 120º 0158’E; 15º 2492’N Olive ridley
Hawksbill & Olive
3 Binoclutan, Botolan, Zambales 120º 0200’E; 15º 2200’N
ridley
3 Baloy Beach, Barreto, Olongapo City, Zambales 120º 2700’E; 14º 8400’N Olive ridley
3 So. Carusipan, Brgy. San Miguel, San Antonio, Zambales 120º 0618’E; 14º 9601’N Olive ridley
Green, Hawksbill &
3 Capones lsland, Pundaquit, San Antonio, Zambales 120º 0400’E; 14º 9400’N
Olive ridley
3 Talisain, Pundaquit, San Antonio, Zambales 120º 0800’E; 14º 8700’N Olive ridley
3 Nagsasa, Pundaquit, San Antonio, Zambales 120º 1100’E; 14º 8300’N Olive ridley
3 Anawangin Bay, Pundaquit, San Antonio, Zambales 120º 0705’E; 14º 8789’N Green
3 Purok 1, Brgy. Pundaquit, San Antonio, Zambales 120º 1100’E; 14º 8400’N Green
3 All Hands Beach, SBMA, Subic, Zambales 120º 2200’E; 14º 8900’N Olive ridley
3 Dungaree, SBMA, Subic, Zambales 120º 2200’E; 14º 8900’N Olive ridley
A. T. Viloria
3 Waterfront, SBMA, Subic, Zambales 120º 2800’E; 14º 8300’N Olive ridley
3 Grande lsland, SBMA, Subic, Zambales 120º 2252’E; 14º 7695’N Olive ridley
3 Camayan Beach, SBMA, Subic, Zambales 120º 2400’E; 14º 7600’N Olive ridley
3 So. Agasuhin, Brgy. Cawag, Subic, Zambales 120º 1900’E; 14º 8100’N Olive ridley
3 Anvaya Cove, Brgy. Mabayo, Morong, Bataan 120º 2900’E; 14º 7500’N Olive ridley
3 So. Matiku, Brgy. Sabang, Morong, Bataan 120º 2500’E; 14º 7000’N Olive ridley
3 So. Fuerte, Brgy. Poblacion, Morong, Bataan 120º 2600’E; 14º 6800’N Olive ridley
Green, Hawksbill &
3 Brgy. Nagbalayong, Morong, Bataan 120º 2900’E; 14º 6600’N
Olive ridley
3 So. Gantuan, Brgy. Nagbalayong, Morong, Bataan 120º 3170’E; 14º 6370’N Olive ridley
3 Cabayo, llog, Bagac, Bataan 120º 3600’E; 14º 6300’N Olive ridley
3 Cabayo, Beach, Banawang, Bagac, Bataan 120º 3800’E; 14º 6100’N Olive ridley
3 Acuzar Beach, Brgy. Pag-asa, Bagac, Bataan 120º 3800’E; 14º 6000’N Olive ridley
3 Brgy. Pag-asa, Bagac, Bataan 120º 3868’E; 14º 5959’N Olive ridley
3 Saysain, Bagac, Bataan 120º 3900’E; 14º 5600’N Olive ridley
3 Caybobo, Brgy. Paysawan, Bagac, Bataan 120º 3900’E; 14º 5400’N Olive ridley
3 Paysawan, Bagac, Bataan 120º 3890’E; 14º 5350’N Olive ridley
Hawksbill & Olive
3 Brgy. Quinawan Beach, Bagac, Bataan 120º 3800’E; 14º 4900’N
ridley
3 So. Aniasan, Quinawan, Bagac, Bataan 120º 3900’E; 14º 4780’N Hawksbill
3 Tangos ni Apo Purong, Brgy. Qiunawan, Bagac, Bataan 120º 3900’E; 14º 4780’N Hawksbill
3 Mauakis, lpag, Mariveles, Bataan 120º 4600’E; 14º 4100’N Hawksbill
3 Batangas ll, Mariveles, Bataan 120º 6000’E; 14º 4900’N Hawksbill
3 Looc Beach, Cabayo, Banawang, Bagac, Bataan 120º 3800’E; 14º 6100’N Olive ridley
4A Julugan Vll, Tanza, Cavite 120º 8400’E; 14º 4000’N Olive ridley
65
4A Fortune lsland, Nasugbu, Batangas 120º 4899’E; 14º 0542’N Green & Hawksbill 66
4A Munting Buhangin Beach, Brgy. Natipuan, Nasugbu, Batangas 120º 6200’E; 14º 1200’N Olive ridley
4A Brgy. Wawa, Nasugbu, Batangas 120º 6300’E; 14º 0900’N Olive ridley
4A Brgy. Bucana, Nasugbu, Batangas 120º 6200’E; 14º 0700’N Olive ridley
4A San Diego, Lian, Batangas 120º 6230’E; 14º 0410’N Olive ridley
4A Brgy. Lumaniag, Lian, Batangas 120º 6200’E; 14º 0000’N Green
4A So. Matuod, Brgy. Binubusan, Lian, Batangas 120º 6300’E; 13º 9700’N Green & Olive ridley
4A Brgy. Camastilisan, Calaca, Batangas 120º 8100’E; 13º 9300’N Olive ridley
4A Brgy. Salong, Calaca, Batangas 120º 8200’E; 13º 9200’N Olive ridley
4A Brgy. Nonong Casto, Lemery, Batangas 120º 8900’E; 13º 9000’N Olive ridley
4A Brgy. Sta. Rita, Aplaya, Batangas City, Batangas 121º 0294’E; 13º 7688’N Olive ridley
4A So. Biga, Brgy. Hugom, San Juan, Batangas 121º 3700’E; 13º 6700’N Hawksbill
4A Brgy. Laiya Aplaya, San Juan, Batangas 121º 3900’E; 13º 6800’N Olive ridley
4A Brgy. Laiya lbabaw, San Juan, Batangas 121º 4200’E; 13º 6700’N Olive ridley
4A Brgy. Calubcub 2, San Juan, Batangas 121º 4300’E; 13º 7400’N Olive ridley
4A Brgy. Abung, San Juan, Batangas 121º 4200E’; 13º 7700’N Olive ridley
4A Brgy. Tikalan, San Juan, Batangas 121º 4300’E; 13º 7900’N Olive ridley
4A Brgy. Pinagbayanan, San Juan, Batangas 121º 4400’E; 13º 8000’N Olive ridley
4A Tayabas Bay, Brgy. San Roque, Sariaya, Quezon 121º 5200’E; 13º 8700’N Olive ridley
4A Brgy. Caridad llaya, Atimonan, Quezon 121º 9100’E; 14º 0200’N Hawksbill
4A Brgy. Ibabang Kalilayan, Unisan, Quezon 121º 9600’E; 13º 8500’N Olive ridley
Las Villas de Natividad Resort, Aninuan, Puerto Galera,
4B 120º 9000’E; 13º 5400’N Green
Oriental Mindoro
Anahaw lsland View Resort, Brgy. Balete, Calapan, Oriental
4B 121º 1603’E; 13º 4145’N Olive ridley
Mindoro
A. T. Viloria
4B Sugui, Calapan, Oriental Mindoro 121º 2070’E; 13º 4190’N Olive ridley
4B Guimbonan, Gloria, Oriental Mindoro 121º 4920’E; 12º 9260’N Green
4B Purok Malvar, Brgy. Pag-asa, San Jose, Occidental Mindoro 121º 0800’E; 12º 3500’N Green
4B So. Tabuk, Buenavista, Sablayan, Occidental Mindoro 120º 7900’E; 12º 8600’N Green & Olive ridley
4B Punta Poblacion, Sablayan, Occidental Mindoro 120º 7760’E; 12º 8340’N Green
4B Apo Reef Natural Park, Sablayan, Occidental Mindoro 120º 4750’E; 12º 6830’N Green & Hawksbill
4B Brgy. Lupac, Boac, Marinduque 121º 8100’E; 13º 4600’N Green & Olive ridley
4B Brgy. Masiga, Gasan, Marinduque 121º 8200’E; 13º 3600’N Green
4B Brgy, Mompong, Sta. Cruz, Marinduque 122º 1300’E; 13º 5500’N Green
4B Poctoy White Beach, Torrijos, Marinduque 122º 0920’E; 13º 3250’N Olive ridley
4B Centro Long Beach, San Agustin, Romblon 122º 1500’E; 12º 6300’N Hawksbill
4B Brgy. Tumingad, Odiongan, Romblon 122º 0000’E; 12º 4400’N Green
4B Brgy. Budiong, Odiongan, Romblon 121º 9700’E; 12º 4000’N Green
4B Ligaya Public Beach, Odiongan, Romblon 121º 9800’E; 12º 4000’N Green
4B Brgy. Batiano, Odiongan, Romblon 121º 9950’E; 12º 4260’N Green
4B Brgy. Lanas, San Jose, Romblon (Carabao lsland) 121º 9230’E; 12º 0450’N Hawksbill
Hawksbill & Olive
4B Brgy. Agpanabat, Romblon, Romblon 122º 2890’E; 12º 4800’N
ridley
4B Halog Island, Palawan 120º 52.051’E; 11º 22.407’N Green
4B Pamilacan Island, Cuyo, Palawan 120º 44.071’E; 11º 21.114’N Green & Hawksbill
4B Tanobon lsland, Busuanga, Palawan 119º 9550’E; 12º 3420’N Green & Hawksbill
4B Pag-asa lsland, Kalayaan, Palawan 116º 7100‘E; 10º 4900’N Green
4B Panata Cay, Kalayaan, Palawan 114º 2700’E; 10º 2100’N Green & Hawksbill
4B Kota Cay, Kalayaan, Palawan 114º 1800’E; 10º 1700’N Green & Hawksbill
67
4B So. Cagbatang, Pasadeña, El Nido, Palawan 119º 4200’E; 11º 2500’N Green 68
4B Sunset Beach, Cadlao lsland, Buena Suerte, El Nido, Palawan 119º 3600’E; 11º 2200’N Green
4B So. Pacalsada, Corong-corong, El Nido, Palawan 119º 4000’E; 11º 1600’N Hawksbill
4B Miniloc lsland, El Nido, Palawan 119º 3100’E; 11º 1500’N Olive ridley
4B Entalula lsland, Bacuit Bay, El Nido, Palawan 119º 3300’E; 11º 1300’N Hawksbill
4B Cudugnon Beach, Bebeladan, El Nido, Palawan 119º 3800’E; 11º 0400’N Hawksbill
Daluyon Beach, Sabang Cabayugan, Puerto Princesa City,
Palawan
4B Brgy. Simpokan, Puerto Princesa City, Palawan 118º 5270’E; 9º 8450’N Olive ridley
Sitio Tagminatay, Brgy. Bacungan, Puerto Princesa City,
Palawan
Nagtabon Beach, Brgy. Bacungan, Puerto Princesa City,
4B 118º 7450’E; 9º 9020’N Hawksbill
Palawan
4B Arena lsland, Narra, Palawan 118º 5000’E; 9º 2300’N Hawksbill
4B Antipuluan, Narra, Palawan 118º 4400’E; 9º 2800’N hawksbill
4B Purok Pag-asa, Brgy. Panacan, Narra, Palawan 118º 4400’E; 9º 2800’N Hawksbill
4B Purok Pagkakaisa, Brgy. Panacan, Narra, Palawan 118º 4140’E; 9º 2450’N Hawksbill
4B Tubbataha Reef Natural Park, Cagayancillo, Palawan 119º 9020’E; 8º 8490'N Green & Hawksbill
4B Brgy. Sablayan, Romblon, Romblon 122º 3272’E; 12º 5053’N Hawksbill
4B Brgy. Lunas, Romblon, Romblon 122º 2693’E; 12º 4986’N Hawksbill
5 Brgy. Guijalo, Caramoan, Camarines Sur 123º 8700’E; 13º 7400’N Green
5 Brgy. Talisoy, Virac, Catanduanes 124º 2290’E; 13º 5800’N Green
5 Brgy. Magnesia del Sur, Virac, Catanduanes 124º 1861’E; 13º 5238’N Green
5 Sagurong, San Miguel lsland, Tabaco, Albay 123º 7900’E; 13º 4000’N Green
5 Mosboron, Misibis, Bacacay, Albay (Cagraray) 123º 9000’E; 13º 2500’N Green
A. T. Viloria
5 Brgy. Rawis, Legaspi City, Albay 123º 7500’E; 13º 1700’N Green
5 Basud, Quidolog, Prieto Diaz, Sorsogon 124º 1960’E; 13º 0410’N Hawksbill
6 Panagatan lsland, Antique (Caluya) 121º 2900’E; 11º 8630’N Hawksbill
6 Brgy. Manoc-manoc, Malay, Aklan (Boracay lsland) 121º 9302’E; 11º 9499’N Hawksbill
6 Patria, Pandan, Antique 122º 0174’E; 11º 7427’N Hawksbill
6 Brgy. Lipata, Culasi, Antique 122º 0520’E; 11º 4660’N Hawksbill
6 Malalison ls. Culasi, Antique 122º 0120’E; 11º 4070’N Hawksbill
6 Aring Cadahug, Laua-an, Antique 122º 0400’E; 11º 1420’N Green
6 So. Aring, Brgy. Bagumbayan, Laua-an, Antique 122º 0400’E; 11º 1000’N Green
6 Brgy. Arobo, Tobias Fornier, Antique 121º 9613’E; 10º 5646’N Green
6 Brgy. Crossing Dapuyan, San Juaquin, llo-ilo 122º 1500’E; 10º 6000’N Green
6 Ave Maria lslet, Punta Lawi, Jordan, Guimaras 122º 5150’E; 10º 5475’N Hawksbill
6 So. Guisi, Brgy. Dolores, Nueva Valencia, Guimaras 122º 5130’E; 10º 5340’N Hawksbill
6 Calumpang, Pob. Cauayan, Negros Occidental 122º 6200’E; 9º 9800’N Olive ridley
6 Brgy. Bulata, Cauayan, Negros Occidental 122º 4000’E; 9º 8570’N Green & Hawksbill
6 Brgy. Nauhang, Sipalay, Negros Occidental 122º 4020’E; 9º 7530’N Green & Hawksbill
6 Tabuk-suba, Brgy. 1, Hinobaan, Negros Occidental 122º 4620’E; 9º 6140’N Hawksbill
6 So. Panganawan, Brgy. Sangke, Hinobaan, Negros Occidental 122º 5761’E; 9º 4525’N Hawksbill
7 Alejawan, Jagna, Bohol 124º 4000’E; 9º 6800’N Hawksbill
7 Basdaku, Brgy. Saavedra, Moalboal, Cebu 123º 3860’E; 9º 9380’N Green & Hawksbill
7 Sandugan, Larena, Siquijor 123º 5959’E; 9º 2917’N Green
7 Poblacion, Candanay, Siquijor 123º 5100’E; 9º 2200’N Hawksbill
7 Solangon, San Juan, Siquijor 123º 4746’E; 9º 1737’N Hawksbill
7 Lipayo, Dauin, Negros Oriental 123º 1900’E; 9º 2200’N Hawksbill
69
7 Brgy. Maayong Tubig, Dauin, Negros Oriental 123º 1600’E 9º 1800’N Hawksbill 70
So. San Juan, Brgy. Don Jose Aguirre, Manukan, Zamboanga

