274 Chapter 14

6.1 Paper-making

It is the ultimate cells that are used for paper-making and this requires the
cellulose to be as pure as possible and, if necessary, reduced in length. The
cellulose
fibres are suspended in a large volume of water in the ratio of 1% fibre to 99%
water,
where they swell and form a layer of pulp. The fibres are then filtered from the
suspension through a sieve or screen, mould or wire, to form a uniform layer of
drained pulp, i.e. a wet sheet of paper. In a process known as couching the screen
is
separated from the paper in such a manner as to leave the wet and therefore fragile
sheet unwrinkled and undisturbed. The couched paper is then placed in contact with
a
woven cloth or felt and pressed to remove excess water. The moist paper is removed
from the felt and the cohering mass of fibres with their gelatinised and
fibrillated
surfaces dried. When dried out in sheet form the flexible fibres, as a result of
hydrogen bonding, form a semi-rigid sheet of paper containing 8-10 layers of fibres
(Kirby, 1963; FAO, 1973).

More modern methods involve the use of mechanised Hollander beaters, an oval
tub in which the fibre (or rags) are circulated in water and lacerated by a roll of
metal
bars revolving over a metal or stone bed plate. The machine is so constructed that
the
slurry is kept in constant motion by both the backfall and the rotation of the
roll. The
cutting action can be regulated by the distance between the roll bars and the bed
plate,
and by the duration of the beating, thereby determining the strength and texture of
the
paper.

For handmade paper the paper maker dips his mould (screen stretched over a
frame) and deckle (a removable upper frame) into the vat to scoop up sufficient
pulp
or stuff for a sheet. Raising the mould and deckle to a horizontal position above
the
vat, it is deftly shaken from side to side to distribute the fibres evenly over the
mould.
The water drains through the wire mesh of the mould, leaving behind a sheet of
water-logged fibres. The deckle is then removed and the paper sheet laid with a
rocking motion (couched) onto a board or damp felt to dry. A pile of couched sheets
is built up to form a post of ca. 25 sheets, which is then forcefully pressed to
expel as
much water as possible. The sheets are then carefully removed from the felt and
dried; partial air-drying is followed by pressing between blotters under pressure
to
give a flat, smooth appearance.

In traditional oriental paper making very thin sheets of paper are prepared from
the pounded bast of Broussoneria spp., producing a particularly tough and strong
fibre, the sinewy, 5-10 cm long, 0.018 mm wide threads neither shrinking nor
expanding. In Japan the nagashizuki technique is used, where a viscous agent, neri,
prepared from Abelmoschus manihot, syn. Hibiscus manihot, is added. The mucilage
slows down the passage of water through the mould mesh, allowing the paper maker
more time to form the sheet, as wave after wave of fibre is laminated onto a
flexible
bamboo screen held in place by a mould and hinged deckle. The sheets arc then
couched to form a post without any intervening sheets of felt. Overnight the excess
Vegetable Fibres 275

water is slowly and gradually pressed out of the post, a procedure that bonds the
fibres into a strong paper. Finally, the moist sheets are separated from one
another
and dried in the sun.

The scale of paper making in the orient varies greatly. In Thailand, for example,
paper making is still very much a cottage indusiry, while in Japan large-scale
production uses 1000 tons of bast annually, much of which has to be imported. The
wood fibre from wasp’s nests, especially Polistes spp. (paper wasp) consisting of
macerated plant fibres mixed with fluid from the wasp, may also be used for making
hand-made paper. Such ‘wasp paper pulp’ is believed to have given the Chinese the
idea of how to make paper (Hunter, 1947; Schmidt and Stavisky, 1983; Turner and
Skiold, 1983; Indrbhakdi, 1989; Lewington, 1990).

Nowadays, in commercial paper production, the pulp is first fed onto a fast-
moving, wire-mesh screen, where it drains and the fibres become interlocked. Most
of
the remaining moisture is then removed and the sheets pressed flat by passing
through a series of heavy rollers and heated cylinders, with the resultant paper
emerging in a continuous roll. The quality of the paper very much depending on the
type of pulp or mixture of pulps used. Chemical pulp processes result in bleached,
fluffy, crumb-like particles suitable for all kinds of writing, printing and
drawing
papers. Mechanical processing produces a coarser pulp containing additional
material
to the cellulose, i.e. lignin, hemicellulose and resins. Such pulp is unsuitable
for high
quality paper and, in time, tends to turn yellow when exposed to heat and light
(Lewington, 1990).

High quality, speciality papers often contain a proportion of Stipa tenacissima

(esparto grass, alfa grass) or Lygeum spartum (albardine, false alfa) fibres
imported
from wild grasses in North Africa and from both wild and cultivated sources in
Spain. Two commercial varieties of esparto grass are recognised: (1) Long and very
fine leaves with regular diameter and great flexibility. They are used for cordage,
as
are the long fibres of albardine; and (2) Coarser, more variable leaves, which are
used
for paper-making, For paper-making the leaves are boiled under pressure in caustic
soda for 4-5 hr to yield 45-50% cellulose. Although the ultimate fibres are
extremely
short, 1.5 mm long and have the smallest diameter, 13um of all the commercial
paper-making fibres, they provide bulk and opacity to the paper, plus a unique
close
texture and smooth surface with excellent printing qualities, which is especially
valued for magazine artwork. Such paper also produces very clear water-marks; it
also expands less when wetted than other papers.

Although the stem fibres of Thymelaea hirsuta (shaggy sparrow wort) have
traditionally been used for cordage, their use for paper is a recent development.
In
1979 a paper mill was established in Israel for using the bast fibres to produce a
high
quality, hand-woven paper known as Mitnan paper. The paper is used primarily by
artists, but also by paper conservators for repairing documents and works or art.
The
xylem fibres are comparable to those of hardwoods but with a higher length:width
276 Chapter 14

ratio, yet lower than those from rice straw (El-Ghonemy et al., 1974; Schmidt and
Stavisky, 1983).

Very strong yet flexible papers are required for bank notes and some legal
documents. For such papers a mixture of hemp, cotton and flax fibres are used, all
of
which are longer than wood fibres and need far less processing, Cotton fibres,
after a
special beating treatment, are also used for blotting paper. The short fibres or
tow of
cotton, flax, hemp, ramie, Manila hemp (abacd), etc. are mainly used for textiles,
with a secondary use in paper-making. Manila hemp produces a very strong paper,
which is used for Manila envelopes, wrapping papers and stencils. Also, because the
fibres maintain their strength when wet, ca. 40% are used in the paper for tea
bags.
Amongst other uses, ramie and hemp are used for cigarette papers.

For the finishing of paper a number of additives are added to the pulp in order to
give the required colour, smoothness and opacity. They include size, dyes,
brighteners
and fillers (chiefly china clay or chalk). Although synthetic sizes are available,
a
number of plant-based starches, gums and resins are still being used as sizing
materials, including potato starch, guar gum from Cyamapsis tetragonolobus, locust
bean gum from Ceratonia siliqua, methyl cellulose derived from cellulose, rosin
(see
Chapter 12) and alginates (see Chapter 19) (Lewington, 1990).

7. FILLING FIBRES

Filling fibres were used in upholstery and for the stuffing of mattresses, pillows
and cushions, e.g. kapok and the seed floss of Asclepias spp. and Calotropis spp.,
leaf
fibres such as crin végétal, henequen, Copernicia prunifera and Yucca elata, the
bast
fibres of Asclepias spp. and Tillandsia usneoides (Spanish moss), and coir. In
recent
years fire regulations have restricted the use of such fibres for stuffing.

Kapok or kapoc fibres are interesting because of their lightness. They are the
silky fibres obtained from the fruit of Ceiba pentandra (silk cotton or kapok
tree). It
is a native of tropical America but now grown in commercial plantations, especially
in southern Asia, with ca. 90% of the world's production coming from Indonesia. The
fibres are ca. 2.5 cm long but too brittle for easy spinning, Formerly kapok was
used
to stuff mattresses, pillows and upholstery but because the fibres are highly
inflammable, its use for such purposes has declined in favour of less inflammable
and
mainly synthetic fibres demanded by fire-safety regulations, However, the fibres
are
very light and water-resistant, due to the walls of the air-filled cells being
impervious
to both air and water and are thus able to support 30 times their own weight in
water.
Kapok is consequently widely used in water-safety equipment; it is also used as a
thermal insulator. (Kirby, 1963; Robbins, 1995; Jarman, 1998).
In the past, both hemp tow and sunn hemp were widely used as oakum for
caulking the seams in boats, casks and barrels; coir too was used as an oakum
substitute. However, the development of steel and plastic boat hulls have limited
the
Vegetable Fibres 277

need for such caulking fibres to decking, while steel kegs have largely replaced
the
traditional wooden casks. Fibres are also used as a stiffening in plaster, and as a
general packing material (Hill, 1952).

8. BRUSH FIBRES

Vegetable fibres have been used for making brushes, brooms and whisks for
countless years, probably dating back to early man, although many countries, such
as
Italy, now rely almost entirely on synthetic fibres. Fibre suitability for brush
making
is governed by such factors as bend recovery, wear, loss of stiffness when wet. The
fibres must be very strong, stiff yet elastic and with a high degree of
flexibility,
capable of holding moisture if required, and able to withstand any scrubbing
action,
From a production point of view the available lengths are also important. There are
no international or EU Standards for quality, although quality can be tested using
a
"brushing" machine that simulates the brush in action on various surfaces
(P.W.Coward, 1997 pers. comm.).

The fibres used in the brush making industry today fall into three groups: (1) Leaf
fibres; (2) Palm fibres (petioles, ribs and seed fibres); and (3) Grass fibres
(root
fibres and culms). While there was a decline in the use of vegetable fibres in the
1970s and 80s, this trend has reversed during the 1990s with the replacement of the
higher quality fibres by cheaper imports. A number of vegetable fibres are used by
the
Hill Brush Company, the major Buropean broom and brush manufacturer and the
following examples illustrate how the fibre qualities are utilised.

The major leaf fibre is from Agave lophantha and is known as Mexican fibre,
istle or Tampico (named after the port from which it is exported). The Tampico
fibres
are noteworthy for being highly elastic and resistant to temperature changes, acids
and alkalis, and their fineness for polishing and grinding. They are also very
water
absorbent, retaining 65% more water than its polypropylene synthetic replacement,
as
well as being non-electrostatic, so that the brushes, which are mainly used for
grooming horses, remain dust free.

The major palm leaf fibres are: (1) Bahia bass from the leaf bases of Attalea
funifera, also known as Bahia piassava, piassalba or coquilla. The fibres have good
water retention, do not rot when damp and are very resistant to distortion. Bahia
bass
is used for the very best yard and street brooms, and in some industrial platform
brooms; (2) African bass is obtained from the retted petioles of Raphia hookeri;
that
exported from Sierra Leone is known as Sherbro bass or piassave. Sulima bass, also
from Sierra Leone, is no longer obtainable. The fibres do not lose their stiffness
when
wet and are used in road sweeping and farm brushes. Calabar bass from Nigeria is
currently unobtainable due to the local political situation; (3) Gumati is from the
leaf
sheaths of Arenga pinnata, syn. A. saccharifera. The fibres are softer and finer
than
Bahia bass but have similar excellent wearing and sweeping qualities. They are used
278 Chapter 14

for sweeping dry concrete floors; and (4) Bassine or palmyra from the leaf bases of
Borassus flabellifera (palmyra palm). The fibres are less resilient than the others
and

are used in the cheaper warehouse brooms and household brushes, and for scrubbing
brushes. The split midrib of B. flabellifera, known as split palmyra or split cane,
is

always used with other fibres, such as Sherbro bass, to enhance the stiffness and
add a
decorative colour contrast (Coward, 1997).

Coir or coir fibre is the name given to the twisted fibres obtained from the
mesocarp (husk) of the coconut and is the only seed fibre used in brush making. It
is
cheap and abundant but is liable to crush and distort; it is therefore used for the
cheaper brushes. The coconut husk was traditionally retted for 10 months and then
beaten with sticks to free the fibres, which were then hackled, i.e. combed, with a
steel comb. Now the unretted husks are passed through a defibering machine and
then retted for only 3 days. One tonne of nuts will yield ca. 150 kg coir. Coir is
unusual in that it does not retain smells. Its use, however, is declining as
synthetic
substitutes become cheaper and more readily available. Coir is also widely used for
matting, especially door mats, ropes, and traditionally for wrapping around bed-
springs in mattresses. The short fibres and dust are now widely used in
horticulture as
a peat substitute (Robbins, 1995; Coward, 1997).

The peeled and bleached rhizomes of the Mexican grass Muhlenbergia macroura,
syn. Epicampes macoura (zakaton) are known as Mexican whisk, broom or rice root;
it is regarded as the best material for brushes used for grooming animals,
otherwise it
is not very widely used. The culms of Miscanthus sorghum, syn. Miscanthidium
sorghum (broom grass) from Lesotho mixed with other fibres are used for the lighter
domestic and yard brooms. A native of eastern South Africa the upland stream banks
of Lesotho provide the environment that gives the fibres their resilience (Coward
1997).

During brush making the fibres are doubled over and retained in the wooden or
plastic brush back with a wire staple, an operation that is now carried out at
speeds up
to 300 tufts per minute using computer controlled production machines. It is
important, therefore, that the fibres do not break when doubled over at speed. Some
fibres, such as Bahia piassava and Sherbo piassava are first soaked in hot water in
order to make them more supple but most fibres, such as coir and gumati, are
punched dry (P.W.Coward, 1997 pers. comm. ).

Broom-corn from a cultivar of Sorghum bicolor is grown for its long, fibrous
panicle branches, which are made into brooms and brushes in many parts of the
world. A native of Manchuria and originally developed by the Chinese as broom
kaoling, broom-corn was cultivated in Europe during the mid 17th century and
introduced to America in 1797, and has since spread to Australia and South Africa.
The seed branches are long and straight, but with the rachis much shorter and
telescoped than in the grain sorghums. The inflorescences are harvested by cutting
the stem 15 cm below the node. The leaf sheath is then removed and the heads
threshed and spread out to dry in the open or in curing sheds, or they may be
ricked
Vegetable Fibres 279

and then threshed, although the former method causes less damage to the fine
fibres.
The heads are then bundled together into brooms (Hill, 1952; de Wet, 1990; Doggett,
1970; Rooney, 1996).

9. PLAITING AND BASKETRY

The range of raw materials used in the domestic and local economy for plaiting
and basketry include the stems of reeds, rushes, grasses, bamboo, rattan, willows,
etc.
as well as leaves and roots used either entire or split. They are either woven or
twisted
together into hats, sandals, mats and matting screens, chair seats, baskets, etc.
Despite the numerous plant materials available relatively few are of any commercial
importance. (Hill, 1952).

Of these, the Panama hats are of interest since there has been a revival in their
use in recent years. The hats, despite their name, are made in Ecuador, with over 1
million hats being exported annually The hats are characterised by their uniformity
and fineness of texture, their strength, durability, elasticity and water
resistance. They
are manufactured from the young leaves of Carludovica palmata (Panama hat paim,
toquilla), an almost stemless, palm-like shrub of the Cyclanthaceae from the
forests of
Central and South America. Six leaves are required per hat; they are cut before
they
unfold (Hill, 1952; Kirby, 1963; Mabberley, 1987).
Chapter 15

Phytochemicals

Phytochemicals are the plant’s chemical constituents, their type and quantity
being affected by environmental factors, e.g. climate and soil, also by the
karyotype
and stage of development, especially the former. Acorus calamus (sweet flag), for
example, contains B-asarone, which has halucinogenic and carcenogenic properties.
The Asian tetraploid contains 70-96% B-asarone, the European triploid contains less
than 15% while it is absent in the North American diploid (Schultes and Hofman,
1992; Motley, 1994).

The chemical products that can be obtained from plants include gums and resins,
tannins, dyestuffs, latexes and rubbers, lipids, essential oils, waxes, alcohols
and
other chemicals (Cook, 1995). However, there are some substances that cannot be
readily classified chemically and can be variously considered within several
different
groups. The toxic substance solanine, for example, present in the potato and other
members of the Solanaceae, can be considered for inclusion in four different
groups.
It has the physical properties of a saponin because it forms a semi-permanent froth
when shaken with water. Chemically it is a glycoside because it consists of the
sugar
solanose bound to the aglycone solanidine, the non-sugar part of the glycoside
molecule. During digestion the solanine molecule is broken up by enzymes and the
sugar is split off, leaving the solanidine. Because solanidine is a nitrogenous
organic
substance it conforms to the definition of an alkaloid. Furthermore, because part
of
the molecule of the alkaloid is a sterol group, it can also be classified as a
sterol. Asa
consequence solanine can be regarded as a steroidal, alkaloidal glycoside with the
properties of a saponin (Kingsbury, 1964, cited by Everist, 1972)!
282 Chapter 15
1. GUMS, MUCILAGES, RESINS AND OLEORESINS
11 Gums

The true gums are complex polysaccharides, i.e. carbohydrates derived from
monosaccharides, that either dissolve or swell in water to produce very vicious
colloidal solutions (sometimes incorrectly referred to as mucilages) that are
insoluble
in organic solvents. They form the dried plant exudates that are usually obtained
when the bark is cut or the plant otherwise injured. Carob bean or locust bean gum,
however, is obtained from the pods of Ceratonia siliqua and guar gum from the seeds
of the cultigen Cyamopsis tetragonolabus. The poor water solubility of carob bean
gum at temperatures below 85°C make the gum highly suitable for use in processed
foods where its thickening and texturising properties do not interrupt the cooking
process until high temperatures are reached. By way of contrast, the water
absorbing
properties of the readily water-soluble guar gum are used to control the viscosity
of
drilling muds. Mention should also be made of xanthan gum from the bacterial
fermentation of waste sugar products (see Chapter 18).

A selection of commercial gums that are widely used as thickening agents in the
food and pharmaceutical industries are shown in Table 18).

TABLE 18. A selection of commercial gums and their applications (Brouk, 1976;
Anderson, 1985; Sharp,
1990; Robbins, 1995; Mabberley, 1997)

Plant source Gum Application

Acacia senegal gum arabic see text below

Anogeissus latifolia gum ghatti substitute for gum arabic

Astracantha gummifera, gum sarcocolla stabiliser in food and pharmaceutical

industries;
syn. Astragalus gummifera formerly used for sizing textiles

Astracantha microcephala, gum tragacanth stabiliser in food and pharmaceutical

industries;
Syn. Astragalus microcephalus formerly sizing textiles

Ceratonia siliqua carob gum thickener and texturiser in processed foods

Cyamopsis tetragonolobus guar gum thickening agent in sauces, etc.; in drilling
mud,

flocculant in ore recovery, filtering and

suspension agent in coal mining, sizing agent,
also used in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, printing

inks, explosives

Larix occidentalis larch gum thickener, stabiliser, emulsifier and binder in

food
Sterculia urens karaya gum texturiser, stabiliser and binder in food;

colostomy bags, dental fixative, cosmetics, dyes,

inks
Phytochemicals 283
1.1.1 Gum Arabic

The gum from Acacia senegal known as gum arabic is one of the major gums of
commerce, Its history in the world market well illustrates the influence of
taxonomy
and the tightening of quality control in defining the product. It was originally
defined
as “the gummy exudate from Acacia senegal or its related species”, embracing 18
species. The group included the unrelated A. seyal (gum talha from East and West
Africa), A. xanthophloea (from East Africa) and A. karroo (from southern Africa).
All were traded on the international markets. This was despite the fact that the
Test
Article, evaluated as toxicologically safe as a food additive, refers solely to gum
from
A. senegal, The increasing international pressure towards tighter trade
specifications
and labelling regulations, identity and purity, has led to the Revised
Specification
(WHO. 1990a, b; FAQ, 1990) where gum arabic is defined as originating from A.
senegal or closely related species, with a specific optical rotation range of -26°
to -34°
and a Kjeldahl nitrogen content of 0.27-0.39%. This has limited the gums permitted
for the food trade and designated gum arabic to members of Acacia subgenus
Aculeiferum which, in addition to A. senegal, include A. laeta, A. mellifera, and
A.
polyacantha. Since the exudates from the other authorised species occur as small
tears and driblets, their collection is consequently extremely time-consuming, so
much so that the marketing of these gums is not commercially viable.

The other gums are now restricted to industrial use only. Nevertheless, acacia
gum ‘from A. senegal and other African species’ is still listed as official by the
British Pharmacopoeia Commission (1993) for use as a bulk-forming laxative and
pharmaceutical aid. While the US specification for the use of acacia gums in the
food
trade is restricted to gum arabic, the pharmaceutical specification permits the use
of
gum talha. The rational for the less stringent pharmaceutical specifications is
because
the small quantities of gum talha used are given under medical supervision
(Anderson, 1993).

In the Sudan, which is the largest exporter of gum arabic, the best grades are
known as Kordofan gum. The marketing of gum arabic is further discussed in
Chapter 7. High quality gum droplets should be of a light yellowish or rosy pink
colour, globular and 2-4 cm in diameter. Gum arabic is a polysaccharide, consisting
of D-galactose, D-glucuronic acid, arabinose and rhamnose.

Its use as the food additive E414 within the European Union is subject to a
rigorous specification regarding identity and purity. The gum is used in the food
industry to fix flavours and as an emulsifier. It is also used to prevent the
crystallisation of sugar in confectionery products, as a stabiliser in frozen dairy
products and as a foam stabiliser and clarifying agent in beer, while its viscosity
and
adhesive properties find use in bakery products. In the pharmaceutical industry gum
arabic is used as a stabiliser for emulsions, a binder and coating for tablets, and
as an
ingredient of cough drops and syrups. Gum arabic is also extensively used in folk
medicines as a soothing and softening agent. In cosmetics it finds use as an
adhesive
284 Chapter 15

for facial masks and powders, and to give a smooth feel to lotions. The poorer
grades
of gum arabic are used industrially in foundry sands to give the sand moulds
cohesive
strength, applied as an adhesive, as a protective colloid and safeguarding agent
for
inks, as a coatings for special papers, a sizing agent to give body to certain
fabrics, as
a sensitiser for lithographic plates and as an anti-corrosive coating for metals.
It is
also used in the manufacture of matches, paints, boot polish, ceramic pottery, etc.
(Anderson, 1985; Sharp, 1990; Cossalter, 1991; Robbins, 1995).

The tannin-containing gums with a positive rotation, i.e.. from A. karroo, A.

nilotica, A. seyal and A. xanthophloea, are considered to be carcinogenic and,
because they are now excluded for use in food, attract a lower price. These
factors,
together with the low price, currently at US$ 1000 tonne”, compared to US$ 5000
tonne” for gum arabic, is likely to kill the export trade in these gums (Anderson,
1993)

Although a prerequisite to selection and management for sustainable high yields,

the physiology of gum production, i.e. gummosis, is still not fully understood,
although the similarity in the structure of the arabinogalactans of the cell walls
and
the gum, suggests an arabinogalactan as a precursor of gum arabic (Anderson and
Dea, 1968). Although unconfirmed, gummosis appears to be stress induced, possibly
from the effects drought, natural or artificial wounds, parasite attacks, etc. The
problem is currently under investigation at the Université P. Sabatier, Toulouse.