9 123º 0590’E; 8º 5220’N Hawksbill
del Norte
9 Panikian lsland, Pitogo, Zamboanga del Sur 123º 3270’E; 7º 3730’N Green & Hawksbill
9 So. Bohol, Brgy. Linguisan, Tungawan, Zamboanga Sibugay 122º 4600’E; 7º 5200’N Green & Hawksbill
9 Bangaan ls., Tungawan, Zamboanga Sibugay 122º 4200’E; 7º 4900’N Green
9 Upper Calarian, Zamboanga City 122º 0239’E; 6º 9255’N Hawksbill
9 Recodo, Zamboanga City 121º 9589’E; 6º 9518’N Olive ridley
9 Sta Cruz lsland, Zamboanga City 122º 0598’E; 6º 8701’N Green & Hawksbill
10 So. Cabua-an, Poblacion, Mambajao, Camiguin 124º 7186’E; 9º 2548’N Hawksbill
10 Mantigue lsland, Brgy. San Roque, Mahinog, Camiguin 124º 8250’E; 9º 1720’N Hawksbill
10 So. Kibela, Brgy. Cantaan, Guinsiliban, Camiguin 124º 7880’E; 9º 0990’N Green
Soldevilla’s Beach Resort, Brgy. Salay Riverside 1, Salay,
10 124º 7900’E; 8º 8700’N hawksbill
Misamis Oriental
10 Brgy. San Isidro, Magsaysay. Misamis Oriental 125º 1900’E; 9º 0800’N Hawksbill
10 Purok 1, Brgy. Damayuhan, Magsaysay, Missamis Oriental 125º 1800’E; 9º 0600’N Hawksbill
10 Minsalag Bonifacio Aquiño, Magsaysay, Misamis Oriental 125º 1830’E; 9º 0380’N Hawksbill
10 Purok 1, Brgy. Kandiis, Magsaysay, Misamis Oriental 125º 1900’E; 8º 9600’N Hawksbill
10 Capcum Beach, Duka Bay, Medina, Misamis Oriental 125º 0260’E; 8º 9110’N Green & Hawksbill
10 Purok 7, Inobulan, Salay, Misamis Oriental 124º 7870’E; 8º 8510’N Green
10 Tabok Bobontugan, Jasaan, Misamis Oriental 124º 7410’E; 8º 6570’N Hawksbill
10 Loguilo, Alubijid, Misamis Oriental 124º 4900’E; 8º 5800’N Green
So. Tambaling, Purok 2, Brgy. Pedrosa, Baculio El Salvador,
10 124º 5300’E; 8º 5600’N Hawksbill
Misamis Oriental
10 Brgy. Barra, Opol, Misamis Oriental 124º 6000’E; 8º 5200’N Hawksbill
A. T. Viloria
10 Brgy. Bonbon, Cagayan de Oro City 124º 6500’E; 8º 5100’N Hawksbill
10 Zone 5, Brgy. Bayabas, Cagayan de Oro City 124º 6300’E; 8º 5100’N Hawksbill
10 Brgy. Pagahan, Initao, Misamis Oriental 124º 2800’E; 8º 4600’N Hawksbill
10 Poblacion, Naawan, Misamis Oriental 124º 2900’E; 8º 4300’N Hawksbill
10 Jingle Bell Beach, Tabuk Sur, Oroquieta City, Misamis Oriental 123º 8138’E; 8º 4771’N Hawksbill
10 Brgy. Poblacion, Linamon, Lanao del Norte 124º 1700’E; 8º 1700’N Hawksbill
11 Punta Dumalag, Matina Aplaya, Davao City 125º 5760’E; 7º 0260’N Hawksbill
Canibad, Brgy. Aundanao, Island Garden City of Samal (IGA-
11 125º 7800’E; 7º 0900’N Hawksbill
COS), Davao del Norte

Babusanta Resort, Brgy. Dadatan, Talikud, IGACOS, Davao del
11 125º 6800’E; 6º 9500’N Hawksbill
Norte
11 Sitio Calsada, Brgy. Cogon, Talicud, IGACOS, Davao del Norte 125º 7200’E; 6º 9100’N Hawksbill
11 Isla Cristina Beach, Cogon, Talikud, IGACOS, Davao del Norte 125º 7100’E; 6º 9100’N Hawksbill
Dumlao Resort, San Remigio, Kaputian, IGACOS, Davao del
11 125º 7700’E; 6º 9200’N Hawksbill
Norte
11 Lawigan, Mati, Davao Oriental 126º 3326’E; 6º 8217’N Hawksbill
11 Binugao, Toril, Davao City 125º 4799’E; 6º 9764’N Hawksbill
11 Argao, Malita, Davao del Sur 125º 6200’E; 6º 3900’N Olive ridley
12 So. Kapayapaan, Lower Sangay, Kalamansig, Sultan Kudarat 124º 0400’E; 6º 4500’N Hawksbill
12 Pinol, Maitum, Sarangani 124º 3700’E; 6º 1100’N Green
12 Mabay, Maitum, Sarangani 124º 4700’E; 6º 0500’N Olive ridley
12 Old Poblacion, Maitum, Sarangani 124º 5000’E; 6º 0300’N Olive ridley
12 Linek, Nalus, Kiamba, Sarangani 124º 5900’E; 6º 0000’N Olive ridley
12 Brgy. Suli, Kiamba, Sarangani 124º 6500’E; 5º 9800’N Olive ridley
13 Vinapor, Carmen, Agusan del Norte 125º 2100’E; 9º 0900’N Hawksbill
71
13 San Agustin, Carmen, Agusan del Norte 125º 2200’E; 9º 0400’N Hawksbill 72
13 Singoroy lsland, Baculin, Hinatuan, Surigao del Sur 126º 3850’E; 8º 5410’N Hawksbill
ARMM Bancauan Island, Mapun, Tawi-Tawi 118º 5390’E; 7º 7610’N Green & Hawksbill
ARMM Baguan Island, Turtle Islands, Tawi-Tawi 118º 4600’E; 6º 1500’N Green & Hawksbill
ARMM Lihiman lsland, Turtle Islands, Tawi-Tawi 118º 0900’E; 6º 2400’N Green & Hawksbill
ARMM Langaan lsland, Turtle Islands, Tawi-Tawi 118º 1700’E; 6º 2200’N Green & Hawksbill
ARMM Taganak lsland, Turtle Islands, Tawi-Tawi 118º 3300’E; 6º 0900’N Green & Hawksbill
ARMM Limbayan, Bongo lsland, Parang, Maguindanao 124º 0316’E; 7º 3051’N Green
ARMM Langil lsland, Tuburan, Basilan 122º 3680’E; 6º 7580’N Green
A. T. Viloria
Figure 6. Map showing the green turtle nesting sites.

73
76
Figure 7. Map showing the hawksbill turtle nesting sites.

A. T. Viloria
Figure 8. Map showing the olive ridley turtle nesting sites.

77
78 A. T. Viloria
Partnerships are being formalized with the LGUs of Sta. Maria and Vigan City
in Ilocos Sur; Casiguran and Dilasag in Aurora; Calaca, San Juan and Lobo in Batangas
City; Negros Occidental Alliances; Malita in Davao del Sur; and Maitum, Kiamba and
Maasim in Sarangani.
Recommendation
The data shown can be used as basis in initiating joint conservation measures
with other LGUs. Interested organizations or institutions can likewise carryout their
own conservation projects in coordination with the DENR.
Acknowledgement
Thank you to all the PCP staff and PAWCZMS staff of DENR-Regions 1, 3, 4A, 4B, 5,
6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, and its Field Offices, and DENR-ARMM involved in the survey.
Literature Cited
DENR Regions 1, 2, 3, 4A, 4B, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 10, 11, 12, 13, ARMM reports.
Diez, C.E. and J.A. Ottenwalder. 1999. Habitat surveys in Eckert, K.L. et al. 1999. Research
and management techniques for the conservation of Sea Turtles. IUCN/SSC Marine Turtle
Specialist Group Publication No. 4. pp. 41-44.
Eckert, K.L. 1999. Designing a conservation program in Eckert, K.L. et al. 1999. Research
and management techniques for the conservation of Sea turtles. IUCN/SSC Marine Turtle
Specialist Group Publication No. 4. pp. 6-9.
Indian Ocean - Southeast Asian Marine Turtle Secretariat Memorandum of Understanding.