While gummosis may be accompanied by some cell wall restructuring in response

to cell adaptation, it is now believed to be directly related to starch metabolism
within
A. senegal. Histological investigations have shown that there is a pectic trend in
the
tissues of both tapped and untapped trees. This tendency was also found in the
walls
of the phloem parenchyma of seedlings, i.e. before any possibility of gum
exudation.
Such findings suggest that there is an early preformation of gum in the tissues
plus a
genetic potential for gummosis. This would suggest that clonal reproduction rather
than seed from selected elite trees should be used for increasing plantation
yields.

The first conspicuous phase of gummosis is the thickening and chemical

modification in the cell walls of the phloem parenchyma, which is eventually
followed by a breakdown of the cell walls to form lacunae. An intermediate stage
involves the modification of the phloem and cortical parenchyma. Later the
sclerenchyma and fibres in the vicinity of the point of exudation are also
modified,
while the starch grains within the affected tissues appear to be progressively
assimilated into the amorphous mass of gum (Joseleau and Ullmann, 1985; Mouret,
1985).

1.2 Mucilages
Of plant origin, mucilages are polysaccharides consisting of a mixture of a
complex polyuronide, proteinaceous matter and cellulose, which swell in water and
have glue-like properties. Mild hydrolysis of the polyuronide yields xylose and
Phytochemicals 285

galactose residues and a more resistant fraction consisting of galacturonic acid

and
rhamnose. Within the plant the mucilages are mainly concerned with water
retention, e.g. the pentosan mucilages in succulent xerophytes help by increasing
the
water-holding capacity of the cells and reduce transpiration losses. The
mucilaginous
coating of many seeds aids dispersal and water uptake during germination (Tootill,
1984; Sharp, 1990; Walker, 1991; Gutterman, 1993).

Important mucilages include slippery elm from the dried inner bark of Ulmus
fulva (Indian moose, sweet elm), which is used as an invalid food and medicinally
as
a laxative and emollient of the gastro-intestinal tract. Also psillium from the
mucilaginous seeds of Plantago afra, syn. P. psyllium (psyllium plantago), used as
a
laxative, as an emollient for relieving skin irritations and cosmetically in face
masks
(Chiej, 1984; Mabey, 1988; Mabbetley, 1997). See also Chapter 19 regarding agars
from seaweeds.

1.3 Resins

Resins are high molecular weight materials consisting of highly polymerised

acids and natural substances mixed with terpene derivatives which soften at high
temperatures and are insoluble in water. The natural resins present in plants are
known as rosins (sce also Chapter 12), those from insects are shellacs (Chapter
11).

Hard and brittle, more or less translucent, non-volatile, with no particular odour
or taste, rosins are readily fusible and burn with a smoky flame, They are very
poor
conductors of electricity but become negatively charged when friction is applied.
Rosin consists of a complex mixture of diterpene resin acids, mainly monocarboxylic
acids related to abietic acid; they contain only a little, if any, essential oil.
They occur
naturally in pine oils and are also obtainable from tall oil, a by-product of the
kraft
paper industry (see Chapter 12). Rosin was formerly used for caulking ships’ hulls,
and is now widely used in various industrial applications, Rosins, because of their
low
oil content and ready solubility in alcohol, and are an important source of
varnishes;
they are also used in paints, inks, plastics, sizing, adhesives, fireworks, etc.

Rosin is generally modified by a combination of chemical reactions to form salts,

esters and maleic anhydride adducts, and as hydrogenated, disproportionated and
polymerised rosins, including their hydrogenation, esterification and adduct
formation, for use in lacquers, plasticisers and floatation agents. Plasticisers
are high
boiling point liquids incorporated into lacquers and various plastics such as PVC
in
order io preserve workability, flexibility, flow, and impact resistance, while
floatation
agents are used to form a moderately stable foam for the separation of ores in
aqueous
suspension. Esters obtained by the fusion of rosin with metal oxides to form
resinates
are used as a drier in paints, in plasticisers and floatation agents (Sharp, 1990;
Walker, 1991).

They are referred to commercially as hard resins. The most commercially

important of the hard resins are the copals and damars, Copals are those of recent
or
286 Chapter 15

fossil origin containing very little or no essential oils. The word is Spanish,
from the
Mexican Nahuati copali, for rosin. They yield a hard, elastic varnish, which is
much

used for exterior work. The true damars are distinguished by being insoluble in
chloral hydrate but completely soluble in alcohol and turpentine. The term is now
commercially applied to the hard rosins obtained by tapping members of the
Dipterocarpaceae, especially Shorea spp. and a few members of the Burseraceae, also
species of the conifer Agathis. The word damar or dammar is from the Malayan
damar for rosin and is applied to a torch made of decayed wood and bark mixed with
rosin, wrapped in leaves and bound with rattans. True damars are mainly used in

spirit varnishes and in the manufacture of cellulose nitrate (nitrocellulose)

lacquers.

Because of their lustre and light colour they are especially suitable for
varnishing
paper; they are also used for interior work and histology.

Other hard resins include the Focene fossil amber from now largely extinct
conifers, and is used mainly for jewellery and tobacco pipes, Also lacquers,
chiefly
from Rhus verniciflua (Chinese or Japanese lacquer tree), which are used as a
lacquer
and for candles. The acaroid resins from Xanthorrhoea spp. (blackboy) are used as
adhesives, metal lacquers, gold size, a mahogany stain and as a source of picric
acid.
Sandrac from Callitris spp. (Cypress pines) and Tetraclinis articulata (thuya) is
used
for varnishes, and mastic from Pistacia lentiscus (mastic) for varnishes, quelling
halitosis, as a filler for caries and as an ingredient of ouzo. Dragon’s blood from
American species of Dracaena and Asian species of Daemonorops are used in
varnishes and photo-engraving. Finally, the gum kinos from Eucalyptus spp. and
Pterocarpus spp. have astringent properties and are used medicinally.

Not all resins are obtained from woody species. Jalap, for example, is from the
dried tubers of Ipomoea purga, syn. Exogonium purga and, as its specific name
implies, is used as a purgative. The Aborigines of central Australia also extract a
hard
rosin from the highly inflammable spinifex grasses Plectrachne spp. and Triodia
spp.
for use as an adhesive. The rosin is secreted by the leaf epidermal cells and coats
the
leaf surface, and helps to reduce water losses (Hill, 1952; Tootill, 1984; Walter
and
Breckle, 1986; Long, 1994; Mabberley, 1997).

14 Oleoresins

In addition to resinous materials the oleoresins also contain considerable

quantities of essential oils (see Section 6) and are consequently more or less
liquid;
they are widely used in paints and varnishes. Among the oleoresins are the balsams,
elemis and turpentines. It should be noted, however, that the groups are not
clearly
distinguished and the terms are often confused. For example, the term ‘balsam’ is
often wrongly applied to quite different substances, such as the turpentine known
as
Canada balsam from Abies balsamea (balsam fir), and copaiba balsam obtained from
Copaifera spp.
Phytochemicals 287

A balsam is an oily or gummy exudation containing benzoic or cinnamic acids

and their corresponding esters; they are consequently highly aromatic, yielding
essential oils on distillation. Balsams are used pharmaceutically as a base for
cough
mixtures and other medications; they are also employed as fixatives in the perfume
industry. Examples include the balsam of Peru from Myroxylon balsamum var.
balsamum, and Tolu balsam from var. pareirae, syn. M. pareirae.

An elemi refers to various oil resins, e.g. Manila elemi from Canarium luzonicum
(Java almond). They are exuded as clear, pale liquids which tend to harden on
exposure to the atmosphere, although some may remain soft while others become
quite hard. According to Long (1994) the word is from the Spanish elimi, from the
Arabic elem, a dialectal variant of al-lami, the elemi. They are used in making
inks
and varnishes, and in the pharmaceutical and perfume industries,

The turpentines are light, volatile, essential oils obtained almost exclusively as
exudates or by distillation from conifers. They are viscous, honey-like liquids or
soft,
brittle solids, consisting of a mixture of cyclic terpene hydrocarbons, the chief
being
a-pinene. They are used as thinners for paints and varnishes, and as solvents. See
also Chapter 12 for further discussion (Hill, 1952; Sharp, 1990; Coppen and Hone,
1995; Mabberley, 1997).

2. LATEXES AND RUBBERS

A latex is the stable aqueous dispersion of a polymer. It is a term formerly

applied
to natural rubbers obtained from plant exudates, although these have now been
largely replaced by synthetic rubbers and polymers such as PVC and polyacrylates.
Latexes may be used for the direct manufacture of rubber and plastic goods by
dipping, moulding, spreading, electro-depositing and impressions. In green plants
the
latex is stored in laticifer cells, while in fungi, such as Lactarius spp. (milk
caps), the
latex is produced in a latex duct produced by anastomising hyphae.

A rubber (caoutchouc) is defined as a high molecular weight natural or synthetic

polymer which exhibits elasticity at room temperature. Gutta-percha is defined as a
natural occurring polymeric material, isomeric with rubber but having the trans
configuration. Interestingly, the formation of caoutchouc and gutta-percha appears
to
be mutually exclusive, with no plant yet found to produce both. Guita-percha is now
chiefly used as a rubber additive. Sources include Palaquium gutta and Payena
leerii
(Tootill, 1984; Sharp, 1990; Mabberley, 1997).

Commercial natural rubber, a cis-polyisoprene, is almost exclusively obtained

from clonal plantations of Hevea brasiliensis (Para rubber, Indian rubber,
caoutchouc), a native of the rain forests of the Amazon basin, but mainly
cultivated in
SE Asia. Of the nine rain forest Hevea species, the only other species yielding
acceptable quantities of latex are H. benthamiana and H. guianensis, the remainder
providing a valuable gene bank for a range of physiological attributes. Indian
rubber
288 Chapter 15

from Ficus elastica is a minor rubber source; the species is probably extinct in
the
wild. Former rubber sources, now superseded by Pari rubber, include Castilla
elastica (Panama rubber), a species apparently seen by Columbus, and Manihot
glaziovii (Ceara rubber).

Tapping Para rubber trees yields a latex containing 30-36% rubber. The latex is
then strained, diluted with water and coagulated with methanoic or ethanoic acids
to
yield a solid rubber. Vulcanisation is the process by which wear and tensile
strength
is increased by rendering the rubber less plastic and sticky. The necessary cross-
linking is achieved by heating with a vulcanisation agent, generally sulphur. The
process was discovered in 1839 by the US inventor Charles Goodyear while trying to
find a method of raising the melting point of rubber when rubber mixed with sulphur
accidentally dropped onto a hot stove. The method was patented in 1844 (Briicher,
1989; Sharp, 1990).

3. TANNINS

The tannins constitute a large class of amorphous, bitter and astringent plant
metabolites, which are often present in the bark, leaves, fruit, etc. They are
either rare
or only present in small quantities in the Lower Plants, comparatively rare in the
Monocotyledonae except for the Palmae, and common but scattered among the
Dicotyledonae. For example, they are absent or rare in the Cruciferae and Labiatae,
and invariably present in the Rosaceae and Guttiferae; large quantities are often
present among members of, for example, the Combretaceac and Rhizophoraceae.
Globally the most important tannin sources are the Anacardiaceae (Rhus spp. and
Schinopsis spp.), Combretaceae (Terminalia spp.), Leguminosae (Acacia spp.
especially A. mearnsii) and Rhizophoraceae (several genera).

Tannins are defined as complex polyhydric phenols with a molecular size and
shape permitting suitable solubility in water, They represent the condensed
products
of various phenols, the most important being pyrogallol and catechol. Depending on
whether they can by hydrolysed by acids or enzymes, or whether they condense the
components to polymers, tannins may be separated into hydrolysable tannins and
condensed tannins respectively. Such separation roughly corresponds to groups based
on gallic acid or flavone-related components, and are of some importance when
considering dietary tannins (see Chapter 8), Although tannins can act as a
deterrent
to herbivores, their major evolutionary role is believed to deter fungal and
bacterial
attack.

.Tannins can be extracted from the raw material by leaching with water or other
solvents and precipitated with lead ethanoate. The plant extracts will contain both
tannin and non-tannin components; clearly the higher the tannin content the more
suitable the plant source. The property of tannins to precipitate the gelatine and
other
proteins present is widely used in the tanning industry in the treatment of hides
to
Phytochemicals 289

make leather. Tannins are also used as mordants in the textile industry, to clarify
wine and beer, and as an astringent and styptic. Some tannins are dual purpose and
used for both dyeing and tanning, e.g. the dark extract known as catechu obtained
by
boiling heartwood chips of Acacia catechu (Lemmens and Wulijarni-Soetjipto, 1991;
Lemmeans ef al., 199i; Sharp, 1990).

31 Tanning

The skins used for tanning are composed of two outer epidermal layers and an
inner dermis or true skin, and of these it is the inner layer, consisting of ca.
98%
collagen (fibrous protein), that is important for leather. An essential property
for
tanning is a stereochemical resemblance between the tannin and the protein, without
which some polyphenol molecules are unsatisfactory, even though their molecular
weights are between 500 and 3000. If the gram molecular weights of the tannin
molecules are <300 there is, for some unknown reason, little or no reaction; if
>3000
they physically prevent a complete reaction along the polyphenol molecule.

For tanning purposes, the gallotannins and ellagitannins, such as those obtained
from members of the Fagaceae and Terminalia spp., are generally preferred as they
produce good quality leather with a pale tan that does not fade in the light. A
darker
tan can be obtained from proanthocyanidines, such as those obtained from Acacia
spp. (wattles) and members of the Rhizophoraceae. The tendency of such leathers to
fade can be lessened according to the tanning techniques used.

Tannage, the art of tanning hides and skins to make them flexible, dates back
into prehistory, with archaeological evidence from northern Germany dating from
10,000 BC and Pharaonic Egypt from 5000 BC. Commercial tanning requires the
hides to be trimmed and soaked, and for the removal of any remnants of flesh, after
which the hides are depilated by placing them in lime for ca. 7 days. Following
deliming and treatment with detergents, the hides are soaked in ever increasing
concentrations of tannin for ca. 3 weeks. The shoulder and belly leathers are then
trimmed, leaving the thicker and more valuable butt leather from the back and
sides.
The butts are halved into bends and receive further tanning for several weeks,
after
which they are cleaned and bleached. The leather is then treated with various oils
and
chemicals, rolled with a heavy cylinder, sponged with a wax coating and finally
dried. Two notable and possibly linked characteristics of leather are a decrease in
hydrophilic properties and a stability against rotting.

The discovery in 1851 of chrome tanning by impregnating the hide with

chromium salts was later followed by the development of synthetic tannins, such as
syntans, resin and aldehyde tannages, and has enabled the tanner to obtain greater
control over the tanning process. Chrome tanning, which is mainly used for upper
and light leathers, can be completed in a few days. By comparison, vegetable
tanning
can take 2 months or more and is mainly used for heavy leathers, e.g. for soles,
belts,
straps and mechanical leathers. The advantages of vegetable tannins is that they
290 Chapter 15

impart greater mouldability to the sole leathers, and also provide greater weight
and
better durability, whereas chrome leather has the advantage of being more heat-
proof,
stronger, more supple, elastic and water repellent, and easier to dye.

The use of synthetic tanning has increased rapidly since 1950, so much so that
world shipments of the three major tannins, from Acacia mearnsii (mimosa),
Castanea sativa (chestnut) and Schinopsis spp. (quebracho), fell from 440.8 x 10°
tons to 179.6 x 107 tons between 1950 and 1988. Although vegetable tannins still
remain an important commodity, the shift from vegetable to synthetic tannin
materials is likely to continue. Such a shift could also be environmentally
detrimental
since the waste products from chrome, aluminium and titanate tannins are heavy
pollutants, whereas the effluent from vegetable tannins are relatively readily
biodegradable and, provided the waste products are not dumped in excessive
quantities, less detrimental to the environment. Vegetable tannins also have the
advantage of being a renewable resource, although there is an unfortunate tendency
for the mangrove sources to be over-exploited. Obviously, there is an urgent need
for
their conservation for sustainable development (Lemmens and Wulijarni-Soetjipto,
1991).

4. DYESTUFFS

Dyestuffs are intensely coloured compounds, i.e. dyes, pigments, inks and stains,
that are applied to a substrate such as fibre, paper, cosmetics, hair, etc. in
order to
give colour. Plant dyestuffs are extracted by fermentation, boiling, or chemical
treatment of plant tissue. A definitive listing of dyestuffs and pigments is given
by
The Colour Index (Anonymous, 1971) and later supplements, providing information
on their chemical nature, commercial names, method of application, etc. The method
of application may be acid, basic, direct, disperse, azo, sulphur, vat, or fibre
reactive.
Gums, resins, such as gum damars and karaya gum and latexes (Section 1) are often
used as thickening agents for solutions of dyes used in paints and inks, while the
golden-yellow dye gum resin known as gamboge from Garcinia hanburyi, is used in
paints, varnishes, lacquers and inks (Lemmens ef al. (1991).

4.1 Natural Dyes and Pigments

The terms natural dyes, colorants, and pigments are used indiscriminately in both
commerce and the literature. They can be defined as follows: (1) Natural dyes or
dyestuffs, as distinct from natural colorants, are the natural plant (or animal)
products used to impart a desired colour to non-food materials such as textiles,
wood,
leather, etc. by a process known as dyeing; (2) Natural colorants are natural
products
which are incorporated into foodstuffs to provide an attractive colour to the final
product (see Chapter 9); and (3) Natural pigments are specific chemical compounds
Phytochemicals 291

that are responsible for the colour in living plant organs, e.g. the yellow pigment
crocein present in the stigmas (saffron) of Crocus sativus, and the green,
photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll in plant tissues, which are sometimes used for
colouring food. Pigments are used to impart colour to surfaces, plastics, inks,
etc.;
they may incidentally affect other properties of the substrate. Unlike dyestuffs,
which
operate at molecular level, pigments tend to be particulate and insoluble, and to
more
closely retain their identity on bonding to the substrate. Many insoluble organic
dyestuffs and inorganic metal compounds are also used as pigments (Sharp, 1990;
Green, 1995).

Some vegetable dyes, such as indigo from the leaves of Indigofera spp., madder
from the roots of Rubia tihctoria, and woad from the leaves of the herb Isatis
tinctoria, have been used for dyeing fabrics, implements and utensils for thousands
of
years. Indigo was recorded as being used in China as long ago as 4000 BC and in the
Sanskrit writings of 2000 BC. Indigo dyes from India are currently being used to
produce the ‘faded look’ to denim fabrics.

Woad was reputed to have been used by the Ancient Britons to daub their bodies.
Cloth first dyed blue with woad and then yellow with Reseda luteola (dyer’s rocket,
weld) yields Saxon green, a colour associated with Robin Hood and the Sherwood
Forest. Woad was cultivated in the English Fens until the beginning of the 20th
century, the last factory at Wisbech in Cambridgeshire being closed in 1914. The
dye
was allegedly used to dye policemen’s uniforms blue before being replaced by
cheaper
imports of indigo. Indigo gave a stronger and faster blue and was, in turn,
replaced by
cheaper synthetic dyes. The red and yellow dyes from Lawsonia inermis (henna) and
Punica granatum (pomegranate) respectively, were being used in Ancient Egypt to
dye leather in 2000 BC.

The first synthetic aniline dyes, ‘mauve’, was discovered in 1856 by the English
chemist W.H. Perkin while attempting to produce synthetic quinine from coal tar.
Indigotin, the active principal of indigo (see below) was first synthesised in
Germany
by Adolf von Bayer in 1880, but it was not until the end of the 19th century that
synthetic indigotin could be produced more cheaply than the natural product. This
led
to a rapid replacement of many vegetable dyes by the beginning of the 20th century,
although there has been a revival in recent years in the use of woad and other
natural
dyes by the traditional craft industries. For example, following a study at the
School
of Plant Sciences, University of Reading into the mediaeval techniques used for
indigo extraction and dyeing, a methodology is now being developed to enable
indigotin to be purified from future woad crops grown in the UK (Baker, 1964;
Green, 1995; Robbins, 1995; Mabberley, 1997; Wigmore, 2000).

The major classes of plant dyes and pigments recognised by Lemmens ef al.,
1991) are: (1) Chlorophyll, a generic term embracing a number of closely related
green pigments, e.g. chlorophyll a present in all autotrophic plants and algae,
chlorophyll b in the Chlorophyta and in land plants, chlorophyll a and b in the
Cyanobacteria and chlorophyll ¢ and d present in certain algae. They are sometimes
292 Chapter 15

used for colouring foods and beverages; (2) Carotenoids embrace a tremendous
variety of chemical structures exhibiting a range of yellow, orange, red and purple
colours. Examples of carotenoid pigments are the red colorant of annatto dye of
commerce from bixin present in the seed coats of Bixa orellana, yellow crocein from
the stigmas of Crocus sativus, the petals of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis and the
fruits of
Gardenia jasminoides. They also used for colouring foods and beverages. The non-
toxic annatto is insoluble in water but soluble in fats. Formerly used by the
Caribbean
Indians for anointing their bodies, it is now finds similar use as one of the
colouring

agents of lipstick; (3) Flavonoid pigments such as morin from several species in
the
Moraceae, including the yellow-khaki fustic from the heartwood of Maclura
tinctoria, syn. Chlorophora tinctoria, and rutin from the flowers of the legume
Sophora japonica (pagoda tree). During tanning the derivatives of flavonoid tannins

present often impart a particular colour to the leather; and (4) Quinones, which

usually produce a yellow to red colour. They include the black to red to blonde
naphthaquinone dye lawsone from the dried leaves of Lawsonia inermis, and the
anthraquinones present in members of the Rubiaceae, e.g. the orange-red alizarin
and

purpurin from Rubia tinctoria (madder), and the Turkey red morindin from the root

bark of Morinda citrifolia (Indian mulberry). The glandular young shoots and leaves
of Cordeauxia edulis (jicid, ye’eb) contain cordeauxiaquinone, an orange to magenta
naphthaquinone-derived pigment which forms a fast and insoluble combination with

many metals. The dye is also noteworthy in being the only known naphthaquinone
found in the Leguminosae (Lister ef al., 1955; Baker, 1964; Purseglove, 1987; Booth
and Wickens, 1988; Sharp, 1990; Lemmens ef al., 1991; Green, 1995).

There are also other important dyes that do not conform to the above groupings,
including the dark blue indigo dyes extracted from the leaves of Indigofera spp. by
the hydrolysis of the colourless indican glucoside to indoxyl and its subsequent
oxidation to indigotin, which is also present in woad. Indigo is unusual in being
one
of the few natural dyestuffs whose fastness is not improved by a mordant process.