Avail from: http://www.ioseaturtles.org/report.php/
Indian Ocean - Southeast Asian Marine Turtle Secretariat Memorandum of Understanding.

Avail from: http://www.ioseaturtles.org/yot2006/
Internation Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Avail from: http://
www.iucnredlist.org/. The IUCN Red List of threatened species.
Mortimer, J.A. 1999. Reducing threats to eggs and hatchlings: Hatcheries in Eckert, K.L. et al.
1999. Research and management techniques for the conservation of Sea turtles. IUCN/
SSC Marine Turtle Specialist Group Publication No. 4. pp. 175-178.
Pawikan Conservation Project Annual Accomplishment Reports. 1990-2008. Protected Areas

and Wildlife Bureau, Quezon City.
Schroeder, B. and S. Murphy. 1999. Population surveys (ground and aerial) on nesting beaches
in Eckert, K.L. et al. 1999. Research and management techniques for the conservation of
Sea turtles. IUCN/SSC Marine Turtle Specialist Group Publication No. 4. pp. 45-55
Turtle Islands Wildlife Sanctuary Management Plan. 2008. Department of Environment and
Natural Resources, Quezon City, Philippines.
80 A. T. Viloria
Seed health testing of bungalon

(Avicennia marina) and api-api
(A. officinalis) from Southern Luzon
mangrove areas
Cynthia C. Marquez
Science Research Specialist II
Coastal Zone and Freshwater Ecosystems Research Division
Veronica O. Sinohin
Supervising Science Research Specialist
Technology Development Division
Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau
College, Laguna
Seed health testing using blotter test was conducted to detect and
identify insects and fungi associated with seeds of bungalon (Avicennia
marina) and api-api (A. officinalis) collected in four sites, namely: San Juan
and Lian, Batangas; Pagbilao, Quezon; and Las Piñas City, Metro Manila.
The most commonly observed seed-feeding insects were the fruit fly
(Bactrocera umbrosa Fabricius), snout beetle (Coleoptera: Curculionidae),
plume moth (Stenoptilodes sp.), noctuid moth (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), and
tineid moth (Lepidoptera:Tineidae). Important morphological characters of
these five insect species were described and their host ranges, economic
importance, and distribution were listed.
On seed pathogens, three fungi were observed infecting the seeds

of bungalon collected in Las Piñas. These were Curvularia sp., Fusarium
solani, and Aspergillus sp. For api-api seeds collected in Pagbilao, Quezon,
Phomopsis sp. was isolated while Aspergillus niger and Penicillium sp.
were found associated with seeds collected from the grounds of San Juan,
Batangas.
Keywords: blotter test, seed-destroying agents, saprophytic fungi, pathogenic fungi

82 C. C. Marquez and V. O. Sinohin
Correlation analyses of seed germination versus infestation revealed

a significant linear relationship for the two species of Avicennia.
With the massive and continuous loss of Philippine mangrove forests, the government
has embarked on various reforestation programs to replenish the dwindling mangrove
resources nationwide. One of the most promising mangrove reforestation species is
the Avicennia. Melana et al. (1991) considered Avicennia as a versatile characteristic
species due to its ability to coppice even if the meristems are cut. It produces profuse
seeds and tolerates climatic extremes. Nevertheless, the use of these species for
reforestation purposes does not always guarantee a remarkable success particularly
when their seeds and propagules are attacked by seed-invading organisms such as
insects, fungi, bacteria, virus or nematodes (Viado 1979; Sinohin et al. 1996). Among
these pests, insects and fungi are the most common.
In general, insects are the greatest destroyers of tree fruits and seeds. Insects
destroy seeds throughout all their reproductive stages by feeding from the developing
buds to the seeds in storage. This process reduces both the quality and quantity of
seeds of any plant (Bonner et al. 1994). Similarly, pathogens like fungi are a serious
threat to seed health because of the enormous numbers of species known as seed
pathogens that cause various kinds of seed damage, namely, seed abortion, shrinking
of seeds and seed rot, to name a few (Bonner et al. 1994). Any damage caused by
these agents during seed development causes poor germination and poses a serious
threat in planting stock production.
In the Philippines, information on seed health of mangrove species is limited

due to scarce studies being conducted pertaining to seed health testing. Seed health
testing is particularly important in mangrove reforestation program that usually
requires a large number of seedlings to establish a 1 ha plantation. Accordingly,
mangrove plantations typically require 10,000 to 40,000 seedlings/ha. To ensure a
high rate of germination and seedling survival, planting materials must be free from
disease and insect infestation. This can only be ascertained through seed health testing
that detects the absence or presence of seed-invading organisms. Accurate diagnosis
of pests and proper identification of the causal agents will serve as a basis for any
seed treatment. Hence, this study was conducted to examine and identify organisms
particularly fungi and insects associated with seeds of Avicennia spp. and determine
their degree of damage on seed viability.
Seed health testing 83
Seed health refers primarily to the presence or absence of disease-causing

organisms such as fungi, bacteria, viruses and animal pests such as insects and eel
worms (Agrawal 1980). In the country, information on seed-invading organisms of
forest tree species is very limited because seed health testing of forest tree species is
rarely practiced.
Insect group
Among seed-destroying agents, insects are probably responsible for the most
serious losses. Insects are capable of attacking seeds on a mother tree (Viado 1979;
Hedlin and Eungwijarnpanya 1984), on the ground (Singh 1990; Kamnerdratana
1987), and in storage (Kamnerdratana 1987). Seed-feeding insects are classified by
Lapis (1984) into four categories based on the stage of seed development: 1) insects
which infest seeds while in storage; 2) species which feed in or on immature seeds; 3)
species which attack mature seeds; and 4) species which attack seeds after they have
been dispersed or sown in seedbeds.
At least five orders of insects infest the seeds of different forest tree
species in Southeast Asia. These orders are Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera,
Hemiptera, and Homoptera. Coleopterans are the most destructive. They consist of
several families, namely: Bruchidae (Suratmo 1987, Singh 1990), Curculionidae (De
Mesa 1934, Tho 1987 and Akanbi and Odeyindi 1990), Scolytidae (Viado 1979,
Kamnerdratana 1987, Tho 1987, and Hutacharern 1990), Anthribidae (Viado 1979),
Meloidae (Kamnerdratana et al. 1987), Nitidulidae (Kamnerdratana et al. 1987),
and Apionidae (Hedlin and Eungwijarnpanya 1984). Among these families, seed
feeders belonging to family Bruchidae are the most common. The rest of the insect
orders are represented by a few families. Among Lepidopterans, species belonging
to families Pyralidae (Suratmo 1987, Tho 1987, Natawiria 1990 and Singh 1990),
Tortricidae (Tho 1987, Natawiria 1990), and Noctuidae (Hedlin and Eungwijarnpanya
1984, Kamnerdratana et al. 1987, Hutacharern 1990) are common. Hymenoptera
is represented by Chalcidae (Kamnerdratana et al. 1987), Torymidae (Hedlin and
Eungwijarnpanya 1984), and Formicidae (Baksha and Islam 1990, Bandara 1990).
Homoptera and Hemiptera are represented by Pseudococcidae (Lapis 1984)

and Pentatomidae (Singh 1990), respectively. In the Philippines, the anthribid and
scolytid beetles are the most destructive among the Coleopterans. An anthribid beetle
(Araecerus fasciculatus) was found attacking giant ipil-ipil (Leguminosae) seeds in
Luzon (Viado 1979) and in Surigao del Sur (Braza 1988) and occurring on 62.5%
of all seed samples (San Valentin 1982). Viado (1979) observed scolytid seed borers
attacking mangrove species (Rhizoporaceae) in Negros Oriental.
Microflora group
Seed-invading microflora (e.g., fungi and bacteria) are capable of destroying

seeds during storage, after sowing, and before germination. Commonly, these seed-
invading pathogens can cause a wide variety of diseases such as damping-off, rotting,
blight, wilt, anthracnose, leaf spot, and canker. In Southeast Asia, the most common
and serious disease observed to affect seeds and seedlings of some forest trees is
damping-off while fungi is the most common seed-invading pathogen.
In Thailand, survey of seed-invading microflora using the blotter, Potato

Dextrose Agar (PDA) and sand methods revealed that out of 53 species of seed-
invading organisms isolated, 33 were saprophytic while 20 were parasitic or
pathogenic. Saprophytic fungi associated with seeds of forest trees in Thailand belong
to the genera Aspergillus, Penicillium, Cladosporium, Chaetomium, Rhizopus, and
many others while the parasitic or pathogenic seed-borne fungi are Botryodiplodia
theobromae, Curvularia spp., Alternaria spp., Fusarium spp., Drechslera spp.,
Macrophoma spp., Pestalotiopsis spp., Phoma spp., Colletotrichum gloeosporoides,
Phomopsis sp., and bacteria (Chalermpongse et al. 1984).
In the Philippines, a preliminary survey conducted by Agmata (1979) showed

a considerable high incidence of various fungal isolates on seeds of forest tree species.
This includes Cephalosporium sp. on Mindoro pine (Pinus merkusii), Fusarium solani
on Malapapaya (Polyscias nodosas), Phomopsis sp. on Narra (Pterocarpus indicus),
and Botryodiplodia theobromae on Large leaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla).
Among the several species of fungi isolated, the most common are Fusarium spp.,
Penicillium sp., Cladosporium sp., and Aspergillus sp.
In a related study on the pests and diseases of seeds and seedlings of forest
plantations in the Philippines, Quiniones (1983) reported that damping-off was the most
commonly observed disease which is caused by several species of fungi belonging to
the genera, namely: Phythium, Phytopthora, Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, and Sclerotium.
Likewise, Pacho (1985) studied seed-invading organisms affecting some

Philippine forest tree species, namely: Moluccan sau (Albizia falcataria), Rainbow
eucalyptus (Eucalyptus deglupta), Ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala), Benguet Pine
(Pinus kesiya), and Yemane (Gmelina arborea). Among the fourteen fungal isolates,
species belonging to the genera of Fusarium and Pestalotia are the most common.
A research work conducted by the College of Forestry and Natural

Resources (CFNR) of the University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) on the
identification and pathogenecity of fungi causing damping-off disease of Benguet
pine (Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon) seeds and seedlings revealed that nine fungi were
pathogenic. These are: 1) Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn, 2) Cylindrocladium scoparium
Morgan, 3) Curvularia tuberculata Jain, 4) Fusarium oxysporum (Schl.) emend Snyder
and Hansen, 5) F. roseum (LK.) emend Snyder and Hansen, 6) Myxotrichum sp., 7)
F. moniliforme Sheld. Emend Snyder and Hansen, 8) F. solani (Mart.) App. Et Wr.
Emend Snyder and Hansen, and 9) Botrytis sp. (Militante 1978).

Seed collection
Seed collection was done in the months of June, July, and August 2003 when the
mature seeds of bungalon and api-api were available. Seed-bearing twigs using a pruning
shear were detached from standing trees. For the year 2003, 200 seeds of api-api from
Pagbilao, Quezon and 200 seeds of bungalon from Lian, Batangas were collected.
Moisture Content determination
Freshly collected seeds of bungalon and api-api were subjected to Moisture

Content (MC) test. The Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) for MC determination
was followed.
About 25 g of seed samples for each seed lot were weighed and placed inside
the plastic bag. The four empty aluminum containers were weighed individually and each
weight was recorded and designated as M1. Five grams of seed samples were then put in
each container and then both the sample and the container were weighed. The weight
was recorded as M2. The sample and the container were oven dried at 103 ± 2 oC in the
Seed Laboratory for 17 hours starting 4 PM to 9 AM the following day. The container and
the sample were again weighed after cooling for 20 minutes in the dessicator and the said
weights were recorded as M3. The MC was computed using the following formula:

M2 - M3
Percentage MC = X 100
M2 - M1
Direct examination
Samples of 400 bungalon seeds and 400 api-api seeds were placed in plastic
trays and examined using binocular microscope to identify the presence of pathogen
or its fruiting structures like mycelium and spores. External evidence of insect damage
such as exit holes on seeds, webbings, and frass were also observed and recorded.
Blotter test
Blotter test was performed using the sample in the dry inspection test. Four
hundred seed samples at 50 seeds per replicate of each species of Avicennia were
placed equidistantly in plastic trays lined with three layers of paper towels moistened
with sterile distilled water.
Trays were then incubated in an incubation chamber with alternating cycles

of 12-hour light and 12-hour darkness as recommended by International Seed Testing
Association (ISTA).
After an eight-day incubation period, the working sample was examined

using binocular microscope. Presence of disease-causing organisms on or in seeds or
seedlings was noted. Fungal growth was picked with a sterile pointed needle under the
microscope and transferred aseptically to plated PDA for isolation. Simultaneously,
mycelial growths were mounted on slides with plain lactophenol for preliminary
observation and identification. Growth characteristics and some distinct microscopic
features of isolated fungi were noted and recorded. Percent infection was calculated
using the following formula :

Number of specific fungi
Percent infection = X 100
Total number of seeds sown
The number of healthy germinated seeds using blotter test was counted and
percentage germination was determined using the following formula :

Number of seeds germinated
Percent germination = X 100
Insect collection, preservation, and identification
Seeds of Avicennia were examined to determine the presence of seed

predators. All stages of seed-feeding insects were collected and preserved for
identification. Immature stages and soft-bodied insects were preserved in 80% ethyl
alcohol while adult specimens were pinned and dried.
Percentage of infested seeds was computed using the following formula:

Number of infested seeds
Percentage of infested seeds = X 100
Data analysis
Correlation and regression analyses were used to test the association of pest
damage on seed viability of Avicennia spp.
Moisture Content (MC) test did not show any significant difference between
the two species of Avicennia. Seeds of bungalon (Avicennia marina) and api-api (A.
officinalis) exhibited a high percentage MC of 61.5 and 64.56, respectively (Table 1).
These figures indicate a recalcitrant seed behavior of Avicennia spp.
Table1. Summary of seed health test showing percent MC, fungal infection,
infestation, and germination of A. marina and A. officinalis.
Parameters A. marina (%) A. officinalis (%)

MC 61.5 64.5
Fungal infection 23.0 46.0
Infestation 43.0 29.5
Germination 48.0 30.0
Fungal infection
Differences in terms of species composition were noted between the two

species of Avicennia (Table 2). Three fungal isolates belonging to genera of Phomopsis,
Aspergillus, and Penicillium were found associated with seeds of A. officinalis. For A.
marina, the fungal isolates that were identified include Curvularia sp., Fusarium solani
and species of Aspergillus (Fig. 1). Of all the six fungi associated with Avicennia spp.,
three were pathogenic including Phomopsis sp., Curvularia sp., and F. solani while A.
niger, Penicillium sp., and Aspergillus sp. were saprophytic. It was also observed that
the genus Aspergillus was common in both species of Avicennia.
Figure 1. A. marina seeds infected with fungi.
The rate of fungal infection on Avicennia propagules was 23.0% for A.

marina and 46.0% for A. officinalis. Of the six species of fungi isolated, A. niger
had the highest frequency of occurrence, damaging 63.0% of all seed samples of A.
officinalis. On the other hand, Penicillium sp. appeared to be the least frequently
encountered fungi on seeds of A. officinalis having an occurrence rate of 15.0. In a
related study, a species of Aspergillus likewise had the highest rate of infection among
the fungi isolated, damaging 40.0% of all A. marina seeds growing in Korangi Creek of
Korashi, Pakistan (Mehdi and Saifullah 1992). Among the fungi found associated with
A. marina, F. solani recorded the highest rate of infection of 27.0 while Aspergillus
sp. had the least percent infection of 6.0.
Infestation
The rates of infestation on Avicennia propagules were quite low to moderate

at 43.0% for A marina and 29.50% for A. officinalis (Table 1). Five insect taxa were
found associated with seeds of Avicennia spp: a fruit fly, Bactrocera umbrosa Fabricius
(Diptera: Tephritidae); a plume moth, Stenoptilodes sp. (Lepidoptera: Pterophoridae);

a noctuid moth (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae); and a tineid moth (Lepidoptera: Tineidae)
in A. officinalis and a snout beetle (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in A. marina.
Table 2. Percentage frequency of fungal species isolated from the seeds of Avicennia spp.
Host Fungal isolates Frequency (% )

Curvularia sp. 25.0
A. marina Fusarium solani 27.0
Aspergillus sp. 6.0
Phomopsis sp. 23.0
A. officinalis Aspergillus niger 63.0
Penicillium sp. 15.0
In this study, it is worthwhile to note that the level of infestation is not

directly related with the number of seed-feeding insects. For instance, insect species
found infesting A. officinalis caused low seed damage. This is probably due to the
co-existence of four species, namely, B. umbrosa Fabricious, Stenoptilodes sp., a
noctuid moth, and a tineid moth in the same seed. In contrast, a curculionid had
caused higher level of seed infestation on A. marina. In the absence of the competitor,
the causal seed feeder probably would have caused more damage to their host trees.
Seed-feeding insects of Avicennia spp.
Bactrocera umbrosa Fabricius (Diptera: Tephritidae)
Host Plant: Avicennia officinalis (api-api)

Size: 8 – 11 mm (body length)
Host Range. In Asia, host range includes Artocarpus spp. (Moraceae); breadfruit (A.
altilis), jackfruit (A. heterophyllus), chempedak (A. integer), and bitter gourd. Host
records from other families include Cucurbitaceae, Rutaceae, and Passifloraceae
(Carroll et al. 2004).
Diagnostic Characters. Head of normal shape (Carroll et al. 2004). Antennae,

considerably longer than face. Face with a dark spot in each antennal furrow.
Scutellum is yellow. Wing with three transverse cross bands (stripes). All legs pale
yellow to brown. Abdomen ovate or parallel sided. Predominant color of abdomen
orange-brown. Tergites not fused. Abdomen not wasp-waisted. Pattern on abdomen

varies from none to distinct. Body slender, elongate (Hardy 1973, 1982, and1983).
Distribution. The species is widely distributed in Malaysia, Southern Thailand,

Philippines, Indonesia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and
New Caledonia (Vagalo et al. 1997).
Damage. The adult of this species causes considerable damage by ovipositing in

mature fruits causing premature ripening and drop of seeds/fruits.
Stenoptilodes sp. (plume moth; Lepidoptera: Pterophoridae)
Host Plant: Avicennia officinalis

Color: Mottled brown
Host Range: The caterpillar of this species has been reported feeding on a variety of
plants belonging to the following families: Acanthaceae, Asteraceae, Primulaceae,
Lamiaceae, Ericaceae, and Hydrophyllaceae.
Diagnostic Characters. The head is small, greenish white with pale brown platelets.
T2, T3, and abdomen are mostly greenish white with white interrupted longitudinal
stripes. The larva is light green, long and skinny compared to other caterpillars (Fig. 2).
The adults are small with long and slender bodies. The wings split into two or three
feather-like divisions (Fig. 3) The forewings are divided into two while the hind wings
are divided into three (Stehr 1987).
Damage. A. officinalis is chiefly damaged by the larva that bores into its seed from
an egg laid on the seed coat. Upon gaining entry, the larva feeds internally on the
soft tissues of fully developed cotyledon leaving a considerable evidence of damage
in the form of partially devoured seeds. Conspicuous frass and webbings are also
deposited on the seed surface (Fig. 4). During heavy infestation, the larva of the insect
consumes the entire cotyledon of the seed causing gross destruction. The same feeding
damage was reported by Minchiton and Dalby-Ball (2001) in their investigation on
the frugivory by insects on propagules of A. marina. One of the dominant frugivores
they identified was also a plume moth (Cenoloba obliteralis) that attacked 80% of the
cotyledons of seedlings.
Figure 2. Larva of plume moth. Note the small, greenish white head
of the larva and the damage it made on the seed.
Figure 3. The hind wing of adult plume moth. Note that it splits
into three feather-like divisions.
Figure 4. Larvae of plume moth feeding in or on the

soft tissues of Avicennia seed, leaving the seed
partially devoured. Note the presence of frass
and webbings produced by the larvae.
Snout beetle (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Calandrinae)
Host: Bungalon (Avicennia marina)

Size: 3 – 4 mm long
Color: The adults of this snout beetle are black
Diagnostic characters. The adults are usually blacker than Sitophilus oryzae, with
fine microsculpture and are shinier. These are almost indistuinguishable from other
calandrinine beetles externally; thus, identification has to be done by examination
of the genitalia. They have the characteristic rostrum and elbowed antennae of the
family Curculionidae (Fig. 5). They also have circular, rather than oval punctures on
the prothorax (Fig. 6) (Booth et al. 1990).
Damage. A. marina seeds infested by larvae and adults showed extensive damage
consist of tunneling and exit holes with signs of frass around the eaten seeds.
Based on literatures, adult weevils usually lay their eggs on developing fruits
(Bonner et al. 1994). Upon hatching, the larvae grow to maturity within the developing
seed and then pupate. On emergence, the adults bite their way out, leaving round
exit holes. During severe infestation, 2-3 weevils can develop within a single seed
that is hollowed out by chewing larvae.
Figure 5. Curculionidae (snout beetle). Note the

characteristic rostrum and elbowed
antennae of the family Curculionidae.
Figure 6. Curculionidae. Note the circular punctures

on the prothorax.
Economic Importance. Seed-feeding weevils are serious predators reducing seed

production. For example, Nanophyes can destroy 60% of the seed crop of Terminalia
ivorensis (Lamb and Ntima 1971). Adults and larvae of Australian snout beetle
(Oxyops vitiosa) damage melaleuca by disrupting the plant’s normal growth processes
(Balciunas et al. 1994) and by reducing flowering up to 90% as reported at several

sites in South Florida. As such, different species of seed weevil have been utilized as
natural enemy or biocontrol agents against unwanted weeds and highly invasive plant
species in Australia, United States, and in South Africa.
Noctuid moth (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
Host: Api-api (Avicennia officinalis)

Color: Dull in color
Diagnostic characters. The adult of this noctuid moth is pale yellow in color with light
brown stripes horizontally inclined (Fig. 7).The forewings are narrower compared to
the hind wing which is slightly broader. The larvae of noctuidae are usually smooth
or with very little hairs, and moves in a geometrid or inch-worm fashion (http://www.
entomology.tfrec.wsu.edu/noctuid/id.html)
Damage. The caterpillar is the destructive stage that causes fruit and foliage damage.
In a related study, seed-feeding larva of other noctuid species was reported to be a
serious pest of Avicennia alba which can damage the fruit embryo and destroy up to
eight fruits before pupation takes place in the last one (htpp://mangrove.nus.edu.sg/
guidebook/text/2019.htm). Some reports, however, indicate that some adults feed on
nectar from flowers but many species will also feed on ripe or decaying fruit (http://
www.brisbane_noctuidae/index.htm/).
Economic importance. Some species in this group are serious pests of various crops
including A. alba.
Figure 7. Adult noctuid moths.