The fiery red crystalline brazilwood dye brazilein is produced by the oxidation of
the whitish, water-soluble phenolic compound brazilin present in the heartwoods of
Caesalpinia echinata (Bahia wood, Brazilian redwood), C. violacea, syn. C.
brasiliensis, Haematoxylum spp. (logwood, campeachy wood, campeche), etc. from
South America. The heartwood of H. campechianum, for example, contains the
colourless haematoxylin, which is then rapidly oxidised to produce the violet-blue
haematoxein, known commercially as haematein. The brazilwood dye was originally
obtained from the Asian Caesalpinia sappan. Following the discovery of the
Americas, the name was transferred to brazilwood dyes from the more productive
South American species. It was because of the large quantities of the dye (pau
brasil)
then being exported to Portugal that Brazil owes its name. The dye derives its name
from the Middle English brasil, from the Old French bresil, ‘red-dye wood’,
probably
from the German brese, ‘burning coals’ (Long, 1994; Green, 1995; Mabberley,
1997).
Phytochemicals 293
41.1 Dyeing Textiles

Several basic types of vegetable dyes are used for dyeing textiles. These are: (1)
Direct dyes forming hydrogen bonds with the hydroxyl groups of the fibres. Dyeing
is direct from an aqueous solution of the dyestuff. Such dyes are not fast, e.g.
the
yellow curcumin colorant and former dyestuff from the tubers of Curcuma longa,
syn. C. domestica (curcumin, tumeric), and used as a food colorant. Synthetic
direct
dyes are now available, of which the azo dyes are probably the most important; (2)
Acid dyes are dyestuffs containing an aromatic chromophoric group and a group
conferring solubility in water, generally with the SO;H group as its sodium salt.
They
are relatively simple in application. Examples are to be found among the flavonoid
pigments; (3) Basic or catonic dyes are dyestuffs containing ionic species. Their
chlorides are generally water soluble organic salts, oleates or stearates soluble
in
organic solvents. They are used in printing inks, forming insoluble salts with
heteropolyanions; they have a high fastness and brilliant shades. They are also
used
in paints and wallpaper pigment. A mordant is usually required when used with
natural fibres; (4) Vat dyes are regenerated in the fibres by a redox process, ie.
oxidation reduction. The water-insoluble dyestuff becomes water-soluble on
reduction
in an alkaline solution. The insoluble dyestuff is precipitated within the fibre on
re-
oxidation, generally in the atmosphere. Such dyes, e.g. indigo, often display
excellent
fastness to light and washing; (5) Disperse dyes form a group of water-insoluble
dyes
which are generally used from an aqueous suspension, the dyestuffs having a high
affinity for the fibre, especially nylon and other synthetic fibres. The main types
are
anthraquinone, e.g. alizarin, and synthetic aminomonoazo compounds; and (6)
Mordant dyes are used to dye textiles that have been treated with a mordant. Such
dyes can be very fast, e.g. alizarin and morindin. Vegetable tannins are sometimes
used in alizarin stain complexes in order to prevent white-coloured portions of a
textile from being dyed differently by binding the stain that is lost from the
coloured
parts.

The majority of plant dyestuffs fade rapidly when exposed to sunlight or

detergents, consequently the importance of a dye is judged by the fasiness of the
colour. A mordant is used to increase the adherence of the dye to the fabric. They
are
usually salts of aluminium, iron, tin, or chromium, and form a chemical link
between
the dye and fibre molecules; some will affect the colour of the dye. There are also
some plant products that can also be used as aluminium mordants, e.g. the leaves
and
bark of Symplocos spp. (Hill, 1952; Sharp, 1990; Lemmens et al, 1991; Walker,
1991; Green, 1995; Mabberley, 1997).

42 Inks

In inks the colouring matter is dissolved or dispersed in a solvent or carrier, and

on drying the colouring matter is bonded with the substrate. Writing ink usually
294 Chapter 15

consists of a fluid tannin extract with the addition of solutions of iron salts,
with
which it reacts to form dark blue or greenish-black compounds. The galls from the
twigs of Quercus pubescens, syn. Q. infectoria (Aleppo oak), contain 36-58% tannin
and were an early and important source of tannin inks. The inks used in ball-point

pens are highly concentrated dyes in a non-volatile solvent, Interestingly, the

arils of
the seeds of Acacia cowleana contain a powerful solvent of ball-point ink and may
have a future industrial or domestic application. Coloured inks are prepared from
natural dyestuffs or analine dyes in combination with alum, water and a gum, e.g.
gum arabic. Examples include the befalain dyc from the berries of Phytolacca
americana (inkberry) and brazilwood, the red ink of the latter being especially
noteworthy for the presence of both tannin and a colouring agent. The carbon inks,
prepared from charcoal, gums and varnish, are known from Chinese writings as early
as least 2600 BC, and from the Egyptian papyruses of 2400 BC. Like paint, they
differ from other inks in remaining on the paper surface, unlike the tannin inks
which

combine chemically with the paper fibres. Chinese or India ink is a virtually
permanent ink made from carbon black, lamp black, or soot from burning pine wood
or vegetable oils, such as sesame or tung oils, mixed with a sizing agent, such as
glue
or gum arabic. Printing inks consist of carbon in combination with rosin, gum
arabic,
a drying oil, such as linseed and tung oils, fractionated palm and coconut oils, a
chemical drier and a soap. Large quantities of alginates (see Chapter 19) are now
used for sizing and the thickening of printing inks. For lithographic printing the

application of gum to relevant parts of the printing plate makes the parts more
receptive to the printing ink, while areas free of gum will repel the ink (Hill,
1952;
Lewington, 1990; Sharp, 1990; Walker, 1991; Thomson, 1992; Mabberley, 1997).
The use of woad is currently under investigation at Bristol University for use in
inkjet
printers.

4.3 Stains

Stains are specific dyes that are used to treat specific organs or chemical
substances in biological specimens so that their identity may be more clearly
visible,
as in microscopic examinations, e.g. haematoxylin, which continues to be
successfully used for histological staining. Other well-known examples are iodine,
a
product of the seaweed industry and used to highlight the presence of starch, also
litmus obtained from Roccella spp. following the oxidation of the lichens in the
presence of NH; and is used as an indicator of acidity (Sharp, 1990, Green, 1995;
Mabberley, 1997).

In Somalia the teeth and bones of goats browsing the glandular shoots of
Cordeauxia edulis are stained an orange to red by the cordeauxiaquinone present,
suggesting the possibility of a histological use. It has been suggested that the
pigment
may directly or indirectly act in stimulating the haemopoetic tissue to produce
erythrocytes (Gutale and Ahmed, 1984; Booth and Wickens, 1988).
Phytochemicals 295
5. LIPIDS

Natural substances of a fat-like nature are known as lipids, although the exact
definition is somewhat variable. Strictly they fatty acids or their derivatives,
that are
insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. They include simple fats and
waxes, also the phospholipids and cerebrisides (largely present in nerve sheaths).
Many would also consider such compounds as sterols (phytosterols) and squalenes to
be lipids. The seeds of the grain amaranths (Amaranthus spp.), for example, contain
7-8% fat (oil), of which 4-11% of the total oil fraction is the acrylic triterpene
squalene. Both squalene and the more stable saturated hydrocarbon squalane act as
non-toxic vehicles for cosmetics, for promoting the absorption of drugs applied to
the
skin, and as a lubricant for the computer industry (Sharp, 1990; Jain and Sutarmno,
1996).

Fatty oils are produced in many plants; they are usually stored in the seeds but
may also be found in other organs. Most oils function as energy storage compounds
and are especially useful during seed germination. In the past vegetable oils and
fats
or tallows have mainly been utilised for food purposes, with many also finding
applications as lubricants and greases, illuminants and candles, and in soaps and
paints. Even in this age of petrochemicals fats and oils still have a major role in
non-
food applications. Although water-based latex systems have now replaced much of
the traditional vegetable oil-based paint market, approximately one third of the
binders used are still based on vegetable oils or their derivatives. Large
quantities of
fatty acids derived from vegetable sources are also required as surfactants, ie.
soluble, surface-active agents, such as detergents and soaps, capable of altering
the
interfacial tension of water and other liquids or solids {Princen, 1983; Walker,
1991).

The term ‘oil’ is applied to those glycerides that are liquid at 20°C. Four classes
of oils are recognised: (1) Drying oils which, on exposure to the atmosphere, are
oxidised to form thin, elastic films of dry resin. They are of great importance to
the
paint and varnish industries. The oils consist mainly of unsaturated triglycerides
and
unsaturated hydrocarbon polymers; (2) Semi-drying oils can only slowly absorb a
limited amount of oxygen and will only form a soft film after long exposure to the
atmosphere. Some of these oils are edible, others are used as illuminants, or in
the
manufacture of soap and candles; (3) Non-drying oils remain liquid at ordinary
temperatures and do not form a film. They are edible and, in addition to the food
industry, can be used in soaps and lubricants; and (4) Fats and tallows are solid
(tallows) or semisolid at 20°C. They are edible and also used in the manufacture of
soaps and candles. Examples of these four classes are shown in Table 19.

Fatty oils (fixed oils), as distinct from volatile oils (see Section 6), do not
evaporate or become volatile, neither can they be distilled without being
decomposed.
They are also bland, insoluble in water but soluble in various organic solvents,
unlike
‘fats’ which are solid at 20°C. Chemically they are close to animal fats,
consisting of
triacylglycerols, esters of glycerol (glycerin) and three long-chain carboxylic
acids or
296 Chapter 15

fatty acids, with oleic, palmitic and stearic acids predominating, They may be
iriesters of either the same fatty acid, such as palmitic, stearic, oleic, and
linolenic
acids.

TABLE 19. Examples of the four classes of vegetable oils and their sources’

Non-drying oils Semi-drying oils Non-drying oils Fats and tallows

tung (Aleurites spp.); rape or colza (Brassica groundnut (Arachis murumura
saffseed (Carthamus napus); cottonseed hypogea); olive (Olea (Astrocaryum
tinctoria); soya bean (Gossypium spp.); europaea subsp. murumury); coconut
(Glycine max), Niger sunflower (Helianthus europaea); castor (Cocos nucifera); palm
seed (Guizotia annuus); sesame {Ricinus communis) and palm kernel (Elaeis
abyssinica); oiticica (Sesamum orientale); guineensis); cohune
(Licania sclerophylla), corn (Zea mays) (Orbignya cohune),
linseed (Linum babassu (O. oleifera and
usitatissimumy; perilla O. phalerata); Chinese
(Perilla frutescens) vegetable tallow Sepiunt

sebiferum); nicuri or
macauba (Syagrus
coronata); cocoa butter
{Theobroma cacao);
shea butter (Vitellaria

paradoxa)

Two classes of fatty acids are recognised: (1) Saturated fatty acids, ie. with
molecules to which no further atoms may be added. They have the general formula
C,H,,0,, e.g. palmitic and stearic acids with methanoic acid (formic acid) from
Urtica spp. as the lowest members of the series; and (2) Unsaturated fatty acids
include the monounsaturated fatty acids, or oleic acid series, with one double bond
and the general formula C,H, ,0,, and the diunsaturated fatty acids, or linolenic
acid series, with two double bonds and the general formula CHa, 405, etc. The lower
members of the series are liquids, soluble in water and volatile in steam. As the
number of carbon atoms increases, the melting points rise and the acids form
solids,
insoluble in water and soluble in organic solvents. They occur mainly as oils. The
only exceptions in major commercial seed oils are linseed oil (methyl-interrupted
triene), tung oil (conjugated triene), castor oil (hydroxy fatty acid) and high-
erucic
rapeseed oil (long-chain fatty acid). High-erucic rapeseed is now relatively scarce
due
to the increasing requirement by the food industry for low-erucic acid rapeseed.
The
major fatty acids available commercially are shown in Table 20, and their
application
in Table 21.
Phytochemicals

297

TABLE 20. Major commercial fatty acids from vegetable fats and oils (Princen, 1983;
Appleqvist (1989),

MAFF, 19942)

Class C, content ~~ Name Plant source

saturated 8.0 octanoic Cocos nucifera (coconut), Cuphea spp., Elaeis
(caprylic) guineensis (oil palm)

saturated 10.0 capric Cocos nucifera, Cuphea spp., Elaels guineensis

saturated 12.0 lauric Cocos nucifera, Coriandrum sativum (coriander),

Cuphea spp., Elaeis guineensis

saturated 14.0 myristic Cocos nucifera, Cuphea spp., Gossypium spp.

(cottonseed)

saturated 16.0 palmitic Elaeis guineensis, Gossypium spp.

monounsaturated 16.1 palmitoleic ~~ Gossypium spp.

saturated 18.0 stearic Theobroma cacao (cocoa)

monounsaturated 18.1 oleic Brassica napus (rapeseed), Euphorbia spp.,

Helianthus annuus (sunflower), Olea europaea
subsp. europea (olive)

18.1 petroseienic ~~ Coriandrum sativum (coriander), Daucus carota

(carrot), Petroselenium crispum (parsley)

hydroxy 18.1 ricinoleic Lesquerella spp., Ricinus communis (castor)

diunsaturated 18.2 linoleic Glycine max (soya), Guizotia abyssinica (Niger

seed), Helianthus annuus (sunflower), Zea mays
(maize)

multiunsaturated 18.3 o-linolenic ~~ Aleurites spp. (tung), Camelina sativa

(cameling),
Linum usitatissimam (linseed)

multiunsaturated 18.31 y-linolenic Borago officinalis (borage), Oenothera biennis

(evening primrose)

saturated 20.0 arachidic Arachis hypogea (groundnut), Limnanthes alba

{meadowfoam)

monounsaturated 20.1 gadoleic Brassica napus (rapeseed)

saturated 22.0 behenic Moringa oleifera (moringa)

diunsaturated 222 erucic Brassica hirta (mustard), B. napus (rapeseed),

Crambe hispanica (crambe), Lunaria annua
(honesty)
saturated 24.0 lignoceric Arachis hypogea

monounsaturated 24.1 nervonic Lunaria annua

298 Chapter 15

TABLE 21. Examples of characteristic fatty acids and their use and potential use
(compiled from Rexen
and Munck, 1984; MAFF, 1994a; Mabberley, 1997)

Characteristic acid Use and potential use

octanoic (caprylic) fuel, detergents, soaps, potential synthetic resins and Cy,
compounds in surfactants

capric fuel, detergents, soaps, potential synthetic resins and Cy, compounds in
surfactants
laurie fuel, detergents, soaps, potential synthetic resins and Cy compounds in
surfactants
petroselenic detergents, plastics

myristic fuel, detergents, soaps, potential synthetic resins and Cy, compounds in
surfactants
palmitic food

palmitoleic food

stearic food

oleic food. lubricants

linoleic food, alkyd paints, varnishes, linoleic acid

a-linolenic linoleum, paints, varnishes

y-linolenic pharmaceuticals

ricinoleic grease, lubricants, paints, varnishes, plasticisers, dyes

arachidic food, lubricants, cosmetics

gadoleic food

behenic salad oils, artist’s paints, soaps

erucic nylons, erucamide, perfumes, cosmetics

lignoceric soaps, detergents

nervonic lubricants

The commonest fatty acids found in plants are palmitic and oleic acids, with
linolenic acid predominant in specialised tissues, e.g. chloroplasts. Other
important
fatty acids are lauric, linoleic, myristic, palmitoleic and stearic acids. Both the
linolenic and linoleic acids can be synthesised by plants but not by animals. They
are
the precursors of prostaglandins and are an essential requirement for animal diets;
they are consequently known as essential fatty acids.

The fatty acids are loosely grouped according to their carbon content as being
short-chain, e.g. octanoic acid (caprylic acid), medium-chain, e.g. palmitic acid,
and
long-chain, e.g. erucic acid. The short- to medium-chain fatty acids are required
for
the production of soaps, detergents and emulsifiers; they are also used for
lubricants
and other materials. The soap and detergent industries in particular are heavily
dependent upon coconut oil for their lauric acid requirements. Medium-chain fatty
acids (Cis.5) are used in the manufacture of plastics, fabric softeners, adhesives,
and
coatings, i.e. films forming the plates of a capacitor in the electrical industry.

Long-chain fatty acids (Cy) are largely responsible for the physical properties of
complex lipids, being able to withstand considerable heat before breaking down.
They
are consequently suitable as high temperature, non-foaming lubricants for jet
engines,
etc. Until recently sperm whale oil from Physetes catodon (sperm whale) was the
sole
Phytochemicals 299

commercial source of liquid wax esters for high-performance lubricants, cosmetics,

etc. Jojoba oil from the seeds of Simmondsia chinensis is now a potential
alternative,
containing virtually 100% liquid wax ester without any triglycerides, whereas sperm
whale oil contains up to 25%. Despite the need to conserve the sperm whale, jojoba
oil is only commercially viable for use in cosmetics and other high value products.

The major commercial source of commercial hydroxy fatty acids (the prefix
hydroxy denotes the presence of a hydroxyl (-OH) group) is ricinoleic acid from
castor oil seed, with Lesquerella spp. (bladder pod) from southern USA and northern
Mexico as potential alternatives. Epoxy fatty acids (the prefix ‘epoxy’ indicates
the
presence of an oxygen bridge across an alkene bond) are used extensively in the
coatings and adhesive industries. They are largely derived from petrochemicals,
although some 45-90 x 10° kg of linsced and soya bean oils are also converted
annually, Other potential sources are Vernonia anthelmintica (ironweed), V.
galamensis and Siokesia laevis (Stokes’ aster) (Hill, 1952; Princen, 1983; Tootill,
1984; Perdue et al., 1986; Horrobin, 1990b; Sharp, 1990).

6. ESSENTIAL OILS

Essential oils are more or less volatile oils which are mainly formed in
specialised
glands, rarely in ducts, and are extracted from plants. They occur throughout the
plant kingdom, among both higher and lower plants. Among the natural exudates
(see Section 1.4) are the balsams, elemis, and gum resins, including oleogum resins
and oleoresins. They are called ‘essential’ because the oils are believed to
possess the
very essence of colour and flavour. They were certainly used for aromatics and
perfumes by the early Egyptians and Hebrews, amongst others, and were recorded by
Theophrastus ‘On Odours’ in ca. 288-287 BC.

Essential oils are secondary metabolites consisting mostly of terpenoids, also as

aliphatic and aromatic esters, phenolics and substituted benzene hydrocarbons, They
are usually liquid but can also be solid (orris) or semisolid (rose) depending on
the
temperature, Essential oils are solid in pure alcohol, fats and oils but insoluble
in
water and, on evaporation following exposure to the atmosphere, they leave no oily
residue (Hill, 1952; Walker, 1991; Lawrence, 1995; Robbins, 1995; Scarborough,
1996).

The function of essential oils is either to attract pollinating insects or to repel

hostile insects and animals; sometimes their function is allelopathic. A number
have
antiseptic, insecticidal, fungicidal and bactericidal properties. Insecticidal
activities
have been found in the steam volatile fraction of cedarwood oil obtained from the
heartwood of Juniperus recurva (Himalayan weeping juniper) of Nepal, of which the
insecticidal components are thujopene and 8-cedren-13-ol. 1t has also been found
that Reticulitermes flavipes (termites) are unable to survive on sawdust from J.
virginiana (pencil or eastern red cedar), nor on filter paper treated with a
pentane
300 Chapter 15

extract of cedarwood oil. Twelve other US juniper species used for post timbers are
also known to contain similar natural wood preservatives. Essential oils with
fungicidal properties from Cymbopogon flexuosus (Malabar oil grass), Sentalum
album (sandalwood), Vetivera zizanioides (vetiver grass) and in particular
Trachyspermum ammi (ajowan), have been shown to inhibit growth of Microsporum
gypseum, Trichophyton equinum and T. rubrum, which are among the pathogenic
fungi responsible for ringworm (Dikshit and Husain, 1984; Adams, 1991).

Essential oils may also be used as food and drink additives, in cosmetics,
perfumes, incense, soaps, toothpastes, shampoos, deodorants, detergents, cleaning
agents, pharmaceuticals, aromatherapy and insecticides, e.g. camphor from
Cinnamomum camphora, which is also used in the manufacture of celluloid and
explosives, and is now largely obtained from synthetic sources. Perhaps rather
surprising to the western world where cloves, from Syzygium aromaticum, are used
for flavouring food, in Indonesia they are used in the manufacture of a clove-
flavoured cigarette known as ‘kretek’ (Hill, 1952; Sharp, 1990; Linskens and
Jackson, 1991b; Walker, 1991; Lawless, 1992; Coppen, 1995; Robbins, 1995).

Other examples of plants yielding essential oils that are used as sources of
chemical isolates for derivative manufacture are Chinese sassafras oil from
Cinnamomum camphora (also a source of camphor) and Brazilian sassafras oil from
Aniba pretiosa, syn. Ocotea pretiosa, the oils yielding safrole, which is used to
manufacture heliotropin, a valuable flavour and fragrance compound; they also yield
piperonal butoxide, an important ingredient of pyrethoid insecticides. Previously
unexploited Piper spp. are also a potential source of safrole. Originally flavours
and
fragrances were obtained almost entirely from the plant kingdom, very few being of
animal origin. While many are now products of today’s petrochemical industry, the
building blocks for many of these synthetic compounds are of plant origin. For
example, the a- and B-pinenes from turpentine lack flavour and fragrance but can be
converted into more desirable derivatives (Coppen, 1995).

There are approximately 100 commercially marketable essential oils that are
derived from plants, of which those from Citrus spp. account for about one third of
the world’s production, the remaining two thirds are almost entirely from
cultivated
trees and herbs. World production is in the region of 45,000 tonnes and worth ca.
US$700 million and, although the number of uses and the volume of trade has
increased considerably, the development of synthetic substitutes has also grown.
For
example, in the perfume industry rosewood oil from Aniba rosaeodora and A. duckei
was formerly an important source of linalool, which was used either alone or as a
precursor of other fragrance compounds. Cheaper sources of synthetic linalool are
now available, although rosewood oil (bois de rose) persists as the established
ingredient of the more expensive perfumes, Similarly, the much prized sandalwood
oil from Santalum album remains unsurpassed by synthetic substitutes as a perfume.

Probably the most widely known of the essential oils is eucalyptus oil, or Oleum
Eucalypti, which is defined in the British Pharmacopoeia (1985) as ‘the oil
distilled
Phytochemicals 301

from the fresh leaves of Eucalyptus globulus, E. amygdalina, and probably other
species of eucalyptus’.

6.1 Essential Oil Extraction

The mode of extraction of essential oils is dependant on the quality and stability
of the compound. The main methods used are: (1) Steam, water or dry distillation,
and is used for the majority of neat essential oils, e.g. cinnamon oil from
Cinnamomum verum, syn. C. zeylanicum, myrth from Commiphora myrrha,
eucalyptus oil from Eucalyptus spp., lavender oil from Lavandula spp., and
sandalwood oil from Santalum album; (2) Expression, i.e. extraction under pressure,
is used for most citrus oils; the method also yields neat essential oils; (3)
Solvent
extraction using a hydrocarbon solvent is used where distillation would adversely
affect the final product, e.g. jasmine oil from Jasminum officinale. The process
also
produces a more true-to-nature fragrance. The raw plant material, e.g. bark,
leaves,
flowers and roots, is subjected to solvents to produce a concrete rich in soluble
material, with very low alcohol levels and devoid of any water-soluble components.
The majority of the concretes are solid and of a waxy, non-crystalline consistency
and
consisting of ca. 50% wax and 50% essential oil. Ylang ylang concrete from
Cananga odorata is a rare example of a liquid concrete with ca. 80% essential oil
and 20% wax. Concretes have the great advantage of being more stable and
concentrated than pure essential oils, and are used in perfumery as fixatives to
prolong the effect of the fragrance. Because concretes are not very soluble in
perfume
bases, they need further conversion into an absolute should the material be
required
for use in a fine fragrance. Examples of plants that may be either steam distilled
or
solvent extracted to produce a concrete include Cananga odorata, Lavandula spp.
and Salvia sclarea (clary sage). The vernacular name of the latter is based on a
corruption of the Medieval Latin ‘sclarea’, dry or stiff; the plant is also known
as
‘hot housemaid’ on account of the pungent scent of sweaty armpits emitted when
brushed against. It is not unusual for scents to have an objectionable smell when
in
high concentrations and a more desirable fragrance when diluted. An absolute is
obtained from the concrete by a second process of solvent extraction using ethanol,
in
which the unwanted wax is only slightly soluble. The result is usually a highly
concentrated viscous liquid, although in some cases, such as clary sage absolute,
they
may be solid or semisolid. They are normally subjected to repeated treatments with
cthanol, even so, as is the case of orange flower absolute from Citrus aurantium,
syn.
C. aurantium var, amara, a small portion of the wax remains, Absolutes can be
further processed by molecular distillation to remove every last trace of non-
volatile
material. The alcohol is recovered at the end of the process by evaporation,
although
some absolutes will retain ca. 2% or less of cthanol and are consequently not
recommended for therapeutic use; (4) Enfleurage extraction is primarily used for
extracting aromatic materials from flowers that contain minute quantities of
delicate
302 Chapter 15

aromatic substances which would otherwise by hydrolysed by moisture or decomposed

by heat when other extraction methods are used. The process also takes advantage of
the phenomenon where certain flowers continue to give off an aroma after they have
been picked due to an enzymatic breakdown of bound glycosides, etc. Freshly cut
flowers, such as those of Jasminum officinale (jasmine) or Polianthes tuberosa
(tuberose), are placed on a plate covered with a thin coating of specially prepared
and
odourless fat known as a chassis; the chassis is repeatedly renewed. After 12-30
hours
for jasmine and 24-100 hours for tuberose, the fat becomes saturated with the
volatile
oils. The fragrance-saturated fat, known as a pomade or corps gras, is then
extracted
with ethanol to yield the pure absolute or perfume. A tincture of a pomade is known
as an extrait. The method is expensive and is now rarely used. Pomades can also be
produced by hot fat extraction, also known as maceration, but the technique is now
obsolete; and finally (5) CO, extraction is a recent development where liquid CO,
under pressure is used to extract the essential oils and other aromatic substances
from
dry plant materials. Such extracts have excellent odour quality and purity, being
entirely free of unwanted solvent residues and non-volatile matter. The method does
have the great disadvantage of very high installation costs (Lawless, 1992;
Lawrence,
1995; Macdonald, 1995).

Solvent extraction can also be used to produce: (1) Resinoids are the solvent
extracts from natural exudates or dead, natural resin exudates such as balsams, gum
resins or oleoresins using a hydrocarbon solvent such as petroleum ether or
hexanes.
The resinoids may therefore be regarded as concretes of dried organic materials.
They
usual form a homogeneous mass of non-crystalline character, but may occur as
viscous liquids, semisolids or solids. Resinoids, like concretes, are also used in
perfumery as fixatives to prolong the effect of the fragrance. Some resinous
materials,
such as frankincense from Boswellia spp., especially B. sacra, and myrrh, are used
to
either produce an essential oil by steam distillation, or a resin absolute by
ethanol
extraction directly from the crude oleo-gum, Benzoin from Styrax benzoin, however,
is insufficiently volatile to produce an essential oil by distillation, and liquid
benzoin
is often just a benzoin resinoid dissolved in a suitable solvent or plasticising
dilutent.
It is used a fixative for perfume, medicinally as an inhalant for respiratory
infections,
and locally for incense; (2) Extracts are. concentrates obtained from resin-free
dried
aromatic plant material using a polar solvent, by CO, under pressure, or extraction
using microwaves and microwave transparent solvents; (3) Infusions are the hot
extraction of plant materials or exudates with water or an organic solvent. The
technique is not popular due to the difficulties in controlling the chemical
composition of the infusions; and (4) Tinctures are the alcoholic or aqueous
alcoholic
extracts of natural raw materials where the eventual alcohol content is usually
adjusted to 20-60%, although some 95% aqueous alcoholic tinctures are known
(Lawrence, 1995).
There are approximately 100 commercially marketable essential oils that are
derived from plants, of which those from Citrus spp. account for about one third of
Phytochemicals 303

the world’s production, the remaining two thirds are almost entirely from
cultivated
trees and herbs, World production is in the region of 45,000 tonnes and worth ca.
US$700 million and, although the number of uses and the volume of trade has
increased considerably, the development of synthetic substitutes has also grown.
For
example, in the perfume industry rosewood oil from Aniba rosaeodora and A. duckei
was formerly an important source of linalool, which was used either alone or as a
precursor of other fragrance compounds. Cheaper sources of synthetic linalool are
now available, although rosewood oil (bois de rose) persists as the established
ingredient of the more expensive perfumes, Similarly, the much prized sandalwood
oil from Santalum album remains unsurpassed by synthetic substitutes as a perfume.

Some 650 tonnes of eucalyptus oil are produced annually from more than 15,000
tonnes dry weight of leaves. harvested from coppiced trees; oil production can be a
year-round activity. China by far the largest producer, although it is suspected
that
some of the eucalyptus oil from China is Chinese sassafras oil, which is not
readily
distinguishable from that of Eucalyptus.

The grades of eucalyptus oils vary according to the species. Those from E.
camaldulensis (Red River gum), E. dives (broad-leaved peppermint), E. exserta
(Queensland peppermint), E. globulus (Gippsland blue gum), E. polybractea (blue
mallee), E. radiata (candle bark), E. smithii (gully gum), and E. viridis (green
mallee) are characterised by their high cineole content, below 70% being considered
undesirable for pharmaceutical purposes. These oils are also used in confectionery,
as
a general disinfectant, cleaner and deodoriser, as a fuel additive and solvent, and
in
formulations with other oils. The oil from E. dives is also rich in pipertone and
phellandrene, and is used industrially in a small and diminishing market as a
substitute for natural and synthetic methanol. While the oils from E. citriodora
(lemon-scented gum) and E. staigeriana (lemon-scented ironbark) are rich in
citronellal, and are used either in the cheaper soaps, perfumes and disinfectants,
or
for the production of citronellal by the fractionation of the crude oil for use in
the
aroma and chemical industries (Inman et al., 1991; Coppen, 1995; Robbins, 1995).

7. WAXES

The term wax was formerly limited to fatty acid esters with monohydric fatty
alcohols having plastic and water-repelling wax-like properties. The term is now
arbitrarily used for any organic substance having such properties. The waxes are
important components of the cuticle covering the stems, leaves, flowers and fruits
of
most plants, They originate in the epidermal cells as oily droplets and migrate via
tiny canaliculi to the cell surface. Waxes are used in paper coating, polishes,
electrical insulation, textiles, leathers, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. Important
commercial sources include carnauba or Ceard wax from Copernicia prunifera
(carnauba wax palm), candelilla wax from Euphorbia antisyphilitica (candelilla),
and
304 Chapter 15

ouricuri or licuri wax from Syagrus coronata (ouricuri, nicuri, palm nut), with
cavassii wax from Calathea lutea (balasier, cachibou) as a potential source.
Extraction usually involves beating the harvested leaves to free the wax (Tootill,
1984; Sharp, 1990; Robbins, 1995; Mabberley, 1997).

8. ALCOHOLS

Alcohol is the general term for compounds containing hydroxyl groups attached
to carbon atoms in place of hydrogen atoms, and having the general formula R.OH,
where R represents the aliphatic radical (Walker, 1991).

In the past ethanol (ethyl alcohol, industrial alcohol, spirits of wine) was almost
exclusively manufactured from the fermentation of materials containing starch and
sugar by yeasts, and to a lesser extent by other moulds and bacteria (see Chapter
19).
Ethanol is now largely produced by the direct hydration of ethene (ethylene)
obtained
as a by-product of the petroleum industry. Ethanol is the starting point in the
manufacture of other chemicals, principally ethanal (acetaldehyde) as a solvent and
chemical intermediate for ethanoic (acetic) acid and other chemicals, perfumes and
pharmaceuticals. The recent general trend for increasing oil prices has stimulated
an
interest in using alternative sources to the petrochemical industry for ethanol
from the
fermentation of maize and other cereals, sugar cane, molasses, potatoes, sugar
beet,
eic., even though the production costs are greater than for gasoline. The ethanol
production from one ton of sorghum, for example, yielding 372 1 of 182 proof
ethanol
has a potential comparable to the 367 | of ethanol obtainable from maize. In terms
of
work output ethanol used as a fuel contains 60% of the energy value of petrol,
while
gasohol, i.e. petrol containing 10% ethanol, is comparable to that of petrol plus a
lead
additive. The technology is particularly well developed in Brazil (Cross, 1984;
Rexen
and Munck, 1984; Sharp, 1990; Eckhoff and Paulsen, 1996; Rooney, 1996).

Methanol (wood alcohol) is produced by the distillation of hardwood lumber and

sawmill waste - softwood waste contains very little methanol. [t is used to produce
methanal (formaldehyde), which is used as a powerful germicide and in the
manufacture of polymethanal resins and other products, methanoic acid for use in
the
dyeing and finishing of textiles, leather tanning, and as an intermediate for other
chemicals, including chloromethane (methyl chloride) used in the production of
silicones and the manufacture of anti-knock additives, butyl rubber, methyl
cellulose,
and for quaternising organic bases, such as Paraquat, and numerous other organic
compounds (Hill, 1952; Sharp, 1990).
Phytochemicals 305
9. CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates are one of the principal classes of natural organic compounds.

They have the approximate formula (CH,0), and include sugars, starches and
cellulose. They are produced by plants as a result of photosynthesis and are stored
mainly as starches, fructoses, mannans and galactomannans, primarily in
parenchymatous storage tissues of the roots, tubers and piths, where they function
as
energy storage molecules and as structural elements,

The simple carbohydrates are mono-, di- or polysaccharides, having repeating

units usually of five or six carbon atoms joined through oxygen linkages. It is
this
basic sugar skeleton of the carbohydrates, involving hydroxyl groups, that gives
them
their properties, such as water solubility and sweetness (Whistler and Corbett,
1957;
Tootill, 1984; Sharp, 1990).

9.1 Sugars

The sugars include any of the lower molecular weight carbohydrates, namely
monosaccharides, the smaller oligosaccharides, and their derivatives. Any mono-
saccharide with the carbonyl (CO) group on the terminal carbon and forming an
aldehyde (CHO) group is known as an aldose sugar. When the carbonyl group is
positioned elsewhere, it is referred to as a ketose sugar. The majority of the
natural
sugars contain 6 or 12 carbon atoms in the molecules. They are crystalline,
extremely
soluble in water, and generally have a sweet taste, with sucrose as the standard
(1)
against which sweetness is measured. Those sugars possessing a potentially active
aldehyde or ketone group, and therefore capable of reducing an oxidising agent, are
known as reducing sugars, and can be detected by using Benedict's and Fehling’s
solutions. All monosaccharides have this capacity, but for a disaccharide to be a
reducing sugar one of the reducing groups of either of the two component mono-
saccharides must be left intact. Thus, maltose, which consists of two glucose units
linked by an a(1-4) glycoside unit, is a reducing sugar because the second glucose
unit can undergo oxidation, having an aldehyde at carbon 5, while sucrose is a
nonreducing sugar because the component glucose and fructose units are linked by
the aldehyde and ketone groups. The enzyme invertase hydrolyses sucrose to D-
Jructose to produce invert sugar, the name indicating the change of optical
rotation
from the dextrorotatory sucrose solution to the laevorotatory mixture.

The major sugar of commerce is the disaccharide sucrose, and is obtained from
either sugar cane or sugar beet. Other natural sugars include the monosaccharide
glucose (dextrose or grape sugar), commercially produced from starch fermentation.
The monosaccharide fructose (laevulose or fruit sugar) is also present with glucose
in many fruits. Commercial production is from inulin, present in the tubers of
Helianthus tuberosus (Jerusalem artichoke) and some other species. Inulin is a
chain-
like polysaccharide of fructose units, each chain with a terminal glucose unit. It
306 Chapter 15

cannot be digested by man until broken down by micro-organisms in the colon, hence
its usefulness as a sweetener for diabetics and is, by association, sometimes
confused
with the pancreatic hormone insulin. The disaccharide maltose occurs free in barley
grains and a few other plants. It is readily produced from starch or glycogen by
the
action of the enzyme amylase (diastase), and is of considerable importance to the
brewing and soft drinks industries (see also Chapter 9).

The aldohexose sugar mannose does not occur free in nature but, instead of
glucose, chains of mannose form the reserve polysaccharide mannan present in many
of the Leguminosae; it is also a frequent component of some hemicelluloses. The
extremely hard endosperm known as vegetable ivory from Phytelephas spp. (ivory
palm) is also composed of mannans, and is used for billiard balls, chessmen, dice,
buttons, etc. The reduction product of mannose is the sugar alcohol mannitol, which
is the principal soluble sugar in fungi and lichens, as well as being a major
product of
photosynthesis in the brown algae, lichens, and some higher plants.

Neither does the aldohexose sugar galactose, an isomer of glucose, normally exist
in the free state in plants, but as polymers such as galactomannans, with glucose-
forming glucomannans. The tubers of Amorphophallus spp. (elephant foot yams), for
example, store their carbohydrates in the form of large amorphous granules of
glucomannan. That obtained from the tubers of A. konjac has been used industrially
in China and Japan as emulsifiers and stabilisers in the food, drinks and cosmetic
industries, and in drilling fluids (Tootill, 1984; Sharp, 1990; Jansen et al.,
1996).

92 Starch and Starch Products

Starch is the an early end product of photosynthesis which at night is rapidly

broken down into sucrose and transported to other organs. It is the most abundant
and
important of the plant reserve polysaccharides. Natural starch is also unique among
the carbohydrates in occurring as discrete granules whose characteristics vary
according to the species (Table 22).

Most commercial starches are in the form of single granules. Accidental

overheating during flash drying can cause the granule surface to gelatinise and for
individual grains to stick together. They can usually be readily separated,
although
severe overheating can result in large aggregates which do not readily disperse and
have an undesirable proportion of either gelatinised or cold water swelling
(Whistler
and Corbett, 1957; Snyder, 1990).

Starch consists of two structurally different fractions, amylose and amylopectin,

the relative proportions varying according to the species. Amylose is composed of
long, straight chains of glucose units, soluble in water and tending to set to a
stiff gel.
It forms strong, flexible fibres that can be used industrially as a coating agent
and for
making edible films
Phytochemicals

307

TABLE 22. Examples of plant starch grains and their characteristics and uses
(Doggett, 1970; Gohl, 1981;
Rexen and Munck, 1984; Snyder, 1984; Purseglove, 1985, 1987; Ensminger et a/.,
1994; Flach and Rumawas.

1996)
Species Grain size Starch Amylose ~~ Amylopectin ~~ Use
(pm) %HDW) (%) (%)
CEREAL GRAINS
Hordeum sp. (barley) 2-3 68-78 35-40 60-65 food, alcohol,
fodder, adhesives
Sorghum bicolor 2-25 68-85 14-25 75-86 food, alcohol,
(sorghum) fodder, industrial
starch
Oryza sativa (rice) 2-10 69-88 14-32 68-86 food, alcohol
Zea mays (maize) 5-30 72-84 23-28 77-77 food, alcohol,
high amylose 5-35 50-85 15-50 fodder, industrial
waxy maize 5-25 1-5 95-99 starch
Triticum aestivum 5-40 60-85 19-28 72-81 food.alcohol,
{wheat) fodder, ethanol
CORMS, RHIZOMES, ROOTS AND TUBERS
Dioscorea esculenta 05-20 83-88 mainly food
(lesser yam)
Colocasia esculenta 1-6.5 85-89 food
(dasheen, taro)
Ipomoea batatas (sweet 5-50 8891 food, fodder,
potato) industrial starch
Pachyrhizus erosus (yam 8-35 84 food, fodder
bean)
Maranta arundinacea 10-60 19-22 20 80 food, fodder,
{W. Indian arrowroot) glues, soap
Curcuma zedoaria (shoti, 10-607 23 food
zedoary)
Solanum tuberosum 10-185 75-82 20-24 76-80 food, fodder,
(potato) adhesives
Xanthosoma spp. (tannia) 17-20 86-88 food
Canna indica 30-130 85-86 food, feed,
(Australian or Queensland industrial starch
arrowroot)
STEM PITH
Metroxylon sagu (sago 81-88 81-88 27° 73° food, industrial
palm) starch

'sharply bimodal; *non-spherical; ® purified sago starch

308 Chapter 15

Amylopectin differs in that it is a branch-chained polysaccharide which tends not

to gel readily in aqueous solution but will gelatinise in hot water at 60-80°C. The
higher the amylopectin content the higher the glutinosity, the viscosity
retrograding
with time. It has poor film-forming properties and is used in the textile industry
for
sizing and finishing, and in the food industry as a thickening agent. The ratio
between amylose and amylopectin strongly affects the palatability and industrial
application of the starch; their industrial separation is based on the solubility
of
amylose in water. In general the cereal starches contain 15-30% amylose and 70-85%
amylopectin. Amylose is, however, virtually lacking in the endosperms of the waxy
cultivars of barley, rice, sorghum and maize (Sharp, 1990; Grubben et al., 1996).

Both morphologically and chemically starch can be regarded as an inhomogenous

polymer system. The granular structure can be broken down and the hydrophilic
character changed by various mechanical/thermal and/or chemical treatments, giving
rise to considerably increased possibilities for combinations of starch with
different
synthetic polymers to form fibres, adhesives, absorbents, surfactants, etc.

Starch, like cellulose, possess one primary and two secondary hydroxyl groups per
glucose unit, to which alkyl or acid residues may be coupled to produce ethers and
esters respectively. These find use in the food, textile and paper making
industries,
both hydroxyethyl and hydroxypropyl starches, for example, are used in the food
industry as coatings, the former also as a binder.

The textile industry too is an important outlet for natural starch, slightly
moditied
starch, i.e. oxidised amylopectin starch, as well as starch derivatives such as
starch
phosphates and acetates, hydroxyethyl and hydroxypropyl starches. Their use
include:
(1) As a size to strengthen warp yarns, and to improve resistance to abrasion
during
weaving. The use of cationic starches, which in aqueous solution form positively
charged surface-active ions, are becoming increasingly popular for sizing; (2) To
change the appearance of the fabric after bleaching, dyeing, or printing; (3) To
confine dyes and other chemicals within given areas during textile printing by
preventing their diffusion into surrounding areas; and (4) As a component in
finishes
to give glaze and polish to sewing threads.

In the paper and board industry starch phosphate may be used as a binder and
emulsifier, and starch sulphate as a hydrophilic sol. Their use helps to compensate
for the loss of the natural binding ability in recycled fibres. The chemical
similarity of
starch and cellulose polymers and their compatibility leads to their use for (1)
Beater
sizing using ionogenic starch, i.e. forming ions, thus saving milling costs,
improving
starch retention, and improving optimal strength values, While 1-3 kg starch dry
matter 100 kg fibre is normally used and although additional starch would further
improve paper quality, any additional starch would also increase pollution
problems.
Whereas cationic starch or starch and xanthates would both improve starch retention
and allow further additions, thereby improving the ultimate strength of the fibre;
(2)
Surface sizing using modified starch products of low viscosity, such as oxidised
starch, starch esters or slightly hydrolysed starch, with protein wax emulsions,
Phytochemicals 309

carbonomethyl cellulose, etc. will improve the surface for printing as well as
improving burst factors, folding number and breaking length; and (3) Paper coating
for smoothing out any unevenness in the paper surface by using pigmented
suspensions containing special starches as binding agents, or more often, to coat
the
printing paper with organic pigments, such as white clay fixed in organic adhesives
such as starch, proteins and synthetics.

Starch is usually used as an adhesive in the manufacture of corrugated paper,

paper bags, laminated paperboards, wallpaper, etc. The increased addition of starch
facilitates the production of a thinner paper of satisfactory strength, thereby
saving in
cellulose fibres. Excessive starch, however, will make the paper transparent and
brittle. The new starch derivatives now available can also improve the strength of
short fibre pulp, e.g. straw pulp. Potato starch is preferred for some application,
although barley starch, which has similar viscosity properties, can also be used
but
has the disadvantage of being greyer. The use of starch as a substitute for
methanal
(formaldehyde) and phenol in phenol-methanal polymers, reduces the emission of
methanal from phenolic glued wood boards, which is of significant benefit when such
boards are used indoors.

In the rubber industry a cross-linked starch xanthate is used to replace carbon

black derived from petroleum. There is also a promising use of starch xanthates in
encapsulating pesticides for their safe handling, the pesticides later being
released
from the enveloping capsule by wetting, In the future it is possible that up to 25%
of
the structural chemicals in paints could be replaced with purified vegetable
starch.
The standard household paints use petroleum derivatives such as acrylic and vinyl
polymers that harden on exposure to air by linking together into long chains.
Amending the catalysts used to speed up the hardening process has enabled the
petroleum derivatives to be replaced by starch. At present such paints have the
disadvantage of being less watertight due to some of the starch breaking down into
their component sugars (Rexen and Munck, 1984; Sharp, 1990; Grubben et al., 1996;
Knight, 1997).

Polyhydryl compounds known as polyols are an important group of chemicals

used for the production of polyesters, polyurethanes, surfactants, emulsifiers,
etc. The
polyols are largely derived from the petrochemicals ethene (ethylene), propylene,
etc.
However, starch hydrolysates may also be used for producing a number of
compounds, including: (1) Arabitol, a sweet tasting penthydric alcohol present in
lichens; (2) Erythritol, which also occurs naturally in lichens and some algae, and
has twice the sweetness of sugar; (3) 1,2-dihydroxyethane (ethylene glycol), used
in
anti-freeze and coolants, also in the manufacture of polyester fibres such as
Terylene,
and of various esters used as plasticisers; (4) 1,2-dihydroxypropane (propylene
glycol) used as an anti-freeze agent, in the manufacture of perfumes and flavouring
extracts, as a solvent, and to inhibit mould growth; (5) Glycerol (glycerin), used
in
the manufacture of synthetic resins, esters, gums, explosives, and cellulose films,
as a
moistening agent for tobacco, etc; and (6) Sorbitol, which is naturally present in
310 Chapter 15

fruits of the Rosaceae, e.g. Sorbus aucuparia (rowan) and is used in the production
of
vitamin C. It is also extensively used for making surfactants and emulsifiers,
especially for the food industry, as well as in the chemical, pharmaceutical,
cosmetic,
plastic, paper and textile industries.

Depending on oil prices, starch polymers can be a cheaper substitute raw material
than the petroleum derived, synthetic polymers polypropylene and polyethylene. They
can be used as a filler for polyvinyl acetate (PVA), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and
polyethylenes, thereby reducing the cost of raw materials and making the product
more biodegradable, e.g. PVC will degrade in 30-120 days. Starch-PVA plastics are
water-soluble and are used in the USA for hospital laundry bags that dissolve in
the
washing machine. Like starch xanthates, there is a similar potential for packaging
agrochemicals to improve safety during handling. Starch polymers are also used in
PVC for vinyl-coated paper, such as washable wallpaper. Also for low density
polyethylene (LDPE) bags, e.g. carrier bags, envelopes, air-sickness bags, which
contain 6% maize starch treated with silicone to create an oleophilic surface,
thereby
providing an attractive, satin-like appearance with improved machine-printing
qualities. Such starch polymer films can also be used as an agricultural mulch to
control soil moisture and temperature, reduce nutrient leaching, prevent weed
growth,
and thereby increase crop yields by 50-350%.

An alkali-finished starch produces strong bonds with polyester castings and

laminating resins. The presence of starch gives fire-retarding properties and
considerably reduces the inflammability and smoke generation of the composites.
There are also wide uses for polyester/glass fibre laminates in the vehicle and
construction industries. For example, in the vehicle industry polyurethane foam
accounts for ca. 70% of the organic polymers used. For use as a filler the starch
is
mixed with the polyol component to provide improved smoke reducing properties as
well as reducing the coefficient of thermal expansion.