Tineid moth (Lepidoptera: Tineidae)
Diagnostic characters. Tineid moths are small, yellowish moths whose larvae feed on
wool or fur. Generally, they have slender, elongated, fringed wings with a spread of
12 to 25 mm and dull mottled coloration. They have erect hairs on their heads and
long antennae. Most tineidae rest with wings raised tent-like over the body and the
body parallel with the substrate (Robinson and Nielsen 1993).
Economic importance. Most tineid larvae are scavengers feeding on a variety of

substrates including plant or animal detritus, lichen or fungi, and human hair (http://
www.nhm.ac.uk/research_curation/projects/tineidae/#what ).
Seed germination. Table 1 indicates that Avicennia spp. exhibited low to moderate
germination rates of 30.0 and 48.0, respectively. Of the two species, A. marina had
a considerably higher germination rate than A. officinalis. This study indicates that
seeds of A. marina can germinate successfully despite substantial damage caused by
insects and fungal infection. This may be due in part to the preference of the insects
to feed on the soft tissues of the endosperm, thus, leaving the embryo undamaged. In
addition, it is interesting to note that Avicennia propagules have large cotyledons that,
accordingly, can lose a substantial amount of tissue and still be established as viable
seedlings (Sousa et al. 2003). In such cases, large cotyledons or endosperms provide
an effective mechanism for tolerating herbivore damage (Rosenthal and Kotaven
1994). Moreover, Avicennia seeds grow precociously. The seeds germinate rapidly
before they separate from the parent tree, thus, providing seed feeders and pathogens
a slim chance to injure the seeds and affect germination. Such rapid germination is
probably another defense mechanism of the species to reduce the duration of seed
exposure to seed predators (Daws et al. 2005). Furthermore, it was also reported
that Avicennia tissues contain iridoid glycosides (Fauvel et al. 1995) that serve as a
defense against attack of generalist plant feeders (Bowers 1992).
On the other hand, A. officinalis had low percentage of germination despite

low level of insect predation. No marked relationship, however, was found when
seed germination was correlated with fungal infection. The low germination rate of A.
officinalis could be due to the use of premature seeds. It was observed that the sample
seeds were not uniform in size, such that some probably had not yet attained their
full size and their capacity for full germinability. Meanwhile, other seeds had intact
pericarp. Accordingly, a seed with intact pericarp hardly germinates.
Correlation analysis. Results of correlation analysis using rate of fungal infection and
insect infestation on seed germination showed that no significant linear relationship
was detected between fungal infection and germination in both species of Avicennia.
Only a small amount of seed tissue was colonized by each fungus. Moreover, the
fungi, particularly the saprophytic fungi like Aspergillus niger and Penicillium sp.
usually colonized only the seed coats while the embryo, which is the life of the plant
and the other internal parts of the seed remained undamaged.
On the other hand, there was a marked association between seed-feeding

insect and germination in both species of Avicennia. Out of the five insect species
associated with seeds of Avicennia, dipterous larvae and three different species of
lepidopterous larvae were found feeding simultaneously on seeds of A. officinalis.
Seeds attacked by these insects were partially devoured, leaving the embryo
undamaged. Nevertheless, the large amount of tissue loss had probably caused the
seeds to lose their energy reserves and vigor, thus, germination rate was affected. In
this study, it was further observed that weevil-infested A. marina seeds containing
4-5 larvae within them were usually hollowed out, thus, had reduced germination
rate. The findings of previous investigators who conducted similar studies on seed
predation by insects in tropical and temperate mangrove forests, however, do not
conform to the result of this study. Their analyses showed that insect damage had no
substantial effect on the growth and survival of seedlings of A. marina and Bruguiera
exaristata (Minchiton and Dalby-Ball 2001 and Robertson et al. 1990) despite high
levels of insect damage.
Summary and Conclusion
Seed-invading organisms including insects and fungi were found associated

with two species of Avicennia, namely, A. marina and A. officinalis.
The five seed-feeding insects that were identified include a fruit fly (B. umbrosa
Fabricious), a snout beetle (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), a plume moth (Stenoptilodes
sp.), a noctuid moth (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and tineid moth (Lepidoptera:
Tineidae). Based on the study, a curculionid infesting A.officinalis seemed to be the
most destructive species among the seed-invading organisms identified.
Using blotter test method, the species of fungi that were isolated include
Curvularia sp., Fusarium solani, and Aspergillus sp. in A. marina and Phomopsis
sp., Aspergillus niger, and Penicillium sp. in A. officinalis. Of the six species of fungi
isolated, Aspergillus niger had the highest frequency of occurrence.
A significant linear relationship between seed germination and infestation

was observed for two species of Avicennia. On the contrary, no significant association
existed between germination and fungal infection.
Low germination rate was observed for A. officinalis while A. marina

exhibited a higher rate of germination despite the threat posed by the seed-feeding
insects and fungal infection.
Recommendations
The above study clearly demonstrated that seeds of Avicennia like any
other plant or forest trees species are prone to seed-invading organisms like insects
and fungi. The study also revealed that seed germination of Avicennia spp. was
considerably affected by the presence of seed-feeding insects. These findings provide
the evidence on the importance of seed health testing in Avicennia in detecting the
presence and even the level of fungal contamination and insect damage that cause a
marked reduction in seed germination.
The mere presence of insects in Avicennia seeds poses a threat to mangrove

rehabilitation. Contaminated and/or infested seeds that are poorly managed can reduce
the quality of the propagules and may affect forest establishment and development.
Although there is no specific recommendations that can be made regarding pest
control of Avicennia seeds, some of the general preventive management strategies
that are useful in ensuring the use of high-quality propagation materials are as follows:
• Propagation materials should be obtained from mother plants/trees that had

been tested (thru seed health test) free from the particular insect/pathogen. If
seeds or propagules are found clean after they have been tested, then they are
recommended for planting. Propagules with external signs of pest damage should
be treated or discarded (case to case basis) since infested or infected seeds can
easily contaminate the other seeds. Spraying the targeted seed mangroves at
flowering stage may be done to reduce the level of insect attack (Clark and Jolins
2002). Likewise, borer hatching can be prevented by collecting propagules as
soon as possible during the fruiting period then soaking them for at least one
week in fresh water before planting (Clark and Jolins 2002).
• Seeds infected with storage and field fungi such as those belonging to the genera
of Aspergillus and Penicillium may be treated with contact fungicide such as
Dithane and Captan while seeds infected with pathogenic fungi such as Phomopsis
Curvularia and Fusarium may be treated with systemic fungicide like Benlate.
• Ground collected seeds that have higher incidence of fungal and insect damage
should not be used.
In view of the above, it is recommended that mandatory seed health

testing be undertaken in order to detect the presence of diseases or insects prior
to large-scale production. This is particularly important in mangrove reforestation/
rehabilitation program that usually requires a large number of seedlings to establish
a plantation. This will assess the performance of seeds of a given seed lot. More
importantly, suspected pests of seeds or seedlings when accurately diagnosed and
the causal agents properly identified will serve as basis for any seed treatment, and,
hence, will help minimize losses due to pest and disease occurrence in the nursery
and plantation establishment.
Further research needs to be done to include other species of mangrove that

are being utilized for rehabilitation/reforestation of degraded mangrove areas.
Acknowledgement
This study was funded by DENR-ERDB and the Public Estate Authority (PEA).The
authors are grateful to the following individuals who deserve particular recognition: the
management staff of ERDB for administrative and logistic support; the Chief of CZFERD, Engr.
Santiago R. Baconguis, Lotic Section Chief, Dr. Carmelita I. Villamor and the CZFERD staff for
their encouragement and whole-hearted support; Mrs. Maria DP. Dayan for identifying the
fungi and allowing us to use the facilities in the Seed Laboratory; Dr. Jessamyn R. Adorada of
NCPC for kindly providing the identification of insect specimens; and Ms. Chita Dimaculangan
for her assistance in data gathering;
Above all, the Sovereign God for His immeasurable provision.
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Comparison of water quality indices

based on benthic macroinvertebrates
in the Zwalm River Basin, Belgium: Its
potential applicability in Laguna de Bay
Watershed, Philippines
Lisette L. Talan-Aragoncillo
Environmental Quality Management Division
Laguna Lake Development Authority
Rizal Provincial Capitol Compound, Pasig City
Europe has formulated a Europe-wide system for assessing the

ecological quality of rivers using benthic macroinvertebrates. To fully
strengthen the European Union Water Framework Directive (EU WFD), the
AQEM project entitled "Development and Testing of an Integrated Assessment
System for the Ecological Quality of Streams and Rivers throughout Europe
using Benthic Macroinvertebrates" was studied.
This thesis aims to: 1) assess the water quality of the Zwalm River
Basin in Belgium based on benthic macroinvertebrates, 2) apply the AQEM
assessment system on the Zwalm River Basin for calculating the newly
developed AQEM Ecological Quality Class (EQC) and compare their
results with the Belgian Biotic Index (BBI), Indice Biologique Globale
Normalise France (IBGN), Average Score Per Taxon (ASPT), Biological
Monitoring Working Party System (BMWP), diversity and evenness
indices, and 3) assess trends between the indices and physico-chemical
parameters and hydro-morphological characteristics.
Water quality assessment was done in the 60 sampling sites of

the Zwalm River Basin. Based on the newly developed EQC and BBI, the
water quality could be assigned as "moderately polluted" in most of the
sites, although ASPT and IBGN classified the river basin as "bad" quality.
The study further assessed the relationships of the biological parameters
through indices measurements via the AQEM assessment system with the
Keywords: Water quality assessment, benthic macroinvertebrates, watershed

104 L. T. Aragoncillo
physico-chemical and hydro-morphological parameters. Although the results

revealed mostly low correlations, it further presented a common pattern
showing relations between the indices and the physico-chemical parameters,
specifically Ammonium (NH4+), dissolved oxygen (DO), chemical oxygen
demand (COD), Total Phosporus (TotalP), Phosphate (PO43-), Total Nitrogen
(TotalN), and conductivity.
To apply the idea of the stressor-specific assessment which will

further identify the causes or impacts of different stressors on the community,
further studies that would focus on a more refined typology is recommended.
In Flanders, Belgium, the water quality is threatened by agricultural activities and

pollution caused by households. Because of the continuous growth in the demand
for sufficient quantities of good water quality, the water resources are put under
enormous and increasing pressure (EU WFD 2000). Considering all the hazards
mentioned, man has undertaken measures to protect the environment. Since the early
times, water quality monitoring based on the physico-chemical and microbiological
parameters has been undertaken to assess and protect the surface waters from
further degradation. Biological assessment has been later introduced to fulfill the
limitations of the chemical assessments such as: 1) biological effects occur sometimes
at concentrations lower than any analytical detection limits, 2) effects of a single
pollutant differ from the effects of mixtures of pollutants, and 3) toxic effects may be
influenced by the characteristics of the receiving body of water.
The biological monitoring has also been used and established as an integral
part of the water quality monitoring (De Pauw and Hawkes 1993). In Flanders,
Belgium, one of the projects which aims to fully strengthen the biological monitoring
system is the AQEM Project otherwise known as the "Development and Testing of
an Integrated Assessment System for the Ecological Quality of Streams and Rivers
throughout Europe using Benthic Macroinvertebrates". It aims to develop a Europe-
wide system to assess the ecological quality of rivers using macroinvertebrates based
on the requirements of the European Union Water Framework Directive (EU WFD).
In the Philippines, Laguna de Bay Watershed is considered as a critical