Other uses of starch and starch-derived products are as active components of

synthetic polymers, including starch graft co-polymers in the production of natural
film, moulded products, etc. The graft polymerising of acrylonitrile into
gelatinised
starch and then subjecting the co-polymers to alkaline saponification results in a
saponified starch-polyacrylonitrile. Such graft polymers act as suprabsorbents with
remarkable high water absorption properties. The polymer surface acts as a
semipermeable membrane, thus providing a capability of cyclic absorption and
desorption over long periods of time. Solid polymers, known as super-slurpers, are
capable of absorbing many hundreds of their own weight of water without being
dissolved. They are used in horticulture and forestry, especially in the arid and
semi-
arid regions, as soil conditioners to increase the water absorbing properties of
porous
soils and decrease evaporation losses, thus making the soil moisture more readily
utilisable for plant growth. They are similarly used in hanging baskets and potted
house plants to reduce the need for watering; the polymers can also be used for
coating seeds, cuttings and roots to aid establishment. Super-slurpers may also be
Phytochemicals 311

used medicinally as an absorbent for disposable bandages, bed pads, baby powder,
nappies, sanitary towels, etc. (Johnson, 1984; Rexen and Munck, 1984; Callaghan et
al., 1988; Aronson et al., 1990; Sharp, 1990).

9.2.1 Starch Fermentation Products

Starch fermentation is the source of the extremely important intermediary product

glucose which is, in turn. used for conversion to various cyclic and acyclic
polymers,
aldehydes, ketones, acids, esters and ethers, Starch fermentation is also used in
the
synthesis of starch glycosides with 1,2-dihydroxyethane (ethylene glycol) or
glycerol
(1,2,3-trihydroxypropane), the resultant glycol glycoside being used in the
production of rigid urethane foams, biodegradable surfactants and alkyds. Biopols
using microbial polysaccharides produced from starch and starch hydrolytes are also
finding increasing application. Molasses may also be used as the raw material for
fermentation and while it has the great advantage of being cheaper than other raw
materials, it has the distinct disadvantage of containing secondary carbohydrates,
nitrogenous compounds and salts. The process consequently requires more
rectification and purification and consequently produces more pollution (Rexen and
Munck, 1984). See also Chapter 18 for further information on fungal and bacterial
fermentation.

The starch fermentation products include (1) Ethanol, used as a solvent and feed
for other chemicals, principally ethanal, glycol ethers and amines, acrylic and
ethanoic esters (acetic esters); (2) Glycerol, which is mainly produced from
propylene
derived from petrol and natural fats. although there is the alternative possibility
of
carbohydrate fermentation, the process is complicated by the production of ethanol
and ethanal as by-products. Consequently, it is more economical to produce glycerol
by chemical synthesis than by fermentation. Glycerol is used in the manufacture of
synthetic resins and ester gums, explosives and cellulose films, and as a moistener
agent for tobacco; (3) Fumaric acid, produced by the fermentation of malic acid and
maleic anhydride, is used as a food acid; (4) Itaconic acid, which is produced by
the
fermentation of sugars, is used as a commoner in plastics, and its esters
polymerised
to lubricating oils and plasticisers; (5) Industrial ethanoic (acetic) acid is an
important feedstock for the chemical industry. It is now entirely produced by
chemical processes. However, {ood grade aqueous ethanoic acid, i.e. vinegar, is
exclusively manufactured by the oxidation of ethanol with Acetobacter aceti; (6)
Propanoic acid (propionic acid) occurs as a product of wood distillation and as a
major end product of glucose fermentation by Propionibacterium spp., with ethanoic
acid and CO, as by-products, The bioconversion of propanocic acid to the highly
volatile chemical propenoic acid (acrylic acid) is by the action of Clostridium
propionicum. The propenoic acid can then be polymerised to important polymers
used as thickeners in textile treatment, as drilling mud additives, flocculating
agents,
in paper making and, if co-polymerised with, for example, divinylebenzene, as ion-
312 Chapter 15

exchange resins; (6) Citric acid, obtained commercially by the fermentation of

glucose with Aspergillus niger, is used in the soft drinks and food industry; and
(7)
Lactic acid, which is potentially a key biomass intermediary and is produced
synthetically from ethanol. It can also be produced from the fermentation of
hexoses
such as starch hydrolysates, although the process is not yet commercially viable.
Lactic acid forms lactide through internal esterification, which are able to form
polymers with many hydroxyacids, and are then used in the manufacture of
transparent films and strong, biodegradable fibres; it is also particularly
effective in
preventing putrefaction (Montagné, 1977; Rexen and Munck, 1984; Sharp, 1990;
Postgate, 1992).

9.3 Cellulose and Cellulose Products

Cellulose is the major constituent of the cell walls of all plants as well as being
the most abundant organic matter found in nature. It is a glucose polymer, with a
chain of over 3500 repeat units. It is completely hydrolysed by strong acids to
glucose, while mild hydrolysis produces hydrocellulose with shorter chains, lower
viscosity and lower tensile strength. Wood pulp and cotton linters are the most
important commercial sources of cellulose, with its largest use in the rayon
industry,
The hemicelluloses are rather ill-defined and ill-differentiated from cellulose and
represent the more easily hydrolysed portion of cellulose. Penfosans are those
hemicelluloses, such as araban and xylan, that yield pentoses on hydrolysis
(Tootill,
1984; Sharp, 1990).

There is an increasing interest in Europe in the use of cereal straw as a source of

cellulose, especially now that such countries as the UK have banned the burning of
straw after harvesting. Cereal straw contains ca. 70% carbohydrates, principally as
cellulose and pentosans, and can be hydrolysed to yield low molecular weight
sugars,
mostly as glucose and xylose, for use as a raw material for the food, feed and
chemical industries. Unlike starch, cellulose is highly resistant to hydrolysis due
to its
highly ordered crystalline structure and the physical barrier imposed by the lignin
enveloping the cellulose fibres. There is an urgent need to develop an economically
feasible hydrolysis process, such as that which already exists for wood cellulose.
See
also Chapter 14 regarding the use of straw pulp for the paper industry.

There are three basic processes that can be used to obtain glucose from cellulose:
(1) Dilute acid hydrolysis, yielding only ca. 50% of the potential glucose as well
as
seriously degrading the lignin; (2) Concentrated acid using H,S0, or HCI and giving
a 85-90% conversion. The process has the serious disadvantages of high material
costs and in the lignin molecules being seriously affected. Alternatively, HF
offers
prospects of minimal feed-stock pre-treatment, with more than 90% conversion and
undamaged lignin. This has the disadvantage that HF is expensive and highly toxic;
and (3) Enzyme treatment, yielding pure glucose and undamaged lignin, but with
only 50-60% conversion and with the feed-stock usually requiring expensive pre-
Phytochemicals 313

treatment. Alternatively, treating the straw with phenol as a delignification

solvent
yields a relatively pure cellulose and, consequently, a pure glucose syrup with the
lignin and semicellulose components undamaged and usable for the production of
vanillin, xylitol and furfural. Vanillin is an extremely important flavouring and
perfumery material, with large quantities being used in the food, pharmaceutical,
and
toiletry industries (Rexen and Munck, 1984; Sharp, 1990).

The cellulose ester cellulose ethanoate (cellulose acetate) formed by treating

cotton and purified wood pulp with ethanoic anhydride, is used to make wrapping
and photographic film, and in the production of a wide range of injection-moulded,
sheet fabricated and extruded plastics, including the cellulose ethanoate fibre
ethanoate (acetate) rayon, which is superior to viscose rayon since it absorbs much
less moisture, it is stronger when moist and also less susceptible to wrinkling.
Cellulose nitrate (nitro-cellulose) is prepared by treating cotton or wood pulp
with
HNO; plus H,SO, or H;PO,. When treated with camphor, cellulose nitrate provided
the first successful synthetic plastic ‘Cellulose’ and is still widely used for
moulded
articles, e.g. piano keys and table tennis balls, and as a surface coating. Highly
nitrated cellulose containing more than 13% N is used in the manufacture of
guncotton and cordite. Both cellulose ethanoate and cellulose nitrate can also be
used
in solution as adhesives and lacquers. Cellulose esters, formed by alkyd- and aryl-
halides on cellulose in alkali solution, are used as thickening and emulsifying
agents
in foodstuffs and paints, and as sizes and adhesives in the paper and textile
industries.
The most widely used ester being carboxymethyl cellulose as a stabiliser in
drilling
muds, as an adhesive and pigment binder, as a strengthener in unfired ceramics, and
in laundering to aid dirt removal (Bramwell, 1982; Sharp, 1990).

10. ALKALOIDS

The term alkaloid encompasses an extremely diverse group of chemical structures

for which it is difficult to provide a succinct definition. Molyneux and Ralphs
(1992)
cite that of Pelletier (1983): "An alkaloid is a cyclic-organic compound containing
nitrogen in a negative oxidation state, which is of limited distribution among
living
organisms.” All alkaloids are basic and combine with acids to form crystalline
salts
that are usually soluble in water and usually less soluble in organic solvents,
e.g.
alcohol, chloroform, and ether.

Alkaloids occur widely throughout the plant kingdom, especially among the
angiosperms. Alkaloids have been isolated from the roots, seeds, leaves, or bark of
some members of at least 40% of the plant families, with the Amyrilidaceae,
Buxaceae, Compositae, Euphorbiaceae, Leguminosae, Liliaceae, Papaveraceae,
Ranunculaceae and Solanaceae being particularly rich sources.
314

Chapter 15

TABLE 23. Commercial uses of some alkaloids (Petterson et al., 1991, reproduced by
kind permission of the
Royal Society of Chemistry; ‘fide Skorupa and Assis, 1998)

Plant source Alkaloid Use

Apocynaceae

Catharanthus roseus vincristine leukaemia treatment

{Madagascar periwinkle) vinblastine

Colchicaceae

Colchicum autumnale (autumn crocus) colchicine agricultural and medical genetics

Erythroxylaceae

Erythroxylum coca (coca) cocaine local anaesthetic

Leguminosae subfam. Papilionoideae

Lupinus luteus (yellow lupin) sparteine oxytocic agent in obstetrics

Loganiaceae

Strychnos nux-vomica (nux-vomica) strychnine rodenticide

Papaveraceac

Papaver somniferum (opium poppy) codeine analgesic, anti-tussive

morphine analgesic

Rubiaceae

Psychotria ipecacuanha, syn. Cephaelis emetine amoebiasis emetic

ipecacuanha (Brazilian ipecacuanha) cephacline’ emetic

psychotring" emetic

Cinchona officinalis (cv = C. ledgeriana) quinine anti-malarial

{quinine tree) quinidine cardiac stimulant

Solanaceae

Atropa belladonna (deadly nightshade) atropine anti-cholinergic

Lycopersicon esculentum (tomato) tomatine fungicide

Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco) nicotine insecticide

Many alkaloids are toxic, and even minute quantities produce characteristic
physiological effects (see Chapters 8 and 17), a number of which are important
sources of medicinal drugs (Table 23). Alkaloids have also been found among some
members of most groups of the lower plants apart from the algae. Their precise
function is not fully understood. Some may protect plants from animal predation.
Others are believed to be involved in nitrogen metabolism, while others may be the
stored end products of nitrogen metabolism (Tootill, 1984; Sharp, 1990; Duffus and
Duffus, 1991).
Phytochemicals 315

11. MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTS

A high grade silica for the glass and ceramics industries can be obtained from the
ash of rice hulls. The ash is also used in a cement that is more acid-resistant
than
Portland cement. When the hulls are heated to 700°C an amorphous silica is obtained
that is suitable for reduction to solar grade silicon for solar cells (Grubben ef
al.,
1996).
Chapter 16

Human and Veterinary Medicinal Plants

Medicinal plants are defined as those used for human and veterinary application
in traditional medicines, galenicals and herbal tisanes, phyto-pharmaceuticals, new
drugs, intermediates for drug manufacture, industrial and pharmaceutical auxiliary
products, and for health foods. The efficacy of many plants currently used in
traditional herbal medicine are often lacking in reliable clinical evidence. Other
plants formerly regarded as official, ie. recognised and listed in national
pharmacopoeia, have either been superseded by other products or, in the light of
research, found wanting and discarded. Finally, there are those plants or their
chemical analogues that are currently under investigation to provide new medically
proven pharmaceutical products.

The following terms refer to some of the uses and therapeutic applications of
medicinal plants: (1) Pharmacy (from the Ancient Egyptian pharmaki and Ancient
Greek pharmagia) is the term applied to the art of preparing and compounding
medicines, or to the place where medicines are dispensed; (2) Pharmacology is the
science of drugs, including their composition, uses and effects; (3) Pharmacognosy
is
that branch of pharmacology dealing with crude, natural drugs, including medicinal
plants; (4) Aromatherapy is a form of therapy in which body disorders are treated
by
massage with aromatic oils which, apart from their perfume, have strong anti-
bacterial properties, often with antispasmodic or spasmolytic, stimulatory,
cicatrizant,
antifermentative and hormonal properties; (5) Homeopathy is a system of medical
treatment based on the use of minute quantities of remedies that in large
quantities
produce effects similar to the disease being treated; and (6) Naturopathy is a
system
of therapy that relies exclusively on natural remedies, such as sunlight, clean
fresh
air, organically-grown foods and massage (see Chiej, 1984 for further discussion).

The histories of the development of both human and veterinary herbal medicines
is dealt with in some detail. It is by understanding the past history that the
present
can be better understood, even though the therapeutic value of many early remedies
have still to be thoroughly investigated and their efficacy evaluated. It is, for
example,

317
318 Chapter 16

sobering to realise that if scientists had appreciated the practices outlined in

the
scrolls of the Pharaohs or the use of mouldy bread in medieval eastern Europe, the
world would not have had to wait until 1928 for Alexander Flemming's chance
discovery of penicillin. Also, it is only in recent years that the Western World
has
begun to appreciated the therapeutic value of some of the more than 2,000
traditional
plant remedies being used in China. Today over 125 pharmaceutical products in
current use in the West are plant-derived, of which ca. 75% were discovered by
investigating traditional medicines (Bottcher, 1959; Carlson et al., 1977a; Mabey,
1988).

The traditional Western approach to finding novel pharmaceutical compounds

has been largely by the high volume, random screening of plants. A more successful
collaborative approach has been pioneered by Sharman Pharmaceutical Inc., a
leading US pharmaceutical company. It involves examining the medicinal lore of
indigenous healers by Western-trained physicians to evaluate the clinical
diagnosis;
they are accompanied by ethnobotanists to identify the plants. They found the
quality
of the research to be greatly enhanced, especially if the field researchers possess
interdisciplinary training. Using such an approach to isolate pure antiviral lead
compounds and depending on the virus, the results were found to be 125 to 630 times
more efficient than random in vitro assays. Similarly, by interpreting the
diagnoses in
the medical literature of ancient Egypt, India and China, they were able to
identify
descriptions of diabetes and its treatment dating back for at least 2000 years.
Some
800 plant-derived active principles with antidiabetic activity have now been
discovered. Some, although useful, are not safe to use. To date the biguanidine
metformin is the only approved ethical drug derived from a medicinal plant, i.e.
Galega officinalis (goat’s rue), that was historically used in the treatment of
non-
insulin-dependent diabetes. Derived from a prototypic molecule in a plant with a
long
pedigree in the treatment of diabetes, metformin well illustrates the development
of
an efficacious drug based on traditional plant use (Carlson ef al., 1997a; Oubré et
al.,
1997)

1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND TO HUMAN MEDICINE

Archaeological evidence for the actual use of plants for healing purposes before
the advent of writing must be largely conjectural. The earliest written evidence of
medicinal plants is believed to be the Samerian cuneiform writings on clay tablets
from Mesopotamia and dated ca. 3400 BC. However, the evidence of successful signs
of healing following trepan surgery carried out during the Neolithic and dated
between 5100 and 4900 BC suggests an earlier knowledge of anaesthetics (or
intoxicants?) and antibiotics (Schultes, 1960; Duin and Sutcliffe, 1992; Rudgley,
1998).
Human and Veterinary Medicinal Plants 319

From Ancient Egypt there are, among others, the three medical papyri of Georg
Ebers and P. Hearst dated ca. 1550 BC and P. Edwin Smith of ca. 1500 BC. The
Ebers Papyrus alone provides 842 prescriptions containing 328 different ingredients
that are not obviously founded on sorcery. These papyri are of particular interest,
especially in the light of the comment by Manniche (1989) that no complete ancient
Egyptian herbal (as distinct from medical lore) exists today, although some
fragments
dating from the 2nd century AD still survive, It was such papyri that showed the
Early Egyptians’ appreciation of the mould Penicillium. The stature of this ancient
Egyptian medical lore is evident from the fact that it was the acclaimed medical
skills
of Imhotep (died 2648 BC), vizier to the Pharaoh Zoser, that in 535 BC led to
Imhotep being granted the status of a god. He was later adopted by the Greeks as
the
god Asklepios and identified with the Roman god of medicine Aesculapius (Bottcher,
1959; Duin and Sutcliffe, 1992; Batanouny, 1999).

The 13th century BC Mycenaean Linear B tablets, a form of early Greek, recorded
the use of such spices as Crocus sativus (saffron), Cuminum cyminum (cumin), etc.
and provide a link with the plant lore of classical Greek. It was from this
knowledge
of Western Asia and the pre-Hellenic civilisations that the herbals of ancient
Greece
evolved. Thus, in ca. 750 BC, Homer is reported as being the first to distinguish
between good and bad drugs, i.e. poisons. In his De historia plantarum (Enquiry
into
Plants), Theophrastus (ca. 370-287 BC) organised the current botanical lore
according to habit, recognising some 480 plants, including Conium maculatum, the
poisonous hemlock that was reputed responsible for killing Socrates in 399 BC. Some
700 species and slightly more than 1000 drugs were recognised by the Greek hebalist
Pedanus Dioscorides in his De materia medica of 77 AD, who classified the plants as
to whether they were pot roots, pot herbs, fruits, trees and shrubs, and arranged
the
drugs wherein according to their physiological reaction in thé body. Riddle (1985)
examined the herbal lore of Dioscorides in relation to our present-day
pharmacognostic knowledge and noted that a number were of medicinal value. The
historic importance of Dioscorides work cannot be ignored because, until the 16th
century, it was the most widely used, copied, extended and translated work on
medicinal plants. Not only was his work translated and absorbed into Arabic
traditional medicine, later Latin renditions from both Arabic and Greek sources
strongly influenced European Renaissance medical traditions and thereby set the
scene for modern pharmacognosy and, less obviously, botany. Although a gifted
physician, the often cited contribution of Galen of Pergamum (129-post 210 AD) to
pharmacognosy and dietics was largely confined to earlier works with some personal
contributions. During the 5th century AD missionary expeditions of Buddhist monks
from China to India and of Indian monks to China, together with commercial
relations with Arabia, all contributed to a wider distribution of medical and
herbal
lore throughout the known world (Davis and Heywood, 1963; Stearn, 1976; Riddle,
19885, 1996; Hoizey and Hoizey, 1993; Scarborough, 1996).
320 Chapter 16

The translation of herbal lore into Anglo-Saxon during the 10th to 12th centuries
from 4th and Sth century Latin compilations can be traced back through Gaius
Plinius Secondus (23-79 AD) and his encyclopaedic Naturalis Historia, especially
books xx-xxxii, to the 4th century BC Greek rhizotomist Diokles of Karystos,
regarded as the first author of a systematic herbal. Following the Norman Conquest
the more erudite Anglo-Saxon herbals were ignored and replaced by Latin
translations of earlier works. Indeed, for much of the Middle Ages (ca. 1000-1400
AD), Buropean scholars contributed little beyond copying or attempting to decode
the
herbals of the Classical Period and in the process perpetuated a web of errors,
misinterpretations and superstitions. From the Middle Ages up to the last century
little encouragement was given to observation or research and any outspoken
criticism was regarded as heresy and exposed the author to the wrath of the church.

During the early 11th century it was the noted herbalist of the Arab world, the
Persian Avicenna (Ibn Sina) and his voluminous Canon of Medicine that was to
became the authoritative work during the Middle Ages throughout both the Moslem
and Christian worlds. The only original English work during the Middle Ages was
written in the mid-13th century by the cleric Bartholomus Anglicus. His 19 books of
De Proprietatibus Verum ran to at least 14 editions before 1500 AD, and were
translated into English, French, Spanish and Dutch. The first printed English
herbal
was the small, anonymous quarto volume printed by Richard Banckes in 1525 and
known as Banckes's Herbal, also running into a number of editions (Rohde, 1922;
Vriend, 1984; Blackwell, 1990; Mabey, 1991).

The evolution of the printed herbals in Europe during the late 15th to 17th
centuries is discussed by Arber (1912), who defined a herbal "as a book containing
the names and descriptions of herbs, or plants in general, with their properties
and
virtues. The word is believed to have been derived from a inediaeval Latin
adjective
‘herbalis', the subjunctive 'liber' being understood. It is thus exactly comparable
in
origin with the word ‘manual’ in the sense of a handbook."

The most important English herbal is John Gerard's Historie of Plants, first
published in 1597 but seldom quoted, being replaced by Thomas Johnson's enlarged
and amended edition of 1633, of which a second and much superior edition was
published in 1636. Better known as Gerard's Herbal, it was this latter version that
long continued to be the standard work for English students, Other works of this
period include John Parkinson's Theatrum Botanicum of 1640 and a rather fanciful
work by the apothecary and astrologer Nicholas Culpeper published in 1652, which
he later repudiated in subsequent editions as incorrect and unauthorised. Some
doubt
must be assumed concerning Culpeper’s credibility as an author for he had earlier
incurred the wrath of the College of Physicians with the publication in 1649 of his
Physical Directory in which he linked herbal lore with astrology, and was an
unauthorised translation of their London Dispensary.

It was a new breed of commercial herbalists during the 17th and 18th centuries
who, willy-nilly, attributed a plant's physical manifestation with its medicinal
Human and Veterinary Medicinal Plants 321

qualities, in what was to become known as the ‘Doctrine of Signatures’. The

eventual division between herbal and orthodox medicine began in 1785, when the
English physician William Withering discovered that the unpredictable and often
fatal effects of foxglove leaves used in the treatment for dropsy was due the heart
stimulating the kidneys to clear the body of fluids, and that small and accurately
measured doses of digitalis from the leaf was an invaluable treatment for heart
failure
(Rohde, 1922; Hudson, 1954; Chiej, 1984; Woodward, 1985; Mabey, 1991; Cotton
1996).

The history of botanical literature includes numerous references and, perforce,

medicinal plants in China is eruditely discussed by Needham (1986) while the
history
of Chinese medicine is dealt with by Hoizey and Hoizey (1993). The former includes
what he describes as the pandects of pharmaceutical natural history. The earliest
such
work devoted to the study of natural history and of plants in particular are the no
longer extant Tzu-I Pén Tshao Ching (The Classical Pharmacopoeia of Tzu-I) written
in the 6th century BC and Shen’nong Bencaojing (Shen’nong’s Classic of Herbal
Medicine) in the 1st century BC. These works, unlike the lapidaries, herbals and
bestiaries of their European counterparts, were devoid of magical and fanciful
ideas.
Indeed, it is from a study of the latter work that led to the use of alkaloid
extracts
from the fruits of Camptotheca acuminata in the treatment of liver cancer. The Pén
Tshao (natural history) works date from the 5th century BC, the most important
being
the Pén Tshao Kang Mu (Great Pharmacopoeia) of ca. 1547 AD by the most
renowned of Chinese naturalists Li Shih-Chen (see Read and Yii-Thien, 1931) and
culminating in the bibliographic survey of the Pén T'shuo by Lung Po-Chien (1957).