resource. It is a main source of agricultural food commodities and industrial raw
materials. Laguna de Bay, together with its numerous tributary rivers affecting the over-
all water quality of the lake, is one of the potential research venues for this study. This
makes it a priority site for creating strategies on sustainable development.
The study addresses the following primary objectives:
1. Assess the water quality of the Zwalm River Basin based on benthic macroinvertebrates.
105
2. Apply the AQEM assessment system on the Zwalm River Basin for calculating newly
developed AQEM Ecological Quality Class (EQC).
3. Assess relationships among indices (ie., EQC, BBI, IBGN, ASPT, BMWP, diversity,
and evenness indices).
4. Assess the physico-chemical and hydro-morphological water quality of Zwalm River

and its impact to the benthic macroinvertebrate communities.
The secondary objective considers the potential applicability of the

methodology used on this study in the Laguna de Bay Watershed.
Importance of biological assessment using macroinvertebrates
Biological monitoring is integral in measuring the total ecological health of a

body of water. It is becoming increasingly important in monitoring and assessing water
quality (Karr 1981). It includes the use of biological indicators during assessment.
Biological indicators are organisms that can provide information regarding the quality
of a certain environment. Different species have particular environmental requirements
and the changes in water quality influence the presence and/or absence of particular
species (Cairns and Schalie 1980). Groups of organisms being used as biological
indicators include microorganisms (e.g., bacteria, fungi, microalgae, protozoans,
rotifers, cladocerans, and copepods) and macroorganisms (e.g., macrophytes, insects,
amphipods, isopods, molluscs, worms, and fish) (Hellawel 1986).
Benthic macroinvertebrates, as bioindicators, are organisms that inhabit the

bottom substrates (e.g., sediments, debris, logs, macrophytes, filamentous algae, etc.) of
the freshwater habitats (Rosenberg and Resh 1993). They are usually considered to be
organisms that are large enough to be seen without magnification, i.e., retained in a net
with a mesh size of 200-500 µm (De Pauw and Vanhooren 1983; Rosenberg and Resh
1993; Sladecek et al. 1982; Wiederholm 1980). Benthic macroinvertebrate studies are
the most widespread biological water quality assessment tools (Metcalfe 1989; Sladecek
et al. 1982; Whitton 1979; Wiederholm 1980). The capability of benthic organisms to
reflect anthropogenic perturbations creates a holistic assessment of running waters.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) summarized

the two major advantages of using benthic macroinvertebrates in biomonitoring:
1) macroinvertebrate assemblages are good indicators of localized conditions because
of their sessile mode of life; and 2) macroinvertebrates integrate the effects of short-term
environmental variations since sensitive life stages will respond quickly to stress. These
advantages are coupled with an ease in sampling by using inexpensive gear.
Water quality assessment using biotic indices
The EQC was derived from AQEM assessment system as a main scientific
achievement of the AQEM project which is under the Fifth Framework Programme of the
European Union. The AQEM assessment system is based on a "multimetric" procedure
(Fig.1). The development of an assessment system is an ambitious Europe-wide project
designed to put the EU WFD into practice. It involves the eight European countries
of Sweden, Germany, The Netherlands, Czech Republic, Austria, Italy, Portugal, and
Greece. Applying AQEM is very essential because the EU WFD legislates at a Europe-
wide level but no Europe-wide assessment system currently exists. This method is
not designed to replace or negate the existing assessment systems carried out by the
individual states but instead will be incorporated as an additional module (Buffagni et
al. 2001). Based on a macroinvertebrate taxa list obtained from the sampling stretch
using the European harmonized method, AQEM classifies a stream stretch into an EQC
presented as follows: 5-high, 4-good, 3-moderate, 2-poor, and 1-bad.
Figure 1. General scheme of the “multimetric” approach.

107
The calculation results are summarized into two separate sheets: metrics and
summary. The 'Metrics' table contains the results of all metrics calculated by the
program. The summary sheet which automatically appears when the 'Sample' score
window is opened contains the determined EQC and the results of those metrics used
to calculate it.
Numerous biological assessment systems which use benthic

macroinvertebrates are widely used in Europe. Table 1 describes each assessment
system, the country where it is being implemented, identification level, scoring
systems applied, and other information regarding the assessment system used in
Europe.
The physico-chemical water quality assessment in Flanders, Belgium
Since 1998, the physico-chemical water quality assessment in Flanders was

done on a routine basis. At 1317 measuring points, parameters like water temperature,
dissolved oxygen, pH, chemical oxygen demand (COD), ammoniacal nitrogen, nitrite
and nitrate, total amount of orthophosphate, total amount of phosphorus, chloride
and conductivity, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), Kjeldahl nitrogen, sulphate,
total hardness, percentage of suspended matter, and heavy metals are determined.
Besides these routine measurements, tests have been done to observe the presence of
pesticides in surface waters.
River habitat characteristics
The hydro-morphological characteristics (i.e., water velocity, width, water

level, and distance from the mouth) of a river system determine the macroinvertebrate
community structure. River Continuum Concept (RCC) explains that the natural
features of rivers regarding their position (upstream to downstream) determines the
natural processes (e.g. decomposition, assimilation) in a river. The concept was unique
because it asserts that an ecological continuum exists within a river basin on the basis of
interaction between hydro-morphological and biological processes. Figure 2 represents
the hypothetical image of the RCC (Vannote et al. 1980). The distance from the mouth
also gives an expression on the state of the river in relation to the RCC.
Location of sampling sites in the Zwalm River Basin
The Zwalm River Basin is a part of the Upper-Scheldt basin consisting of

numerous small brooks. It has a total surface of 11.650 ha with a length of 22 km.
Table 1. Biological assessment currently applied in the EU member states. 108
Assessment
Country Reference Identification Scoring Description Remarks
System
Biological United Armitage et Family ASPT < 25 The ASPT score For the unpolluted
Monitoring Kingdom, al. Family = very poor generally rises streams, the index
Working Ireland, 1983; Wright (red); 26-50 = with improving must be evaluated
Party System Sweden, et al. 1984. poor (orange); water quality relative to type-
- Average USA 51-100 = and structural specific because
Score Per moderate diversity. scores vary
Taxon (yellow); 101- for unpolluted
(BMWP- 150 = good streams of
ASPT) (green); >150 different typology.
= very good
(blue)
Belgian Biotic Belgium, De Pauw & Genus 1-2 = very Increasing The results are
Index (BBI) Portugal, Vanhooren bad quality pollution will sufficient for
Spain, 1983; De (red); 3-4 = result in a loss different stream
Luxembourg, Pauw et al. bad quality of diversity and channels but may
Greece 1992 (orange); 5-6 a progressive fail in deep waters.
= moderate elimination of
quality certain pollution-
(yellow); 7-8 sensitive groups.
= good quality
(green); 9-10
= very good
quality (blue)
L. T. Aragoncillo
Continuation...
BWMP Score UK, Sweden, Armitage Family No defined Increasing Used in UK for
Ireland et al. 1983; scoring system. pollution will routine
Wright et al. result in a loss investigation of
1984. of diversity and organic stream
a progressive pollution.
elimination of
certain pollution-
sensitive groups.
Indice France, Association Family No defined The index is not

Biologique Belgium Francaese de scoring system. sufficient in some
Globale Normalisation streams types (e.g.,
Normalise 1985 lowland streams).
France (IBGN)
Diversity Worldwide Armitage DISW >3 is Diversity index Most suited for
Index et al. 1983; considered increases with assessing impact of
Wright et al. high quality. the number of organic pollution,
1984. species in the general gradation
community. of streams.
Evenness Worldwide Armitage et al. 0 = low Measures the Most suited

1983; Wright diversity evenness of the for assessing
et al. 1984. community. impact of organic
1 = high pollution, general
diversity degradation of
streams.
109
Figure 2. The River Continuum Concept.
The basin is mainly polluted by untreated urban wastewater and diffused pollution
originating from agricultural activities. In the months of August and September 2000,
60 sites of the Zwalm sub-basin (part of the Upper-Scheldt Basin) in Flanders, Belgium
were investigated (Fig. 3).
Biological sampling using handnet and artificial substrate
In shallow rivers, the handnet method was used. The macroinvertebrates were
collected by means of kick sampling with a standard handnet consisting of a metal
frame holding a conical net (mesh-size 500µm) (IBN 1984). The sampling method is
Figure 3. Zwalm River Basin is located in the Upper-Scheldt Basin in Flanders, Belgium (Adriaenssens 2002).
111
based on a multi-habitat design, where major habitats are sampled according to their
proportional distribution within a sampling reach and consisted of 10 minutes sampling
in a 10 m reach of the watercourse. In deep rivers and canals, artificial substrates were
used. Artificial substrates are made of plastic netting with pieces of bricks which are
exposed in the field for about four weeks (De Pauw & Vanhooren 1983). Collection
of substrate was undertaken followed by proper washing, filtering using handnet,
collecting the filtered samples before properly preserving in a bucket using formalin,
and bringing the samples to the laboratory for further biological analysis.
Sample processing and identification of organisms
The coarse debris was removed and the organisms retained on each sieve
are transferred to white plastic sorting trays (30x50 cm). The bottom of the sorting
tray was divided into squares to facilitate the systematic examination of the material
collected. The organisms were sorted and transferred to small flasks and were roughly
grouped according to major taxonomic groups being preserved in denatured 70%
alcohol (De Pauw & Vanhooren 1983). After separation, marcroinvertebrates were
identified under a stereoscopic dissection microscope (10 to 50 times magnification).
The purpose of identification is to determine the number of systematic units present
in the sample (diversity) and the presence of the most sensitive faunistic groups.
Consequently, the identification for the systematic units was performed only up to a
practical level (family and genus).
Physico-chemical parameters
The following physico-chemical parameters were measured:

• pH, units
• Conductivity, µS/cm
• Temperature, °C
• Nitrate, mgNO3--N/L
• Suspended Solids, mg/L
• Dissolved oxygen, mg/L
• Phosphate, mgP/L
• Total nitrogen, mgN/L
• Ammonium, mgNH4+-N/L
• Total Phosphorus, mgTotalP/L
• Chemical Oxygen Demand, mg/L
The AQEM software
The AQEM software is only a calculation program and is not designed for
storing data. It is based on Excel as common and comparatively compatible computing
113
system, to which most databases are able to export data sheets. The AQEM software
is capable of importing a taxa list and exporting results in either Excel (*.xls) or ASCII
file format. Preparing data sets for import into the AQEM software must be done
using a different program such as Excel or a text editor. The following steps were
undertaken for the proper data processing:
1. Designation of a taxon code for every taxa list.