The early medical publications were presented either as encyclopaedias or as

dictionaries, of which the earliest encyclopaedia was the Ehr Ya (Literary
Expositior)
dating mainly from somewhere between the 4th and 2nd centuries BC, but with some
contributions possibly from the 6th century and some additions from the 1st century
BC. Numerous publications based on the Ehr Ya then followed. An important and
neglected early work on pharmaceutical plants was the Chi Chiu (Phien) (Handy
Primer) compiled by Shih Yu between 48-33 BC. The oldest medicinal dictionary was
the Shuo Wén of 121 AD.

According to a nation-wide survey, the China National Corporation of Traditional

and Herbal Medicine (1994-1995), there are 11,118 plant taxa being used in Chinese
medicine today, of which 10,027 taxa represent a third of the angiosperm flora (Xia
and Peng, 1998). Despite this enormous wealth of pharmacognostic knowledge the
important contribution made by the Chinese to medicine has only recently begun to
be properly appreciated in the West, the language barrier being a particular
handicap
to overcome. A good introduction to Chinese herbal medicine is to be found in Duke
and Ayensu (1985), who discuss some 1200 species.

In India there are three schools of medicine: (1) The Ayurveda (i.e. science of
life) school of traditional medicine as passed down by the Lord Brahma, dates back
to
the Vedic period, ca. 1500-600 BC. It is based on the premise that the five basic
322 Chapter 16

elements of earth, water, fire, air and ether constitute the body organs, mind and
soul.
It was largely an oral tradition with a strong religious orientation. There are few
written records and these are virtually impossible to date with an even remote
degree
of accuracy. Four Sanskrit books, the sacred Vedas (Sanskrit verda = knowledge),
are
the sole survivors, The Ayurvedic medicinal lore is based on two works
supplementing the sacred Vedas, the Charaka Samhita of 600 BC (Handa (1998)
suggests 3000 BC). These deal with medical and pharmacognostic matters, and the
Sushruta Samhita, concerned with surgery; the first two works are mentioned in the
carly Vedic scriptures, such as the Atharvaveda, Rugveda and Yajurveda; (2) The
Siddha school of medicine is practised in the Tamil Nadu region of southern India
and is variously considered as being either earlier or contemporary with Ayurveda;
and (3) The Unani-Tibb school is based on the teachings of the Grecian physicians
Hippocrates (ca. 460-370 BC) and Galen (ca. 130-200 AD) - 'Unani' is the Arabic
corruption of onian'. Their teachings were further developed by the Arabs who, by
the early Middle Ages, had become a world centre for medical and veterinary
knowledge. For example, by the 12th century 12 general treatises on camel diseases
had already been written. It was the Arabs who were responsible for bringing their
medicinal lore to both India and Africa with the introduction of Islam (Duin and
Sutcliffe, 1992; Anjaria, 1996; Schillhorn van Veen, 1996).

The early New World ethnographic records are largely associated with the Maya,
Aztec, Inca and other advanced civilisations of Mesoamerica, and are relatively
recent. The Mayan pre-Hispanic codices or screenfold books, for example, date from
ca. 1250-1521 AD. The Aztec cultures are largely recorded by their Spanish
conquerors, noted chroniclers being the Franciscan priest Fray Bernardino de
Sahagiin with his comprehensive Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva Espana,
and the physician to the King of Spain, Dr Francisco Hernandez who, between 1570-
1575, published his Nova plantarum, animalium et mineralium mexicanorum
historia. The earliest New World herbal to be translated from Latin was that of the
Seville physician Nicholas Monardes (1568), who wrote Joyfull Newes out of the
New-Found Worlde (Rohde, 1922; Kreig, 1965; Cotton, 1996).

Information on medicinal plants can now be found in documents and databases

from a wide range of disciplines, much of which is now being made available in
electronic form. In a recent survey of primary publications by Bhat (1997) ca. 25%
of
the total volume of literature currently being generated on medically related
subjects
appeared in less than 10 periodicals. Approximately 50% of the total volume were
spread over some 50 titles and the remaining 50% were scattered through 2500
periodicals belonging to a wide range of disciplines which, in addition to purely
medical and related subjects, included botany, anthropology, agriculture,
horticulture,
chemistry and phytochemistry, aromatic plants, etc. Details of useful databases are
also provided by Bhat (1997). Examples of taxonomic publications providing useful
information on medicinal plants are to be found in Heywood (1971, 1977) for the
Human and Veterinary Medicinal Plants 323

Umbelliferae and Compositae respectively, also regional surveys, e.g. Oliver (1960)
for Nigeria and Oliver-Bever (1986) for West Africa.

2. MEDICINAL PLANTS FOR HUMANS

Of the 250,000 flowering plants in the world only ca. 5-10% have been studied
either chemically or for their physiological activity. Mendelsohn and Balick (1995,
1997) have estimated that the flora of the world's forests, which represent
approximately one half of the world's flowering plants, contain ca. 355 drugs, of
which a mere 12.5% have so far been discovered.

For centuries there were only three major drugs, opium, digitalis and quinine,
with alcohol sometimes considered as a fourth, Quinine, from the bark of Cinchona
officinalis, is reputed to have been used in 1638 by the Countess of Chinchon
(hence
the generic name), second wife of the Viceroy of Peru, the bark appearing in Europe
in ca. 1645 and cited in the London Pharmacopaeia of 1677.

A century ago modern pharmacology began to emerge from the accumulation of

unusual concoctions which, in addition to fresh and dried plant material, often
contained strange and rather revolting ingredients, such as sundry dead creatures
and
their organs, excrement, ground medicinal earths such as terra lemnia, etc. The new
pharmaceuticals were very much influenced by developments in chemistry, and while
synthetic drugs may now appear to dominate the pharmaceutical prescriptions of the
developed countries in recent years, the percentage of prescriptions based
primarily
on natural plant products, including antibiotics, has remained fairly constant at
ca.
25% over a number of years, Furthermore, according to Duke (1992) 80 to 90% of the
world's population still rely mainly on traditional materia medica and their
practitioners; similar figures apply to livestock and ethnoveterinary care, with
many
of the plants being used to treat both humans and livestock. Despite this, the
developing countries still largely rely on traditional medicines, of which 85%
contain
materials of plant origin. Even a developed country such as Chile, with a flora of
ca.
5215 species, over 570 (11%) are used in traditional medicines and the tally is by
no
means exhaustive,

In West Africa some 7349 species were recorded by Keay (1954, 1958) and
Hepper (1963, 1972). Many of these plants are used in traditional medicine and the
active phytochemical compounds for the majority of them were examined by Oliver-
Bever (1986), with only 9.6% of unknown quality. Since most medicinal plants are
reputed to cure several, often unrelated disorders, their efficacy in most cases
must be
considered doubtful. Burkill (1985, 1994), for example, recorded over 200 species
being used against venereal diseases, yet West Africa certainly doesn't warrant a
clean bill of health for those diseases. This does not imply that all herbal
medicines
should be disregarded, but until clinical trials can be carried out their efficacy
remains unconfirmed (Kreig, 1965; WHO, 1976; Zin and Weiss, 1980; Marticorema
324 Chapter 16

and Quezada, 1985; Kochhar and Singh, 1989; Waterman, 1989; Lewington, 1990;
Cox and Ballick, 1994; Ibrahim, 1996; McCorkle ef al., 1996; Sheldon et al,, 1997).

2.1 Wild and Cultivated Plant Sources of Pharmaceuticals

Some pharmaceuticals are obtained exclusively from wild sources, including such
widely used drugs as cascara sagrada from the bark of the North American Rhamnus
purshiana, uva ursi from the circumpolar Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (bearberry, uva-
ursi) and used in the UK since the 13th century, physostigmine from Physostigma
venenosum, and gentian violet from Gentiana spp. Others are obtained from both
wild and cultivated sources, the better known include ginseng from Panax ginseng
and P. quinquefolius, senna from Senna alexandrina (syn. Cassia senna, C.
acutifolia and Senna acutifolia), reserpine from Rauvolfia vomitoria, R. serpentina
and R. tetraphylla, and nux vomica from Strychnos nux-vomica.

Panax ginseng is highly regarded as a ‘dose of immortality” in China and used as

a panacea for all bodily ills and an aphrodisiac. Similarly, in North America the
Cherokee Indians consider the related P. quinquefolius as the ‘plant of life’ with
magical powers of healing and aphrodisiac properties. In western medicine ginseng
is
regarded more as a stimulant or tonic, although in formal Chinese and Russian
medicine it is much more highly regarded (Martin, 1983; Prescott-Allen and
Prescott-
Allen, 1986; Blackwell, 1990; Rasoanaivo, 1990).

A considerable number of widely used pharmaceutical products are obtained from

cultivated plants, including morphine, codeine, thebaine, noscapine, narceine,
papaverine, etc. from Papaver somniferum subsp. somniferum (opium poppy),
bromelin from Ananas comosus, syn. A. sativus (pineapple), colchicine from
Colchicum autumnale (autumn crocus), digitoxin from Digitalis purpurea (foxglove),
digoxin from D. lanata (Greek foxglove), cocaine from Erythroxylum coca (coca),
and leurocristine, vinblastine, vincristine, vincaleucoblastine, etc. obtained from
Catharanthus roseus (Madagascar periwinkle). The leaves of the latter were formerly
harvested from the wild, they are now obtained from cultivated plants. This is
hardly
surprising when 2 tons of leaves are required to produce the 1 g of alkaloid needed
to
treat leukaemia for 6 weeks.

The milky juice from the unripe fruit of Carica papaya (pawpaw, papaya) is the
source of the enzymes papain and chymopapain and the polysaccharide pectin.
Papain is widely used as a meat tenderiser, the usual food grade papain being
capable
of dissolving about 35 times its own weight of lean meat; it is deactivated by
cooking.
Its action is similar to the ferments of the gastric and pancreatic juices, hence
its use
in invalid diets. Papain is also used medically to prevent adhesions, and in very
low
concentrations for digestion remedies; it can also be used in cleansing fluids for
soft
contact lenses. Chymopapain is used to dissolve discs in the treatment of prolapsed
intervertebral discs. Pectin has been used in the place of blood as a transfusion
fluid
Human and Veterinary Medicinal Plants 325

in cases of haemorrhage and shock (Prescott-Allen and Prescott-Allen, 1986;

Robbins, 1995; Macpherson, 1996).

The lower plants must not be ignored. The dried sclerotia (ergot) of the fungus
Claviceps purpurea (ergot), provides the phamaceutical alkaloids ergometrinine,
ergotoxine and ergotamine. The antibiotic penicillin is obtained from the mould
Penicillium notatum, streptomycin from the soil bacterium Streptomyces griseus,
with aureomycin and other tetracyclines also from soil organisms. The lichen Usnea
barbata is commercially utilised in Scandinavia as a source of the antibiotic usnic
acid. Among the marine red algae Digenia simplex and Chondria spp. have also been
successfully exploited in Asia for their anthelmintic properties, and extracts of
Constantinea simplex used against the herpes simplex virus (Kreig, 1965; Brown,
1977; Launert, 1981; Fenical, 1983).

2.1.1 The Story of the Aspirin

The history of the common aspirin well illustrates the struggle to purify a
somewhat hazardous herbal remedy and the apparently poor communications between
scientists, while at the same time correcting some misconceptions regarding the
origin of aspirin. The of the analgesic and antipyretic properties of the powdered
bark
of Salix alba (white willow) was known to Hippocrates in the Sth century BC and
recorded by Dioscorides in his De materia medica of 77 AD. It was ‘rediscovered’ in
1758 by the Rev. Edward Stone and initially ignored. It was in the 1820s that the
Swiss pharmacist Johann S.F.Pagenstecher first extracted salicylic acid (then known
as spirsiure; ‘spir’ for Spirea, ‘siure’ from the German for acid) from Filipendula
ulmaria, syn. Spirea ulmaria (meadowsweet), a drug with pain-killing properties but
having unfortunate severe side-effects on the stomach lining. In 1895 the German
chemist Felix Hoffman managed to eliminate these side-effects by converting the
salicylic acid to 2-O-acetylsalicylic acid, a substance that not only acted as an
analgesic but also as an antipyretic and anti-inflammatory. Four years later
Hoffman
and his colicague Heinrich Dreser developed acetylsalicyate, better known as
aspirin
(a' for ‘acetyl’, 'spir' for ‘Spirea), which was then patented by the drug company
Bayer in the following year.

It was in 1826 that two Italians discovered that the active ingredient of the bark
of
Salix alba was salicin which a French chemist purified 3 years later. In 1839,
another
Italian chemist prepared salicylic acid from salicin. Thus the active ingredient in
aspirin could from henceforth be obtained from both the willow and meadowsweet,
although it is not clear whether Hoffman was aware of this alternative source.
Today
it is obtained synthetically by the action of ethanoic anhydride on salicylic acid;
US
production in 1981 amounted to 18 000 tonnes. Salicylic acid is also used in the
manufacture of dyes, liniments and rust-resisting fluids.

Salicylic acid also occurs naturally as methyl salicylate (oil of wintergreen) in

Gaultheria procumbens (checkerberry), from which it was originally obtained; it is
326 Chapter 16

now extracted from the distilled bark of Betula lenta (sweet birch) (Hill, 1952;
Sharp,
1990; Duin and Sutcliffe, 1992; Mabberley, 1997).

22 Developing New Pharmaceuticals

Despite the enormous wealth of information available about reputed medicinal

plants in the United States, very few new and marketable drugs have been
discovered.
After 25 years of testing some 40,000 plants, the National Cancer Institute have
failed
to identify a single agent of general use in the treatment of human cancer. The
single
outstanding exception was the more or less accidental discovery of the anti-cancer
properties of leurocristine and vincaleucoblastine in Catharanthus roseus. It was
an
accidental discovery since the researchers of the Eli Lilly and Company were only
examining the plant because of its reputed hypoglycaemic properties for the
treatment
of diabetes! A further screening of some 200 plants with interesting traditional
usage
yielded a further half dozen plants with these anticancer substances, Similarly,
after
over a decade of screening of alkaloid-containing plants, the Smith Kline and
French
Company failed to produce a single new product. This failure is considered to be
due
to an almost total lack of interaction between chemists, botanists, biologists and
physicians. Neither should collaboration between classical scholars and scientists
be
neglected (Farnsworth, 1984; Tyler, 1986).

By way of contrast and arising from a combination of a national interest in herbal

remedies and less rigorous regulations Germany has produced a number of new drugs
in recent years, although should any evidence of toxicity be found, the preparation
would be promptly withdrawn. Symphytum officinale (comfrey), for example, which
is widely used in allopathic medicine, was found to contain carcinogenic
pyrrolizidine
alkaloids. Surprisingly, although no longer available in Germany, it is still
available
in the USA, despite that country's reputation for stricter drug laws, especially
with
regard to carcinogens. Interestingly, comfrey contains the glycoside allantoin, a
useful plant substitute for the maggots of Lucilia sericata (sheep blowfly), which
were
formerly used in the healing of suppurating wounds (Launert, 1981; Tyler, 1986).

Placing a new drug on the market is an expensive process following the initial
collection it will take 9-12 years of preclinical and clinical trials before
acceptance,
and at a cost of ca. $125 million per successful drug. Even before any
investigations
can begin, it is now essential to establish who can purchase and who can sell the
genetic plant material. Initially drug companies will compete in identifying
potential
drugs, since the first to succeed will thereby obtain rights over other
competitors. Yet
by so doing, the allocation of exclusive rights to a drug company to screen a
forest
will limit the number of screens that the company can employ and consequently the
number of active ingredients likely to be discovered. It therefore follows that
open
competition will encourage a wider screening and thus increase the number of active
ingredients discovered (Baerheim Svendsen, 1984 cited by Tyler, 1986; Heywood,
1990).
Human and Veterinary Medicinal Plants 327

Fourie et al. (1992) investigated a number of traditional medicinal plants in South

Africa recorded on a pharmaceutical data base. They used a number of criteria for
selecting potential plants for further investigation, including the convergence of
a
series of indications on their medical use, the coincidence of information from
various sources, reports from southern Africa, and whether their chemistry and
pharmacology has been extensively investigated. A much better chance of finding
pharmaceutically active ingredients in a plant that has been widely used for
treating
ailments throughout all or much of its distribution range (endemics are the
exception)
can be generally be expected from such studies, However, it is not unknown for some
traditional compound medicines to contain placebo plant materials which have been
deliberately introduced in an attempt to disguise the source of the active
ingredients.
The presence of toxic secondary metabolites in herbal remedies is an additional
hazard. For example, the genus Heliotropium has a number of species, including H.
bacciferum and H. ramosissimum, that are still widely used as herbal remedies yet
are
known to possess carcinogenic properties.

22.1 Screening Processes

The screening of plants with known active ingredients can be expected to have a
greater chance of yielding useful drugs than a blanket screening process. Although
there are ca. 500 screening processes that can be used to test new drugs, a major
drug
company is only likely to use 50-75 screens (Macksad et al., 1970; Sims, 1981;
Fourie et al., 1992).

Fourie et al. (1992) describe how, after a potential plant has been identified,
collected, dried and milled, it is exhaustively extracted with dichloro-methane-
methanol to ensure maximum removal of all the soluble compounds regardless of any
conventions regarding the use of the plant in traditional medicine. The removal of
unwanted tars and macromolecules prior to the initial pharmacological screening is
achieved using an open gelica gel column, through which they are unable to pass.
Any pharmaceutical activity identified in the crude extract is then likely to show
enhanced activity on testing, while the fractions obtained after careful
combinations
are well suited to further testing. A number of basic pharmaceutical screening
tests
are available in the pharmacological programme. These are: (1) General
toxicological
and central nervous system effects (Irwin screen); (2) Analgesic, anti-
inflammatory,
anti-hypersensitive, anti-ulcer, narcotic analgesic, anti-metrazol (anti-
convulsant),
anti-depressant, anti-arthythmic and diuretic tests; and (3) Anti-microbial/ anti-
fungal activity tests. In addition to the above the structural determinations of
purified
compounds are carried out.

In the past the lack of simple bioassay procedures have inhibited the screening for
physiological activities and in the identification of active constituents by
fractionation. For bioassays exposing brine shrimp (Artemia salina) to varying
concentrations of the test material to obtain an LDs, value (median lethal dose -
the
328 Chapter 16

dose at which a toxic substance will kill 50% of the brine shrimps) is a
convenient,
rapid, reliable and inexpensive method. Preliminary development trials with the
potalo-disk assay for observing the inhibition of crown gall tumours induced by
Agrobacterium tumefaciens appears promising for testing certain kinds of anti-
tumour activity.

The identification and quantification of nanogram quantities of constituents in ca.

1 mg of a tissue sample is now possible using multistage or tandem mass
spectrometry (ms/ms) without the need for prior extraction or purification. While
the
structure of complex plant constituents can now be determined using X-ray crystall-
ography and the various variations of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.

Providing adequate supplies of raw material for drug production can be a problem
Plant-cell-culture techniques can now be used to bulk up sparse raw material and
produce large quantities of undifferentiated plant cells, However, the apparently
homogeneous populations of cells are, in fact, quite heterogeneous regarding their
ability to biosynthesise and accumulate desired secondary constituents. (Barz and
Ellis, 1981 cited by Tyler, 1986). Selection procedures are necessary to obtain
high-
yielding subpopulations. Al present the method is only economically feasible for
costly and unique plant products such as diosgenin from Dioscorea deltoidea,
serpentine from Catharanihus roseus, and ubiquinone-10 from Nicotiana tabacum
(Tyler, 1986).

Genetic engineered micro-organisms are now being successfully used for the
commercial production of various enzymes, hormones, antibodies, vaccines, etc.
Recently Dr Miuguel Goez of Cinvestav, [rapuato, Mexico developed the world's first
vaccine-carrying banana for use against cholera, enabling the vaccine to be used in
remote areas and thereby dramatically reducing the cost of traditional jabs and the
need for refrigerated vaccine (BBC Tomorrow's World, 3 May 1966). Bananas,
however, do have the disadvantage of a short shelf life. Hopefully research in
Holland
may be able to overcome this problem by substituting honey from GM vaccine-
carrying crops. Another recent technique developed by Canadian researchers is to
insert GAD protein from the pancreas into the DNA of the potato to provide
protection against type 1 diabetes in mice since they have the same pancreas
structure
and immune response as humans. It is hoped the technique can be adapted for human
use. There is also the possibility of producing other GM plants for treating a
variety
of auto-immune diseases such as multiple sclerosis and rheumatoid arthritis
(Pincock,
1997).

23 Marketing Pharmaceuticals

The commercial marketing of approved plant pharmaceutical products, whether

whole plant products such as senna pods, or their extracts, have a number of
disadvantages. These are: (1) The enormous bulk of material that has to be
processed
in order to extract a particular drug, An extreme example being the 0.0003%
Human and Veterinary Medicinal Plants 329

vincristine yielded by Catharanthus roseus; (2) Variation in bioactive

phytochemical
content due to the season, environment and the genetics of the individual; (3)
Plant

availability and the cost of harvesting; (4) Storage losses coupled with problems
in
marketing and their affect on growers/harvesters, middlemen and the pharmaceutical

companies; (5) The commercial necessity of obtaining a steady supply of consistent

quality; and (6) The high cost of producing and marketing the product to approved

standards. When the cost of research and development by the top 20 drug companies
in the world over the past 15 years is divided by the number of genuinely new
compounds discovered and marketed, the cost of developing each new compound is
between $750 million and $2000 million (Office of Technology Assessment, 1983;
Horrobin and Lapinskas, 1998).

In the United States the development costs for a new drug product is almost
prohibitively high, in the region of $50-100 million. It is lower in Germany where
a
docirine of reasonable certainty based on the clinical experience of general
practitioners supplemented by literature evidence and manufacturer's data, is
substituted for strict clinical trials. These extreme examples among the developed
countries illustrate the inhibiting influence of a lack of interest and strict
federal
regulations in the United States and the more realistic government regulations
prevailing in Germany. Problems with the introduction of oraflex and thalidomide
have demonstrated that neither regime is foolproof.

In order to overcome such difficulties many pharmaceutical drugs are now

synthesised, the chemical analogues either resembling the natural active principle
or
are an improved variation thereon. They have the definite practical advantage of
assured quality, thus enabling accurate dosages to be administered. For example,
Morphine has provided the prototype of hydromorphine; lysergic acid from the
hydrolysis of ergot alkaloids has been converted to methysergide; cocaine has
produced procaine, while physostigmine has been metamorphosed to neostigmine
and salicin improved to provide acetylsalicylic acid (Tyler, 1986).

3. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND TO VETERINARY MEDICINE

Physicians for animals were officially recognised in China according to the Zhouli
(Rites of Zhou) during the 11th century BC and their ancient tradition of herbal
veterinary medicine continues fo be practised to the present day. In Ancient Egypt
the
priests of the lion goddess Sekhmet practised both human and veterinary medicine,
the latter with special regard to the sacrificial bulls. Indeed, the Kahun
veterinary
papyrus written in ca. 185 BC, and discovered by Flinders Petrie in 1889, is
unequivocally a religious publication. Many of the beliefs and practices of
Sekhmet's
priestly healers even appear to have been handed down to the Dinka pastoralists now
living in the Nile Valley of southern Sudan (Smith, 1976; Hoizey and Hoizey, 1993;
Lin and Panzer 1994; Schwabe, 1996).
330 Chapter 16

Veterinary medicine was certainly practised in Mesopotamia during the 2nd

millennium BC and is cited in the Code of Hammurabi, who reigned 1792-1750 BC,
and an honorific inscription for a hippiatroi (horse doctor) was noted ca. 130 BC.
The earliest major Greek work on veterinary medicine is a collaborative compilation
known as the Corpus Hippiatricorum Graecorum. It contains textual and nontextural
excepts from lost writings on the treatment of horses and other equines compiled
during Byzantine times by various unknown or little-known 4th century AD authors,
and later revised for the emperor Constantine VII as Porphyrogenitus (905-959 AD).

In Rome an equarius medicus (horse doctor) was recognised by the end of the 1st
century BC; certainly a mulomedicus (mule doctor) and a medicus veterinarius,
medicvus iumentarius or medicus pecuarius (livestock doctor) are attested for the
late-Roman empire. Although emphasis was placed on the care horses and other
Equidae, other domestic animals were also included. This is evident from the three
books of De re rustica by Marcus Terentius Varro, who lived from 116-27 BC, book 5
of Virgil's Georgics of ca. 29 BC and, in the 1st century AD, of Renatus Flavius
Vegetius's Digestorum artis mulomedicine libri, and books 6-9 of Lucius Tunes
Moderatus Columella's De re rustica of ca. 60-65 AD. Veterinary medicine was and
remained throughout ancient antiquity primarily a matter of empirical practice.

There were prejudices against the action and status of ancient veterinarians,
stemming from the lack of any theoretical or philosophical development of animal
medicine and other factors, such as the treatment of animals being considered
undignified, while some philosophers considered the subject trivial or even
disagreeable. A similar view was expressed by Publius Vegetius Renatus (ff. 450-500
AD) in his Artis veternariae, sive mulomedicinae libri quatuor, first printed in
Basle
in 1528 (Smith, 1976; Bodson, 1996). In the UK a similar professional disdain for
veterinary medicine prevailed. The only early English herbal to devote a chapter to
herbs useful for animals was that of W. Coles, The Art of Simpling and published in
1656 (Rohde, 1922).

Early veterinarians, like surgeons, served an apprenticeship, unlike the physicians

who, as early as the 10th and 11th centuries could receive a professional education
at
Salerno’s flourishing medical school and during the 12th century at the
universities
of Bologna and Paris. It was not until 1762 that the first veterinary college was
established, the Fcole Nationale Vétérinaire at Lyons. In the UK the Veterinary
College, Camden Town was founded in 1792, later to become the Royal Veterinary
College. Such was the low status of veterinary practice in the UK that it was not
until
the passing of the Veterinary Surgeons Act of 1948 that veterinary practice by
unqualified persons became illegal (Miller and West, 1956; Duin and Sutcliffe,
1992;
Robertson, 1994).

In India the three major traditional schools of human medicine, Ayurveda, Siddha
and Unani-Tibb, were also involved in veterinary medicine. Although the Vedic
scriptures made reference to veterinary medicine, the Shalihotra, in the late Vedic
period was the first Sanskrit book entirely devoted to the subject. The first
Ayurveda
Human and Veterinary Medicinal Plants 331

veterinary clinics were established during the 3rd century BC. Among the Sanskrit
scripts associated with the period are the Aswa Chikitsa and the Gaja Chikitsa on
equine and bovine medicine, respectively (Anjaria, 1996).

4. MEDICINAL PLANTS FOR ANIMALS

Ethnoveterinary medicine, or traditional veterinary remedies, is defined as

dealing with the folk beliefs, knowledge, skills, methods and practices pertaining
to
the health care of animals and appears to have a practical beneficial use for
livestock,
especially in the developing countries. The advantages are: (1) Stockmen are
familiar
with their use; (2) A significant proportion of the remedies appear to work; (3)
The
remedies are freely available or at a reasonable cost; and (4) They are usually
easily
administered, either topically or orally. The disadvantages are (1) Because
particular
methods are often very localised, scope for further dissemination is limited; (2)
Efficacy is variable, depending on the season, method of preparation, etc. and few
remedies have been clinically validated; (3) Some remedies are totally ineffective;
(4)
Remedies are ineffective against acute viral diseases of animals; and (5) Large
scale
application of ethnoveterinary medicine often impractical due to the bulk of raw
material required for treatment (Mathias-Mundy and McCorkle, 1989; Fielding
1998).

A number of regional and national studies have already been made, including
India (FAO, 1984a), Thailand (FAO, 1984b), Nepal (FAO, 1984c), Pakistan (FAO,
1986b), Sri Lanka (FAQ, 1991a), Indonesia (FAO, 1991b), Philippines (FAO, 1992),
and Africa (McCorkle and Mathias-Mundy, 1992). However, traditional veterinary
herbal medicine is not the prerogative of the developing countries. The ancient
custom of the shepherds of the Cévennes region of France hanging a bouquet of herbs
from the roof of sheep pens persists to this day, some 26 plant species are
currently or
traditionally used in the bouquets to combat dermatological problems in livestock
and
people (Brisebarre, 1996). Yet, despite the wide-spread prevalence of animal herbal
lore I am unaware of any popular modern herbals on the subject, apart from
publications intended for organic farmers.
Chapter 17

Plant Toxins and their Applications

Throughout the plant kingdom plants are subjected to mammalian herbivory, and
insect and fungal infestations. During the course of evolution, they have produced
a
number of secondary compounds that are not directly involved with the basic
metabolism but, by chance, serve with varying degrees of efficacy to enhance,
reduce
or destroy the plant's palatability to phytophagous members of the animal kingdom.
All angiosperms tend to accumulate concentrations of at least one type of secondary
compound, whether it be alkaloid, flavonoid or terpenoid, but rarely concentrations
of
different classes of secondary compounds. Such defensive phytochemicals offer an
explanation of what Feeny (1975) cited by Harborne (1988) considered a conspicuous
non-event as to how the plant kingdom had managed to survive and dominate the
earth against the predations of the numerically greatly superior phytophagous
insects.
Cruciferae members, for example, commonly contain a glucosinolate-myriosinase
system that principally acts as a defence against herbivore insects (Blau ef al.,
1978;
Chew, 1988). Yet another group of secondary compounds are responsible for disease
resistance (see Section 4),

The effect of plant toxins are governed by a number of factors. The quantity of
toxic principle present or absent can depend on climatic or soil conditions, stage
of
plant growth and genetic constitution. Even with such variables, the effect of the
toxin may vary with the breed, health and susceptibility of the recipient, and
quantity
ingested. See also Chapters 8 and 10 for further discussion on human and livestock
toxins.

L VERTEBRATE TOXINS

Vertebrate plant toxins can be presumed to have evolved as a defensive

mechanism against herbivory. However, Molyneux and Ralphs (1992) argue that
insect herbivory subject plants to far greater stress than mammals, and since the

333
334 Chapter 17

rangeland floras of western North America and Australia evolved before the arrival
of
large herbivores, it follows that the toxins must have developed primarily in
response
to insect herbivory. For instance, the concentrations of pyrrolizidine alkaloids
present
in Senecio spp. are at their maximum at the bud stage of growth; in S. riddellii

(Riddell's groundsel) it is by as much as 18% of the dry weight, thereby ensuring

seed
production will be uninterrupted by insect predation. The toxins offer no deterrent
to
grazing livestock early in the growing season, although the consumption of large
quantities could eventually lead to fatal liver failure. The authors therefore
regard
livestock poisoning to be an unfortunate accident and, paradoxically, an indicator
of
the potency of the toxin. Of course, the reverse can also occur, as in Conium
maculatum (hemlock) where the alkaloid coniine concentration decreases with age.

It is fortunate that while many toxins offer protection against insect predators,
they are not all toxic to mammals, otherwise there would be no grazing livestock!
Molyneux and Ralphs (1992) conclude: (1) Plant toxins confer a compelitive
advantage to the plant by providing protection against insect predation or plant
pathogens; livestock poisoning is coincidental; (2) Increased or decreased
palatability
to livestock is poorly correlated with the presence of toxins; and (3) Because
insects
are specifically targeted, either by concentrations of toxins in a particular
location in
the plant or by production at concentrations sufficient to intoxicate the insects,
livestock poisoning can be avoided by careful management. Since most plant
communities will include some toxic species it is inevitable that livestock will be
exposed to such plants. Toxicity follows ingestion and its effect will depend upon
the
quantity and rapidity with which it is eaten, the risk being greatly increased
during
times of dearth. Local immunity to toxicity can sometimes be acquired,
alternatively
the animals learn which plants to avoid. In southern Africa, for example, locally
bred
cattle are reputed to be unaffected by Moraea spp. (tulps) although the plants are
definitely lethal to introduced and hungry cattle.

The ingestion by grazing livestock of toxic plants are a source of obvious direct
economic loss to the grazier through death, emaciation, poor growth, abortion,
impaired reproductive efficiency or birth defects. An example of the latter are
ewes
grazing Veratrum album (white false hellebore) in the upland pastures of Eurasia
giving birth to lambs with a single, central eye. This is possibly the inspiration
for the
one-eyed god Polyphemus in Homer's Odyssey, who captured and was later blinded
by the escaping Ulysses. The plant has been used in Europe since the 1st century to
control rodents and plant pests. The active principles are the extremely toxic
veratrum alkaloids. Veratrine and other alkaloids act as a sedative and depressant
of
the heart and nervous system, and are used for treating high blood pressure
(Blackwell, 1990; James et al., 1992; Macpherson, 1995; Mabberley, 1997).

The intensity of toxicity may also vary within a species. For instance, in some
areas Acacia georginae (Georgina gidya) are toxic while in other areas they are
non-
toxic and may be safely browsed. The toxicity is attributed by some to the amount
of
fluorine in the soil and the differing abilities of the plants to take up the
fluorine and
Plant Toxins and their Applications 335

convert it into fluoroacetate. The toxic principle is probably monofluoracetic

acid,
which occurs in diminishing concentrations in the seeds, pods and leaves (Askew and
Mitchell, 1978, Everist, 1981; James er al., 1992). There is a further complication
in
northern Australia where Georgina gidgee and Eremophila maculata (fuschia bush,
spotted berrigan) may be grazed separately with impunity but are highly toxic when
grazed together. The acacia pods are harmless but contain an enzyme that liberates
prussic acid from the cyanogenic glycoside prunasine present in the fuschia bush
(Jackson and Jacobs, 1985). To add to the confusion, Dowling and McKenzie (1993)
contend that the leaves of E. maculata are potentially toxic at all times but
sufficient
enzymes have to be produced to release toxic amounts of HCN.

Although it is often assumed that ruminants are resistant to the toxic activity of
many substances commonly found in plants, what is non-toxic to one ruminant is not
necessarily non-toxic to others, Verdcourt and Trump (1969) cite the example of the
giraffe in the Nairobi National Park, Kenya habitually eating the foliage of
Elaeodendron buchananii with impunity, foliage that is known to be fatal to other
ruminants, especially sheep. While there is no doubt that rumen fermentation
uniquely confers immunity to the grazing animal, in at least one compound, S-
methylcysteine sulphoxide, the rumen fermentation actually enhances the toxicity
through the synthesis of a highly active metabolism (Duffus and Duffus, 1991).

Examples of plants containing pyrrolizidine alkaloids such as species of

Amsinckia, Astragalus, Crotalaria, Echium, Heliotropium, Senecio and Trichodesma
are known to be toxic, even the nectar of S. jacobaea (ragwort) species is toxic
but
fortunately any honey produced is bitter and off-colour. However, under certain
controlled conditions based on a knowledge of safe levels of toxin concentrations,
etc., Lupinus spp. and Delphinium spp. (larkspur), can be extensively grazed
without
any adverse effects from the toxic anagyrine (Dayton, 1948; Everist, 1972;
Harborne,
1988; James ef al., 1992).

Contact poisons, such as Dieffenbachia spp. (dumb cane) and Euphorbia spp.
contain an irritant sap, the toxic latex of the latter causing skin allergies, it
is also
used to stupefy fish. Contact dermatitis can be caused by the transfer of an
allergenic
substances from the plant to the skin. The classic example is Rhus radicans (poison
ivy), where the 3-n pentadecycatechnol urishiol promotes dermatitis in over 350,000
cases annually in the US alone. Similarly, the furanocoumarins present in Heracleum
montegazzianum (giant hogweed) and Ruta graveolens (rue) cause photodermatitis,
sensitising the skin to ultraviolet radiation and giving rise to severe blistering
in areas
exposed to sunlight (Blackwell, 1990; Mabberley, 1997; Cooper and Johnson, 1998).

11 Homicide Poisons
Phytochemicals acting as homicide poisons may be administered deliberately with

murderous intent, used as an ordeal poison, or ingested accidentally. Murder is

outside the scope of this book, although the distinction between murder and ordeal
336 Chapter 17

poisons can be a very fine one. Trial by ordeal poison subjects the accused to
doses of
toxic substances in order to determine guilt or innocence, and it often depends on
the

skill of administering witch doctor, shaman, etc. in controlling the dose, as well
as

whether guilt has been prejudged by the administer, as to whether the defendant is

deemed not guilty and lives or is guilty and dies. The axiom of the Renaissance

physician, the Swiss Phillipus Paracelsus ca. 1493-1541, ‘Sola dosis facit venenum’

(Only the dose makes the poison) is particularly apposite when referring to ordeal
and

accidental poisoning.

Physostigma venenosum (Calabar or ordeal bean) was formerly widely used as an

prdeal poison in West Africa, the active ingredient being the alkaloid
physostigmine,
also known as eserine. The action of physostigmine produces an identical effect to
stimulating the parasympathetic nervous system, i.e. it constricts the pupil,
stimulates
the gut, increases saliva secretion, and increases the irritability of voluntary
muscle,
and in excess causes general paralysis, It is now used in ophthalmic medicine for
protracted pupillary contraction and in the treatment of glaucoma. It also
counteracts
the action of curare, as well as being used as an antidote to atropine poisoning
(Blackwell, 1990; Macpherson, 1995; Mabberley, 1997).

1.2 Arrow Poisons

The earliest records of the use of plant toxins for arrow and spear poisons date
from the Rig Veda of ca. 1200 BC, although doubtless they date back into pre-
history.
They continue to be used by traditional hunters today. Some of the phytochemicals
involved are shown in Table 24.

TABLE 24. Plant toxins used as arrow poisons (Cotton, 1995, reproduced by kind
permission of John Wiley &
Sons)

Chemical type Biological activity Plant familics {not exhaustive)

Toxic alkaloids ~~ Acetylcholine inhibitors, leading to muscle Loganiaceae,

Solanaceae,
paralysis, e.g. d-tubocurarine chloride Umbelliferac

Cardiac Inhibit sodium/potassium ion pumps in heart Common among Apocynacede,

glycosides muscle cells, leading to abnormal heart activity Asclepiadaceac and

Moraceae

Probably the best documented is curare, the crystalline alkaloid d-tubocurarine

chloride, obtained from the bark of the vine Chondrodendron tomentosum of the
Amazonian rain forest. The curare acts by paralysing the muscle nerve endings
Fortunately it is only toxic when it enters the blood stream, consequently game can
be
eaten without any ill effects provided there are no open sores in the mouth or
throat.
The action of curare as an arrow poison has been reapplied for medical use, with
pure
curare now being used in anaesthesia as a muscle relaxer. Interestingly, its action
is
Plant Toxins and their Applications 337

antagonised by neostigmine, a synthetic analogue of physostigmine (Kreig, 1965;

Blackwell, 1990; Macpherson, 1995; Cotton, 1996).

13 Fish Poisons

A wide range of plant-derived fish poisons, piscicides or ichythyotoxins have been

used world-wide by traditional fishermen to kill or stupefy fish, especially in the
tropics and subtropics. Many of the toxins interfere with the respiration
processes,
while others act upon the central nervous system, resulting in a range of effects,
including heart or respiratory failure. The phytochemicals involved are shown in
Table 25.

TABLE 25. Plant toxins used as fish poisons (Cotton, 1996, reproduced by kind
permission of John Wiley &
Sons)

Chemical type Biological activity Plant families {not exhaustive)

Isoflavonoids Interferes with mitochondrial Restricted to Leguminosae

activity, leading to asphyxiation, e.g. subfamily Papilionoideae

rotenone, tephrosine, lonchocarpin
Saponins modify water tension, blocking

respiration at gills

Toxic alkaloids

Cardiac glycosides

Tannins

Cyanogenic glycosides

Ichthyoctherol

Acetylcholine inhibitors, leading to

muscle paralysis, e.g. d-tubocurarine
chloride

Inhibit sodium/potassium ion pumps

in heart muscle cells, leading to
abnormal heart activity

May act through cross-linking with

gill proteins, leading to asphyxiation
Release hydrogen cyanide to inhibit
cytochrome oxidase

Polyacetylenic alcohol interfering

with mitochondria, leading to

asphyxiation

Particularly common among

Loganiaceag, Solanaceae and
Umbelliferae

Common among Apocynaceae,

Asclepiadaceae and Moraceae

Common among Euphorbiaceae.

Flacourtiaceae and Rosaceae
Restricted to members of the

Compositae

Needham (1984) reports that in China the use of Buddleja lindleyana to stupefy

fish was recorded as early as the 6th century BC in the Tzu-f Pén T'shao Ching (The
Classical Pharmacopoeia of Tzu-I), and cited in the Pén Tshao Kang Mu (The Great
Pharmacopoeia) of 1596 AD, which is a compendium of plants recorded in the
Chinese literature since antiquity, The seeds of Illicium anisasum (Japanese anise)
were similarly used to stupefy fish. Slow-moving small rivers or pools are usually
required in order that the toxins remain sufficiently concentrated to function
properly.
338 Chapter 17

It should be noted that the indiscriminate use of piscicides may seriously deplete
the
reserves of fish in the area since they will destroy all age classes.

The only plant piscicide recorded for the British Isles is Euphorbia hybernica
(Irish spurge); the local fishermen in Kerry and West Cork throw the crushed herb
into the water. The saponins present in the milky latex destroy the gill tissue and
the
dead salmon and trout are then caught floating on the surface (Vickery, 1995;
Mabberley, 1997).

2. INVERTEBRATE TOXINS

In Section 1 it was pointed out that toxic secondary metabolites probably

developed as protection against insect rather than vertebrate hebivory. In the wild
such protection may be adequate but under cultivation plants will be exposed to far
higher concentrations of insect pests and will consequently require greater
protection.

While it is possible to breed for insect resistance, it is conceivable that a

species
that has to use its energy on chemical, physiological or anatomical characteristics
against insect predation is less likely to devote all its energy into producing
maximum
yields. Indeed, for the subsistence farmer low yielding, resistant varieties will
out-
yield the non-resistant but potentially higher yielding varieties/and may also be
better
suited to their needs because they do not require intensive inputs. However, in
breeding for disease resistance using genetic engineering techniques there is a
danger that it could encourage resistance to the toxin if the major gene being
introduced does not originate from the general genetic diversity of the plant
material.
The introduction of the BT toxin in tobacco, for example, can be a cause for
concern
because it exposes the insects to higher levels of BT toxin than it would normally
experience in the field, thereby encouraging a rapid selection for resistance to
the BT
toxin (van Emden, 1989).

An alternative which is rapidly gaining support among environmentalists is

biological control which, from an ecological viewpoint, is defined as ‘the action
of
parasites, predators, or pathogens in maintaining another organism’s population
density at a lower average than would occur in their absence’. It is the study and
utilisation by man of parasites, predators and pathogens for the regulation of host
population densities (DeBuch, 1964).

The successful use of pathogens for insect control is dependent upon the biology
and characteristics of both the host insects and parasitic micro-organisms and the
suitability of environment conditions for infection. The advantages of
microbiological
control are: (1) Pathogens are harmless and non-toxic to other forms of life; (2)
The
relatively high degree of specificity of most pathogens tends to protect beneficial
insects; (3) Many pathogens are compatible with many insecticides; (4) They are
relatively inexpensive; (5) They are highly variable in their application. Some
micro-
organisms may bring about permanent control, others may be used as sprays or dusts;
Plant Toxins and their Applications 339

(6) The apparent slowness by which susceptible insects develop resistance; and (7)
Only doses are often necessary for control.

The disadvantages are: (1) Careful and correct timing of the application in
relation to the incubation period of the disease; (2) There is a relatively marked
specificity; and (3) A danger of introducing the micro-organisms to new areas where
they may become uncontrollable (Hall, 1964).

2.1 Molluscicides

Schistosomiasis, formerly known as bilharziasis, is a common infection of

humans in Africa, Middle and Far East and South America. The intermediate host of
the fluke responsible are fresh-water snails, mainly belonging to the genera
Biomphalaria, Bulinus and Oncomelania, against which a number of plant
molluscicides have been evaluated. The active principles involved include
monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, quinones, flavonoids, rotenoids, triterpene saponins,
spirostanol saponins, iridoids, coumarins, alkaloids, isobutylamides, and tannins.
Unfortunately very few plants satisfy the criteria for large-scale application;
many do
not have sufficient activity. The LCy, (the concentration in water that kills 90%
of the
target snail population) should be less than 10 mg 1 in order to be competitive
with
synthetic molluscicides, and not require the use of excessive amounts of plant
material. The plants must be readily available, and easy to propagate, maintain,
harvest and, if required, process. Leaves and fruits are definitely preferred to
root
sources, which would be injurious to the plant. Promising candidates include
Swartzia
madagascariensis, and Phytolacca dodecandra (endod, pokeweed), their respective
pods/seeds and berries possess saponins with activities of a similar order of
magnitude to those of synthetic molluscicides. Both also have the disadvantage of
being effective piscicides, as too are the fruits of Balanites aegyptiaca. Despite
the
effectiveness of plantings along river banks in controlling schistosomiasis, they
have
met considerable resistance from local fishermen who prefer to have the disease
rather no fish to eat!

The cut herbage of the composite herb Ambrosia maritima, syn. A. senegalensis
(damsissa) has been found effective in Egypt. It has the great advantage of already
growing along the muddy banks of the irrigation canals and, at concentrations of
1000 ppm, harmless to fish. The active ingredients are the sesquiterpene lactones
ambrosin and damsin (Verdcourt and Trump, 1969; Hostettmann and Marston,
1987; Kloos and McCullough, 1987; Lugt, 1987; Mott, 1987; Hall and Walker, 1991;
Wickens, 1998).

I am unaware of any similar work on molluscides in the temperate regions for the
control of Trematoda (liver fluke) affecting domestic livestock, or for the control
of
garden snails..
340 Chapter 17

2.2 Insecticides

It has been estimated that approximately one-third of the world’s food crops are
either damaged or destroyed by insects during crop growth, harvest and storage. In
many of the developing countries the losses are even higher. Crop pest control is,
therefore, a major economic necessity. The use of plants to destroy or deter
insects
have a long history. While their early use may be suspected, early documented
evidence is sparse. From ancient Egypt the Ebers papyrus of ca. 1550 BC refers to
the
use of /nula sp. (fleabane) to repel fleas. The earliest Chinese references to
plant-
based pesticides are to be found in Chou Li (Records of the Rites of Chou), with
parts
dating from the beginning of the Chou dynasty (1030-221 BC). It provides
descriptions of the duties of government officials during the Chou dynasty, and
includes herbal remedies for insect pests using Chrysanthemum indicum, Glycyrrhiza
glabra, Hlicium sp. (Chinese anise) and Melia azedarach, and for insect fumigants
using. Chrysanthemum indicum and Illicium sp., as well as herbal remedies for the
control of human internal parasites, e.g. [llicium sp. but whether the latter is
that used
as an insecticide or a different species is not clear. All the available
information on
indigenous plant pesticides has now been gathered together in a compendium on
Chinese indigenous agricultural drug plants (Needham, 1986; Manniche, 1989).