2. Import of data from Excel files to the AQEM software.
3. When the taxa list are successfully imported, automatic processing of the sample
characterization where stream type and stressor were selected.
4. Calculation of the EQC for the data sets and calculation of a large number of additional
metrics for further data interpretation.
Application to Zwalm River Basin data sets
Based on the AQEM assessment system, the EQC was calculated for all
sampling sites using the appropriate stream type. Stream types namely small Dutch
hill streams and small Dutch lowland streams were chosen for calculating the EQC
since these stream types are mostly related to the Zwalm River Basin in terms of size,
altitude, ecoregion, and geology. The system also calculated other chosen indices like
the BBI, IBGN, ASPT, BMWP, DISW and Evenness using the chosen stream types.
The classes’ ranges of the different indices (BBI, IBGN, and ASPT) and the newly
developed EQC could only be possible for these selected indices since these are the
ones with scoring system (Table 2).
Statistical analysis of results
The correlation analysis was performed for the datasets with the use of
S-Plus professional edition version 6.1.2 release 1 (Lucent Technology, Inc. 2002).
Correlation analysis is a tool to determine whether two ranges of data move together,
Table 2. The definition of the classes' range of the different indices and the EQC.
Classes’ Range
1 2 3 4 5
EQC Bad Poor Moderate Good High
BBI Very bad Bad Moderate Good Very Good
IBGN Very bad Bad Moderate Good Excellent
ASPT Very bad Poor Moderate Good Very Good
whether large values of one set are associated with large values of the other (positive
correlation) and small values of one set are associated with large values of the other
(negative correlation) or whether values in both sets are unrelated (correlation near
zero). The correlation coefficient formula (r) is as follows:
Note:
n r = correlation coefficient
Σ ( xi − x)( y i − y ) n =
x, y =
number of variables
variables
r= i =1
s’ = modified standard deviation
(n − 1) s ' x s ' y x = mean of x variable
y = mean of y variable
Correlation analysis was calculated between the indices, physico-chemical,

and hydro-morphological parameters in the Zwalm River Basin data set to test the
relationships between variables. Correlation analysis is an essential statistical tool
which is effectively reliable for scientific data analysis and proper data results
interpretation.
Water quality assessment in Zwalm River Basin
Comparison of the results between the indices (BBI, ASPT, IBGN, and AQEM
EQC) with specified class ranges are shown in Figure 4. Results showed that the
AQEM-EQC for both stream types and the BBI showed that most of the sampling sites
in the Zwalm River Basin were moderately polluted. On the other hand, the ASPT
and IBGN showed mostly very bad/very poor quality. Of all the indices, only the BBI
recorded some sites into the quality class "very good".
There are no score systems for the BMWP, DISW, and Evenness because
these indices need to be compared to the reference condition for each stream type.
The BMWP scores ranged from 6-101 but because of the lack of a scoring system, the
index could not be evaluated. The recorded values for the DISW ranged from 0.088-
2.020. Studies showed that surface waters with DISW >3 were considered to be of
high quality (Shannon & Weaver 1949). Evenness registered values were 0.04-0.861.
The results obtained from the correlation analysis of the observed water
quality of the Zwalm River based on different indices are illustrated in Figure 5.
The results further revealed that the AQEM-EQC for both stream types have low
correlations with the other indices. Although low correlations have been attained, the
115
Figure 4. Comparison of the results between the indices with specified class ranges.
ASPT recorded the highest correlation with the AQEM-EQC-SDHS, in comparison

with the other indices. This is because the ASPT is based on sensitivity and this is
one of the metrics considered in calculating the AQEM EQC. On the other hand, the
IBGN recorded the highest correlation with the AQEM-EQC-SDLS, in comparison
with the other indices. The BBI showed high correlations with the IBGN, BMWP, and
ASPT. Based on the records for ASPT and IBGN, most of the sites were assigned to
“very bad” water quality class, therefore the results did not also represent the whole
water quality classes. Similarly, the IBGN has been practiced in France and Wallonia,
Belgium. The results assigned by the IBGN may be underestimated because usually
only one sensitive family leads to the assessment of the water quality. Because most
sensitive families in the system belong to the Plecoptera and Trichoptera, the IBGN
may not be sufficient in some stream types specifically in lowland streams (e.g.
Zwalm River Basin where only upstream brooks could expect these taxa). Since the
ASPT assigned all sampling sites as very poor (Fig. 5b) and the ASPT scores varied
for unpolluted streams of different typology, they must be evaluated relative to type-
specific reference sites. As studies state that surface waters have Evenness values
from 0 (low diversity) to 1 (high diversity), the results for DISW and Evenness have
almost the same trend. This can also be proven by the highest correlation coefficient
recorded between DISW and Evenness at r = 0.9 (Fig. 5). This is because DISW and
Evenness are based on the same metric (diversity).
116
LEGEND:
AQEM-EQC -Ecological Quality Class SDLS -Small Dutch Lowland Streams

BBI -Belgian Biotic Index BMWP -Biological Monitoring Working Party
SDHS -Small Dutch Hill Streams ASPT -Average Score Per taxon
IBGN -Indice Biologique Global Normalise DISW -Diversity index (Shannon-Wiener)
Figure 5. Correlation analysis of the different indices in the Zwalm River Basin.
L. T. Aragoncillo
117
Physico-chemical parameters
At all measuring points in the Zwalm River Basin, the major physico-
chemical parameters analyzed were evaluated based on the Belgian Water Quality
(WQ) Norms (Besluit Vlaamse Exekutieve 1987) and the correlation analyses among
the different physico-chemical parameters (Fig. 6 and 7).
In general, the results of the physico-chemical parameters presented in Figure

6a-g as evaluated based on the Belgian WQ norms showed that only pH (having
results ranging from 6.72-7.96) conformed to the norms (6.5-8.5) in all sampling
sites. However, in general, measured DO, COD, NO3-, NH4+, PO43-, Total P, SS,
and conductivity (Fig. 6a, b, c, d, f, g, and i) have slightly exceeded the limits of the
Belgian WQ Norms in some sampling sites. This shows that there was some input
of organic and nutrient pollution in the Zwalm River Basin. Nevertheless, most parts
of the rivers were still polluted by untreated urban wastewater discharges and by
diffused pollution originating from agricultural activities (Goethals & De Pauw 2001).
The negative correlation between COD and DO (Fig. 7) can be further

explained in Figure 6a-b which presents that the highest measured values for COD
were at the same sampling sites with the lowest DO measured values. These were the
sites that were mostly influenced by agricultural and household activities.
Figure 6a. D.O. (mg/L) assessment based on Belgian Water Quality norms.
Figure 6b. C.O.D (mg/L) assessment based on Belgian Water Quality norms.
Figure 6c. NO3 (mgN/L) assessment based on Belgian Water Quality norms.
119
Figure 6d. NH4+ (mgN/L) assessment based on Belgian Water Quality norms.
Figure 6e. Total N (mgN/L) assessment based on Belgian Water Quality norms.
Figure 6f. PO43- and Total P+ (mgP/L) assessment based on Belgian Water Quality norms.
Figure 6g. S.S. (mg/L) assessment based on Belgian Water Quality norms.
121
Sewer systems from the households undergo anaerobic process due to the
absence of oxygen, thus, enhancing NH4+ concentration in the Zwalm River Basin. It
was very evident in the sampling sites (30 and 40) where DO and NO3- concentrations
were at the lowest and NH4+ recorded the highest (Fig. 6a, c, and d). This was also
shown in the calculated positive correlation between DO and NO3- and negative
correlations between NH4+ with DO and NO3- (Fig. 7). This was also true for PO4 3-
and TotalP data sets. At sampling sites 30 & 40, the recorded value is 4.3 mgP/L in both
sites (Fig. 6f). Studies also stated that erosion from agricultural areas will result to high
suspended solids (SS), which is a significant source of high phosphorus concentrations
in the river water. This was depicted in the results where PO43- and TotalP are at the
highest and SS were also high (Fig. 6f and g). Positive correlations were also shown
between these physico-chemical parameters (Fig. 7).
Out of the 60 sampling sites, there were only four sites that exceeded 1,000
µS/cm Belgian WQ norm for conductivity. The conductivity of most freshwaters
ranged from 10-1,000 µS/cm but may have exceeded 1,000 µS/cm especially in
those receiving large quantities of agricultural run-off, which was evident in the four
mentioned sampling sites in the Zwalm River Basin.
Results showed that generally all the indices illustrated very low correlations
with all the physico-chemical parameters (Fig. 8). Thus, it can be deduced from the
results that there was no clear relationship between the indices and the physico-
chemical parameters. The BBI, on the other hand, had better correlations with the
physico-chemical parameters (Fig. 8). The positive correlation with DO and NO3-
concentrations means that at high DO and NO3- concentrations, high BBI values
can also be observed. Negative correlations were depicted between BBI with COD,
NH4+, Total N, PO43-, and Total P. Thus, at sampling sites with higher values of these
physico-chemical parameters and influenced by organic pollution from agricultural
and domestic activities, tolerant species can be found as depicted from BBI values.
Relationship between the indices and the hydro-morphological characteristics
The hydro-morphological characteristics of the river systems were captured

through the records of water velocity, width, water level, and the distance to the mouth.
To fully illustrate the relationship between the behavior of the biological communities
(macroinvertebrates) and the natural processes in a river system, correlation analysis
was undertaken between the chosen indices (BBI and EQC of the two stream types)
with the hydro-morphological characteristics. This relationship is tested through the RCC.
Results presented in Table 3 showed very low correlation between the indices and the
hydro-morphological data shows that there is no clear relationship between them.
122
LEGEND:
AQEM-EQC -Ecological Quality Class SDLS -Small Dutch Lowland Streams

BBI -Belgian Biotic Index BMWP -Biological Monitoring Working Party
SDHS -Small Dutch Hill Streams ASPT -Average Score Per taxon
IBGN -Indice Biologique Global Normalise DISW -Diversity index (ShannonWiener)
Figure 7. Correlation analysis of the different physico-chemical parameters in the Zwalm river basin.
L. T. Aragoncillo
Figure 8. Correlation analyses between indices and physico-chemical parameters a) Cond by BBI, b) TotalP by BBI,
c) NH4 by BBI, d) DO by BBI, e) Tempo by BBI, f) SS by BBI, g) TotalN by BBI, h) COD by BBI, i) pH by
BBI, j) PO4 by BBI, and k) NO3 by BBI.
123
Table 3. Correlation coefficients (r) between indices and hydro-morphological

characteristics.
Indices Hydro-morphological Characteristics

Water Width Water Distance from
velocity level the river mouth
BBI 0.18939 -0.17514 -0.16316 0.23488

AQEM EQC SDHS 0.16090 0.11926 -0.06946 -0.01299
AQEM EQC SDLS 0.10937 -0.29807 -0.17352 0.27702
Based on the results, the concept of RCC cannot be proven through the data sets in
the Zwalm River Basin because of the very low correlations and insufficient data available.
One of the problems encountered when analyzing the RCC of Zwalm River Basin was
that it did not take into account the strong influence of human impact on the continuum.
The original testing of the RCC was focused on natural, undisturbed systems, which was
unfortunately not the case of the Zwalm River Basin. Thus, the results presented may not
be sufficient to conclude the theory behind the RCC. When one wants to prove the proper
adaptation of the BBI and EQC in order to make them type-specific, this experiment has to
be undertaken in a more natural and pristine river basin.
Conclusion and Recommendations
This study presents the results of the application of the newly developed
AQEM assessment system to the Zwalm River Basin. Specifically, the study identified
and assessed the trends and relationship of the biological parameters (through indices
measurements via the AQEM assessment system) with the physico-chemical and
hydro-morphological parameters. Although low correlations were attained, the results
further revealed that there is a common pattern showing the relationship between the
indices and the physico-chemical parameters, specifically NH4+, DO, COD, total P,
PO43-, total N, and conductivity.
Further scientific studies are recommended to satisfy the following limitations

of the study:
1. The data set did not include a lot of sites with a diverse biological community and
good water quality which could test the results in the reference conditions.
2. The response of the indices to pollution sources did not show any linear relationship,
therefore it might be necessary to test non-linear relationship (e.g., unimodal or
other statistical analysis).
125
3. Some applied indices are too specific for the region for which they are developed,
thus, might not be applicable to the Zwalm River Basin.
4. The study is only limited to the application of the two stream types: Small Dutch
Hill Streams and Small Dutch Lowland Streams.
5. The level of identification (genus and family level) is not refined enough. Slight
differences in organic pollution and the impact of stream morphology degradation can
only be detected if species level is applied. Therefore, further studies should focus on
a more refined typology to apply the idea of the stressor-specific assessment which
will further identify the causes or impacts of different stressors on the community.
Future applicability in Laguna de Bay Watershed
In Laguna de Bay, water quality monitoring based on benthic

macroinvertebrates was only undertaken in the five regular stations of the lake.
Recently, there were already 17 river systems (Fig. 9) that were monitored by the
Laguna Lake Development Authority (LLDA) for physico-chemical and microbiological
parameters. Laguna de Bay Watershed has diverse river systems (Fig. 10), which
serves as potential venue for future applicability of this research study.
Research studies should include the following considerations:
1. Pilot applicability in the Laguna de Bay Basin because this can easily be tied-up
with existing research agenda of LLDA.
2. Expertise on taxonomic identification is available in LLDA.
3. Laguna de Bay Watershed possesses numerous river systems which could represent
diverse reference conditions, which are still natural and undisturbed. This could
serve as future study area to support the theory behind the RCC.
4. More replicate sites and samples should be established in order to improve statistical
analysis.
5. To improve assessment results, sampling sites should be investigated properly

(assessment of a more refined typology and specific-stressor assessment).
6. Level of taxonomic identification should be refined up to species level to improve

results of the assessment system.
Figure 9. Sampling locations of tributary rivers in Laguna de Bay undertaken by

LLDA.
7. Results generated from the study can be used as baseline information for future
activities such as proper watershed management and conservation.
Literature Cited
AQEM Consortium. 2002. Manual for the application of the AQEM system: A comprehensive
method to assess European streams using benthic macroinvertebrates, developed for the
purposed of the Water Framework Directive. Version 1.0.
Armitage, P.D., D. Moss, J.F. Wright & M.T. Furse. 1983. The performance of a new biological
water quality score system based on macroinvertebrates over a wide range of unpolluted
running-water sites. Water Res. 17, 333-347.
Besluit Vlaamse Exekutieve. 1987. Belgian Water Quality Norms.
Buffagani, A., J.L. Kemp, S. Erba, C. Belfiore, D. Hering, and O. Moog. 2001. A Europe-wide
system for assessing the quality of rivers using macroinvertebrates : The AQEM Project
and its importance for Southern Europe (with emphasis on Italy). Journal of Limnology. 60
(suppl. 1) 39-48.
Cairns, J. and Van der Schalie, W.H. 1980. Biological Monitoring: Part I – Early warning
127
Figure 10. River systems in Laguna de Bay Watershed.

systems. Water Research, 14: 1179-1196.
De Pauw, N. and H.A. Hawkes. 1983. Biological monitoring of river water quality. In River
water quality monitoring and control. W.J. Walley and S. Judd (Eds). Published by Aston
University, UK.
De Pauw, N. and Vanhooren, G. 1983. Method for biological quality assessment of water
course in Belgium. Hyrdobiolgia 100: 153-168.
European Union – Directive of the European parliament and of the council 2000/60/EC,
Establishing a framework for community action in the field of water policy.
Goethals, P. and De Pauw, N. 2001. Development of a concept for integrated ecological river
assessment in Flanders, Belgium. Journal of Limnology, 60, 7-16.
Hawkes, H.A. 1997. Origin and development of the Biological Monitoring Working Party
Score System. Birmingham, England.
Institut Belge de Normanlisation. 1984. Qualité biologique des cours d’eau: détermination
de l’indice biotique se basant sur les macro-invertbrates aquatiques, NBN T92-402. IBN.
Karr, J.R. 1981. Assessment of biotic integrity using fish communities. Fisheries, 6: 21-27.
Lucent Technology, Inc. 2002. S-Plus Professional edition version 6.1.2 release 1.
Metcalfe, J.L. 1989. Biological water quality assessment of running waters based on
macroinvertebrates communities: History and present status in Europe. Environmental
Pollution 60:139.
Rosenberg, D.M. and Resh, V.H. 1993. Introduction to freshwater biomonitoring and benthic
macroinvertebrates. In freshwater biomonitoring and benthic macroinvertebrates D.M.
Rosenberg and V.H. Resh (Eds.) Chapman and Hall, New York.
Shannon, C.E. and W. Weaver. 1949. The mathematical theory of communication. University
of Illinois Press. Urbana, Illinois.
Sladecek, V., H.A. Hawkes, J.S. Alabaster, I. Daubner, I. Nötlich, J.F.D. Solbé, and D. Uhlmanh.
1982. Biological examinations. In Examination of water pollution control.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). 1983. Results of the nationwide
urban runoff program. Vol. 1. Final Report. Office of Water, US EPA. Washington, DC.
US EPA. 1998. Stream corridor restoration: Principles, processes, and practices. Office of
Water, Washington, DC.
Vanhooren. 1989. Comparison of two biological index systems for water quality assessment
in Belgium. Comptes-rendus du Symposium Invertébrés de Belgique/ Verhand. Symp.
‘Invertebraten van Belgie. p. 429-435.
Vannote, R.L., Minshall, G. Wayne, K.W. Cummins, J.R. Sedell, and C.E. Cushing. 1980.The
River Continuum Concept, Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences.
Wiederholm, T. 1980. Use of benthos in lake monitoring. Journal of the Water Pollution
Federation, 52:537-547.
Whitton, B.A. 1979. Algae and higher plants as indicators of river pollution. In Biological
Indicators of Water. A. James and L. Evison (Eds.). John Wiley Chichester.
Wright, J.F., P.D. Armitage, and M.T. Furse. 1984. A preliminary classification of running water
sites in Great Britain based on macroinvertebrate species and the prediction of community
type using environmental data. Freshwater Biology 14:221-256.
Reviewers for this issue...
1. Community vulnerability assessment to environmental changes by Dr. Aurora A.

Sodela-Jose and Virginia R. Cardenas
For. Mayumi Ma. Q. Natividad

Mr. Eliseo M. Baltazar
Mr. Angelito B. Exconde
Engr. Cesar S. Siador
2. Tree species composition and physiognomy of Kinabuhayan River Riparian Zones,

Mt. Banahaw San Cristobal Protected Landscape by Amalia E. Almazol and Sofio
B. Quintana

For. Manolito U. Sy
Ms. Cristina A. Roxas
Dr. Daniel A. Lagunsad
3. Survey of marine turtle nesting sites in the Philippines by Angelita T. Viloria

Mr. Carlo C. Custodio
Dir. Jose C. Cabanayan, Jr.
4. Seed health testing of Bungalon (Avicennia marina) and Api-Api (A. officinalis) by
Cynthia C. Marquez and Veronica O. Sinohin

Dr. Honorato G. Palis
5. Comparison of water quality indices based on benthic macroinvertebrates in

the Zwalm River Basin, Belgium: Its potential applicability in Laguna de Bay
Watershed, Philippines by Lisette L. Talan-Aragoncillo
Ms. Jocelyn G. Sta Ana

Sylvatrop Editorial Board
Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau (ERDB)

Director Marcial C. Amaro, Jr. Dr. Lope A. Calanog
Executive Adviser Chair, Sylvatrop Editorial Board
Director, ERDB OIC Assistant Director, ERDB
Mr. Eliseo M. Baltazar

Managing Editor
Ms. Liberty E. Asis

Editor
Senior Science Research Specialist
Ms. Carmelita G. Reyes

Board Secretariat
Science Research Specialist II
Forest Management Bureau (FMB)

For. Mayumi Ma. Quintos-Natividad Ms. Remedios S. Evangelista
Official Representative For. Rebecca B. Aguda
Chief, Forest Economics Division Alternate Representatives

Environmental Management Bureau (EMB)

Ms. Ella S. Deocadiz Ms. Perseveranda-Fe J. Otico
Official Representative Alternate Representative
Chief, Research and Development Sr. Environmental Management
Division Specialist
Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau (PAWB)

Mr. Carlo C. Custodio Ms. Priscilla N. Calimag
Chief, Protected Area OIC Chief, EMS, Planning Div.
Community Mgt. Division
Ms. Marlynn M. Mendoza

Alternate Representative
Sr. Protected Area Specialist
Mines and Geosciences Bureau (MGB)
Yolanda Aguilar, Ph.D.
Official Representative
Land Management Bureau (LMB)

Atty. Fe T. Tuanda
Office of the Secretary

Mr. Pablo M. Ofrecia
Sr. Forest Management Specialist
Human Resource Management Service, DENR (HRMS)

Dr. Adeluisa G. Siapno Ms. Rosalina O. Enriquez
Director
National Mapping and Resources Information Authority (NAMRIA)

Mr. Jose C. Cabanayan, Jr. Rijaldia N. Santos, Ph.D.
Vice Chair, Sylvatrop Editorial Board Alternate Representative
Director, Remote Sensing Department Assistant Dircetor, Remote Sensing
Technologist

Laguna Lake Development Authority (LLDA)

Ms. Bileynnie P. Encarnacion
Biologist II
Sylvatrop, The Technical Journal of Philippine
Ecosystems and Natural Resources
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SYLVATROP

Levi F. Florido (2010)

Liberty E. Asis Adreana M. Santos

SYLVATROP, The Technical Journal of Philippine Ecosystems and Natural Resources is

Address checks to The Circulation Officer and contributions or inquiries to

SYLVATROP, The Technical Journal of Philippine Ecosystems and Natural Resources

Cover: Mt. Magdiwata species: Eria profusa (top left); Rhynchoglossum

Cover layout: Adreana M. Santos

Community vulnerability assessment

Vulnerability assessment of Caliraya Watershed was conducted to

A total of 361 randomly selected respondents from five direct-impact

High level of social vulnerability was due to lack of knowledge on

Keywords: vulnerability, environmental changes, community, watershed

vulnerability is perceivably brought about by poor management and

Overall assessment of the respondents showed that the community

Despite the reservation status of the watershed, people’s escalated activities

Other significant environmental changes are the considerable recession of

Under these conditions, a research gap in assessing the vulnerability of a

The study was conducted to determine the degree of impacts of

Anthropogenic human activities, increasing population, rapid industrialization

The concept of “vulnerability” is complex and dynamic. It evolved in a

Several research projects have been undertaken globally based on the

Pressure-State-Impact-Response Model in vulnerability

The model of Pressure-State-Response (PSR) is a useful framework to assess

The Pressure-State-Impact-Response (PSIR) approach has been developed

ISSUES AND VALUES

Pressures Vulnerability Indicators Condition

Figure 1. Vulnerability-Pressure-State-Impact-Risk-Response (VPSIRR) approach in

Materials and Methods

The study was conducted in Caliraya Watershed located on top of the

Sample and sampling technique

Respondents of the study were household members who have gained

Critical variables and levels of vulnerability were analyzed by computing the

Results and Discussion

Characteristics of the respondents

The respondents have a variety of occupations. Most of them are construction

More than three-fourths (79%) of the respondents had no access to

Perception on the factors contributing to changes in the biophysical

Table 1 shows that the respondents' shared perception on the impacts of

Perception of the micro/macro impacts of environmental changes

People’s shared perception of the micro and macro impacts of environmental

Table 2 shows that “high impact” to social and economic (mean=3.04) is

Degradation of the environment was identified as the change with the

Adjective Rating High

Driver/Pressure Very Low Low Fair High Very High Weighted

Adjective Rating High impact

In general, the respondents perceived a high impact of environmental

Degree of impacts of environmental changes

Table 3 shows the respondents’ perceived degrees of impact of environmental

Social and economic impacts

Social and economic impacts are indicators of negative conditions that

Respondents in the five barangays strongly felt the high impact of

Extent of community vulnerability

The indices of social vulnerability include: 1) tenure system; 2) basic needs of

Table 5 shows that income and livelihood, employment, and productivity

The biophysical vulnerability index is the extent of the people's knowledge

The very high biophysical vulnerability was perceivably brought about by

Overall assessment of community vulnerability

The most vulnerable individual(s) or groups were the community (77%),

The findings on the overall assessment of community vulnerability opened

Social Factors Strongly Disagree Fairly Agree Strongly Weighted

kaingin, shifting cultivation, and

Social Factors Strongly Disagree Fairly Agree Agree Strongly Weighted