Jacobson (1982) recognises six groups of plants that are physiologically active to
insects. They are: (1) Plants attractive to insects. This ability can be utilised
by
growing companion crops that are attractive to beneficial insects or attract
harmful
insects away from the crop. Thus, Tropaeolum majus (nasturtium) will attract aphids
away from broccoli, while ornamentals such as Convolvulus tricolor, Fagopyrum
esculentum (buckwheat) and Limnanthes douglasii (poached egg plant) will attract
such beneficial insects as hoverflies and ladybirds that feed on aphids; (2) Plants
repellent to insects. Crop losses from caterpillars in sorghum, wheat and maize
have
been dramatically reduced from 80% to 5% by interplanting with Melinis minutiflora
(molasses grass) as a companion crop; it is a native of tropical Africa but has now
been introduced throughout the tropics. Molasses grass acts by continuously
producing the aromatic compound dimethyl nonatriene, which repels female
butterflies and moths, thereby reducing the number of eggs laid; it also attracts
predatory wasps that feed on any caterpillars; (3) Plants toxic to insects, such as
rotenone from the roots of Derris, Lonchocarpus and Tephrosia, pyrethrin I and II,
cinerin I and II, and jasmolin I and IT from Tanacetum cinerariifolium, and
nicotine
from Nicotiana spp.; (4) Plant produced insect morphogenetic agents, known as
Juvenile hormones (JH), that inhibit or abnormally accelerate normal insect growth
and development, e.g. the hormones cyasterone and ecdysterone isolated from Ajuga
remota produce abnormal head growth in the larvae of Spodoptera frugiperda (fall
armyworm) and Pectinophora gossypiella (pink bollworm); (5) Plants that sterilise
insects. The vapours of calamus oil from Acorus calamas (calamas, sweet flag), for
example, can cause sterility in male Musca domestica (house fly), the female
Plant Toxins and their Applications 341

Callosobruchus chinensis (azuki bean weevil), Dysdercus koenigii (red cotton

stainer) and Trogoderma granarium (khapra beetle); and (6) Plants that deter insect
feeding. Examples include recent research at the Rothamsted Experimental Station,
UK where such anti-feedant compounds as ajuganin from the Labiatae and
polygodial from species of Warburgia and Polygonum have been identified. The
latter can be extracted in quantity from plants, and since a simple synthesis from
Jarnesol pyrophosphate is involved (it is ubiquitous in plants), there is ample
scope
for production using biotechnology techniques. The terpenoid resin produced by
Grindelia camporum is also believed to function as an antifeedant, and is even
produced in sufficient quantities to be considered a potential source of biocrude
(Jacobson, 1982; Timmermann and Hoffmann, 1988; van Emden, 1989; Cole, 1992;
Dales, 1992; Coppen, 1995; Flowerdew, 1995; Anonymous, 19972).

22.1 Derris

Commercial derris is obtained from the legume lianas Derris elliptica (derris
root, tuba-root) and D. ferrugiana, in which the rotenone is present in the roots
at
concentrations of ca. 7%. The insecticide is extracted by grinding the dried root
to a
powder to produce derris dust, which can then be either applied directly to the
plant,
or as a liquid extract containing 40% rotenone. Derris is toxic to animals,
including
fish, as well as insects; the toxic properties disappearing within a few days of
application (Purseglove, 1987; Robbins, 1995).

222 Pyrethrum

Pyrethrum products constitute the world's main biodegradable organic pesticide

which, while lethal to a wide range of insects, can be relatively safely ingested
or
inhaled by humans. The Tanacetum cineariifolium crop is mainly grown by small-
scale farmers because of the absence of a suitable machine for mechanically
harvesting the inflorescence discourages large-scale production. As a consequence
the
demand for consistent quality and quantity is difficult to control. The dried and
ground flowers are solvent extracted, usually with a light petroleum solvent to
obtain
the pyrethrin. It is traded either as a crude extract containing 1-1.5% pyrethrin
or as a
refined extract with either 25% or 50% pyrethrin in a liquid form. However, the
natural pyrethrum alone would not be an economical insecticide without the addition
of piperonal butoxide (PBO) as a synergist. PBO is an important derivative of
safrole, a product isolated from sassafras oil (see Chapter 15), so that the future
of the
pyrethrum industry is linked with the perfume industry and the production of PBO
(Purseglove, 1987; Robbins, 1995).
342 Chapter 17
223 Azadirachtin

In recent years there has been considerable interest in the triterpenoid

azadirachtin isolated from the seeds of Azadirachta indica (neem). This followed
observations that swarms of Schistocerca gregaria (desert locust) never attacked
the
tree. The azadirachtin acts as an antifeedant and insect repellent, as well as an
insect
growth regulator, controlling insects in all the larval life stages.

Water extraction of the crushed seed has been successfully used in the developing
countries. The seed from two mature trees, i.e. 20-30 kg, can normally treat 1 ha.
The
emulsion from ca. 500 gm of kernels steeped in 10 1 of water overnight providing
the
necessary concentration. Commercial formulations are now available for the control
of a wide range of insect pests for food and feed crops.

Neem oil from Azadirachta indica is a powerful germicide, and can be used
topically to control skin-attacking insects such as lice and as a fungicide for
athlete's
foot and ringworm, It is also used for the control of aflatoxin in nuts and seeds,
and
in the control of soil nematodes, the 'bilharzia snail’, and as an insect
repellent.
Nematode control can also be obtained by scattering chopped neem seeds over the
soil
surface. Neem oil is also used commercially in cosmetics, including toothpaste and
soap. Because of the tremendous interest by buyers in neem for its chemical and
pharmaceutical products the price of seed has risen quite dramatically. So much so
that many local farmers can no longer afford to purchase seed (National Research
Council, 1992; Robbins, 1995).

224 Insect Control by Fungi and Bacteria

The control of insect pests by using suspensions of micro-organisms and/or their

products that are specific and lethal to particular insects is becoming
increasingly
important, especially in the wake of insect resistance, the emergence of secondary
pests, and the outcry about toxic residues from the use of conventional
insecticides.

The amino-acid derivative tricholomic acid produced by the fungus Tricholoma

muscarium and muscazone, a toxin produced by Amanita muscaria, also have
insecticidal properties. The fungus Metarrhizium anisopliae has proved effective
against a wide range of insect pests. It is commercially available in Brazil, where
it
has been successfully used to control Ceropidae (spittle-bugs) in pastures and
sugar
cane plantations. It has also been successfully combined with a virus to control
Orcytes spp. (rhinoceros beetle) on palm trees in the Pacific. In the Russian
Federation and USA another fungus, Beauveria bassiana, has been used to control
Laspreyresia pomonella (codling moth) and Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Colorado
potato beetle). In the USA Hirsutella thompsoni has been used in an attempt to
control Phyllocoptruta oleivora (citrus rust mite) in citrus plantations;
unfortunately
the environmental conditions do not favour the fungus and it has yet to find a role
somewhere in citrus pest control. Again in USA, Nomuraea rileyi has proved to be
Plant Toxins and their Applications 343

very effective against caterpillars, especially on soya bean, while Verticillium

lecanii
is used commercially to control both Aphididae and Aleyrodidae (whitefly) in the UK
(Lisansky, 1985; Subba Rao and Kaushik, 1989).

The bacterial control of caterpillars, mosquitoes and blackflies is now also

possible. Commercial strains of Bacillus thuringiensis (BT) are available and have
been successfully used against many leptidopterous insects, including Boarmia
selenaria (giant looper) and Cryptoblabes quidiella (honeydew moth) in avocado
orchids in Israel, Ostrina nubilalis (European corn-borer) as well as Agrotis,
Euxoa
and Feltia species (tobacco cutworms) etc.

Unfortunately, some strains of B. thuringiensis produce the soluble toxin f-

exotoxin which, although highly toxic to house flies, when ingested has a slight
mammalian toxicity, consequently no products containing B-exotoxin are now
marketed in the developed countries except Finland. B. sphaericus is also
considered
as a potentially highly effective pathogen against mosquito larvae, but is not yet
commercially available.

The avermectins, which are derivatives of pentacyclic 16-membered lactones,

isolated from the bacterium Streptomyces avermitilis have proved very effective
against a number of arachnids, insects and crustaceans under field conditions,
including inhibiting the production of queens in Solenopsis invicta (red fire ant).
(Lisansky, 1985; Subba Rao and Kaushik, 1989; Arnon, 1992).

3. HERBICIDES

Herbicides are used for the control of weeds, which are commonly defined as 'a
plant out of place. In the past their control has been either through cultivation
and
management practices or chemical herbicides. More recently the use of fungal
pathogens as bioherbicides has become increasingly popular. See Table 26 for
examples.

TABLE 26. Bioherbicides (Subba Rao and Kauskik, 1989; Watson, 1989; Holliday, 1990)

Fungus Susceptible plant Crop protected

Cercospora rodmanii Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth potential contol
Ceriosporella riparia Ageratina riparia weed - Asia
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Aeschynomene virginica (joint rice, soya

vetch)
Phragmidium violaceum Rubus spp. (blackberries) range - Australia

Phytophthora citrophthora (Oomycota) Morrenia odorata (milkweed vine) citrus

Puccinia chondrillina Chondrilla juncea (skeleton weed) wheat
344 Chapter 17

Such bioherbicides are described by Watson (1989) as "a preparation of living

inoculum of a plant pathogen, formulated and applied in a manner analogous to that
of a chemical herbicide in an effort to control or suppress the growth of a weed
species. .... bioherbicides should not be viewed as alternatives to chemical
herbicides, but rather as complementary tactics in integrated weed management
systems."

In another approach, seed from maize genetically engineered for herbicide

resistance may now be used against Orobanche spp, (broomrape) and Siriga spp.
(witchweed). Once the seed has germinated, the parasite absorbs the herbicide from
the maize and dies. The herbicide is reported to disappear from the crop as it
ripens
and consequently does not affect the cob (Abayo et al, 1998). See Chapter 6 for
further information).

31 Allelopathy

Plant metabolites produced by higher plants may find their way into other
organisms, where they may play a major or minor role in a multiplicity of important
physiological processes. They often attract or repel, nourish or poison browsing
insects and other herbivores; they may also stimulate or suppress the growth of
micro-
organisms. Some may reduce competition (and indirectly lessen the fire hazard) by
interfering with the regulatory function of other higher plants within their
immediate
vicinity, sometimes stimulating growth, sometimes stopping growth altogether. The
plant products producing the latter effect are termed phytotoxins. The negative
effect
of one plant on another by means of chemical products released into the environment
is termed allelopathy, implicating either those belonging to the same species, i.e.
auto-allelopathy or auto-toxicity, e.g. Parthenium argentatum and Pinus spp., or
for
different species, e.g. Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Gutierrezia sarothrae and Juglans
regia. Allelopathy may also be indicated if one plant inhibits the growth of a
second
plant or micro-organism that itself is essential to the growth of a third plant
(Muller
and Chou, 1972; Tootill, 1984; Harborne, 1988). Allelopathy is clearly not only of
interest to ecologists, it is also of concern to the agriculturist, horticulturist,
forester
and agroforester. See Chapter 5 for further discussion,

The multipurpose Leucaena leucocephala, for example, is widely grown in

agrosystems for livestock feed, fuel, pole timber, N-fixation, green manure, etc.
yet
the concentration of the non-protein amino-acid mimosine in the leaves and seeds is
sufficient to inhibit the germination and growth of such crops as Abelmoschus
esculentus (lady’s fingers, okra), Brassica rapa, syn. B. campestris, Lactuca
sativa
(lettuce), Oryza sativa, Vigna mungo (black gram) and V. radiata, syn. Phaseolus
aureus (green gram), as well as the germination and radicle growth of Acacia
confusa, Alnus formosana, Casuarina glauca, Liquidambar formosana and Pinus
taiwanensis (Rizvi and Rizvi, 1992). See Chapter 5 for further discussion.
Plant Toxins and their Applications 345

Allelopathy has proved successful for the control of the obligate parasites Striga
lutea, syn. S. asiatica and S. hermontheca (witchweed), which can so drastically
reduce the yields of maize, millets, sorghum, upland rice and sugarcane, and S.
gesnerioides, which attacks Vigna unguiculata (cowpea) and occasionally tobacco.
The witchweed obtains its nutrients by means of haustoria attached to the host
plant's
root system, causing stunting, wilting and even death of the host plant. While no
totally resistant cultivars of the cereals have been identified, absolute
resistance has
been found among the cowpea. Formerly cowpeas were grown as a catch crop to act
as host to the witchweed and ploughed in as a green manure before the witchweed
could produce seeds. High yielding, resistant cultivars of cowpea are now being
bred
that can be used as trap crops.

The assessment of resistance in field or crop trials usually take 10-15 weeks but,
by using in vitro techniques, such tests can now be completed in 2-3 weeks. Two
distinct resistance mechanisms to S. gesnerioides have been discovered. Either the
cowpea root in the vicinity of the invading haustoria become necrotic within 2-3
days
and the parasite dies, or the haustoria form but fail to develop, causing minimal
damage to the cowpea host, which then grows and yields normally (Lane, 1992).

Strains of Oryza sativa (rice) have also been discovered that have an allelopathic
action against the aquatic weeds Ammannia sp. (purple redstem), Cyperus difformis,
Echinochloa crus-galli, Heteranthera limosa (duck salad) and Trianthema
portulacastrum. One rice cultivar, Taichung native 1, has even been found to have
an
allelopathic effect against all these weeds except C. difformis (Olofsdotier et al.
1997).

4. FUNGICIDES

Some plant metabolites offer disease resistance at the pre-infectional or post-

infectional stage, although the distinction is somewhat arbitrary since pre-
infectional
compounds can undergo significant post-infectional changes. Their classification is
shown in Table 27.

While some existing metabolites prohibit or inhibit pre- and post-infection stages,
phytoalexins are chemical compounds that are only produced de novo or are activated
by the host plant when they come into contact with a pathogenic fungus in
hypersensitive living tissue. While the physiological, ultrastructural and
pathological
aspects of phytoalexin synthesis are not yet fully understood, they represent a
major
development in physiological plant pathology. The first phytoalexin to be
identified
was the phenolic compound pisatin in pod tissue of Pisum sativum innoculated with
Monilinia fructicola (brown rot fungus).

The ability of the fungus to parasitise a species is also partly related to the
ability
of the fungus to deal with the phytoalexin. Thus, the degree of resistance shown by
Ipomoea baratas (sweet potato) to attack by the fungus Ceratostomella is correlated
346 Chapter 17

with the concentration of the terpenoid ipomeamarone in the plant tissues. While
the
phytoalexins are most active in inhibiting pathogenic fungi, they are also able to
react
to bacterial and viral infections. They can also be formed abiotically under stress
conditions, including temperature shock and wounding (Tootill, 1984; Harborne,
19€3).

TABLE 27. Classification of disease resistance factors in higher plants (Harborne,

1988)

Class Description Plant metabolites

PRE-INFECTIONAL COMPOUNDS

Prohibitins Metabolites which reduce or completely halt Terpenoids and phenolics,

especially
the in vive development of micro-organisms hydroxystilbenes

Inhibitins Metabolites which undergo post-infection Coumarins and hydroxycinnamic

acids
increase in order to express full toxicity

POST-INFECTIONAL COMPOUNDS

Post-inhibitins ~~ Metabolites formed by the hydrolysis or Inactive glycosides

stimulated by

oxidation of pre-existing non-toxic substrates microbial invasion to release toxin

Phytoalexins Metabolites formed de novo after invasion Flavan, pterocarpan,

stilbene, terpenes,
by gene depression or activation of a latent ete,

enzyme system

Anti-fungal activity is not confined to the higher plants, some strains of the
fungus Alternaria solani (early potato blight) produce a highly phytotoxic
antibiotic,
alternaric acid, which may be used as a fungicide (Brian ef al., 1952).
Chapter 18

Useful Ferns, Bryophytes, Fungi, Bacteria and

Viruses

Economic plants are often considered in terms of angiosperms and gymnosperms,

the important contribution made by the ferns, mosses, fungi, algae, etc. tends to
be
overlooked. Here they are being considered separately from the flowering plants in
this and the following chapter in order to stress their economic importance for the
food, drink, medicine, biochemical industries, etc.

1. FERNS AND FERN ALLIES

These are an ancient group of plants which, according to the Five Kingdoms
classification, include the Filicinophyta (ferns), Sphenophyta (horsetails),
Lycophyta
(lycopods) and Psilophyta (whisk ferns). They are represented by between 12,000 and
15,000 species, and are most widely distributed in the tropics (Schultes and
Hofmann,
1992).

1.1 Ferns

Ferns are used for a wide range of purposes throughout the world, including food
(starchy rhizomes and fronds), flavourings, fats, oils, fragrances, dyes, fibres,
medicine, and various religious/magic purposes. Ethnobotanical and anthropological
studies have shown that some play an essential role among primitive societies. For
example, the Chicobo Indians of Amazonian Bolivia utilise 16 species of ferns, a
number of which are used in decoctions for treating such ailments as appendicitis,
theumatism and diarrhoea. Similarly, in Sarawak 30 different species are used by
two
small indigenous communities for food (fronds), medicine, fibre, and in various
religious/magic ceremonies and properties (May, 1978; Boom, 1985; Christensen,
1997).

347
348 Chapter 18

Of particular importance in tropical agriculture is the genus Azolla, with six

tropical and warm temperate free-floating species. It is unusual in being the only
fern
known to have symbiotic relationship with a nitrogen-fixing endophyte, the
cyanobacterium Anabaena azollae, which is unique in using fructose to fix nitrogen
to ammonia, The ammonia is transferred to the host, who then returns amino-acids,
proteins and ribo-neucleotides to the endophyte.

In rice fields the fern is capable of fixing 50-150 kg N ha” in 1-4 months, and
under ideal conditions more than 10 kg N ha' day', making it a major green manure
and, in economic terms, the most valuable fern in the world; it may also be used as
a
stock feed. Draining the fallow paddy fields kills the Azolla and releases the
nitrogen.
The technique was first developed in China during the 1960s using the indigenous A.
pinnata var. imbricata, syn. A. imbricata. The recent introduction of the more
cold-
tolerant A. filiculoides from South America has allowed the rice-Azolla cultivation
cropping system to be extended to northern and north-eastern China

Azolla’s ability to reproduce itself rapidly has both advantages and disadvantages.
Thus, the capability of the tropical Asian A. pinnata for doubling its own weight
in 7
days would be considered disadvantageous in blocking waterways, yet its ability to
smother the water surface helps to control mosquitoes (Bumpkin and Placenta, 1982;
Sprint and Sprint, 1990; Mabberley, 1997).

A number of ferns may be used for food. For instance, the young shoots of
Diplazium esculentum, syn. Athyrium esculentum, are widely used for food in SE
Asia, and attempts have even been made to bring the fern into cultivation. The
fronds
of Ceratopteris pteridoides from tropical America are also edible, while C.
thalictroides is much cultivated in the flooded rice-fields of tropical Asia as a
spring
vegetable. The rhizomes of Blechnum indicum (bungwall) were formerly a traditional
food of the Aborigines of northern Australia. The pith of the tree-ferns, Cyathea
spp.
are also eaten. In North America the steamed crosier fronds of Martteuccia
struthiopteris (ostrich fern) are traditionally eaten as a spring vegetable in the
Maritime Provinces of Canada and in Maine. Unlike bracken the fronds of Osmunda
cinnamomea (cinnamon fern, fiddleheads) are not carcinogenic. Popular demand has
lead to frozen and canned fronds being commercially marketed. However, attempts at
cultivation have proved unsuccesstul due to difficulties with large scale
propagation;
the use of tissue culture for the mass production of sporophytes is now being
investigated.

Ferns are also used in the brewing industry, e.g. Osmunda regalis (royal fern) in
the brewing Celtic heather ale, where the presence of a thiaminase in the spores
destroys the vitamin B, and consequently the activity of the yeast, thereby
stopping
the fermentation process (Copeland, 1942; May, 1978; Aderkas, 1984; Mabberley,
1997).

The young shoots of the monotypic, cosmopolitan Preridium aquilinum (bracken)

are canned and eaten in soups, especially in China and Japan as sawarabi. They were
also formerly boiled and eaten on toast in North America. However, their regular
{PAGE}
Useful Ferns, Bryophytes, Fungi, Bacteria and Viruses 349

consumption is not advisable due to the presence of the carcinogenic shikimic acid.
Warabi starch is extracted from the rhizomes and were formerly eaten by the Maori
and North Amerindians. and the liquorice flavour of the rhizomes formerly used for
flavouring tobacco.

Bracken also contains the enzyme thiaminase, which can cause vitamin B;
deficiency (thiamine deficiency) and eventually death when the bracken is eaten by
horses. In cattle bacterial activity in the rumen apparently neutralises the
thiaminase
activity and, although vitamin B, deficiency is not the culprit, cattle eating
bracken
can die of an unknown chemical cause, with symptoms resembling aplastic anaemia
in humans. Although bracken spores are known to be carcinogenic to rodents, the
risk to humans is still under investigation. Bracken fronds were formerly used” for
bedding, thatch, packing, padding, fuel, tinder, compost, etc. The young fronds are
also the source of an olive-green dye. In addition, both the growing plant and the
litter are allelopathic (Hedrick, 1972; Brouk, 1975; Saunders, 1976; Launert, 1981;
Caulton er al., 1995; Mabey, 1996; Mabberley, 1997).

The fronds of the Asplenium acrobryum complex (New Guinea salt fern) were
formerly an important source of a vegetable salt rich in Ca", K* and CI for the
inhabitants of the salt-deficient inland areas of Papua New Guinea, The reason why
this particular species was selected when other equally salt-rich species of
Asplenium
were ignored is unclear. (Croft and Leach, 1985).

A number of medicinal and cosmetic properties are also recognised. For example,
the dried rhizomes of Dryopteris filix-mas and D. dilatata are among the oldest
known vermifuges, especially against tapeworm, although their use requires careful
medical supervision since they are highly toxic, containing the phloroglucinol
derivatives kosidin, protokosin and kosin; their use has now been superseded by
quinacrine. The green rhizomes also contain ca. 6% by weight of vegetable fat. The
fern was also apparently used in Ancient China for silk reeling. The cosmopolitan
Adiantum capillus-veneris (maidenhair fern) is listed as official in a number of
European pharmacopoeias. It is used for flavouring decoctions, infusions, fluid
extracts and tinctures, especially the ‘cure-all’ medicine ‘Sirop de Capillaire’,
the
flavour being due to tannic and gallic acids and traces of an essential oil. The
dried
fronds were used in the Isles of Arran as a tea substitute. The delicate leaf tips
of
Dryopteris cristata, syn. Lastrea cristata are a source of a fragrant oil which is
used
in the Black Forest to perfume the soap ‘Fougére’ (Hedrick, 1972; May, 1978;
Launert, 1981; Mabberley, 1997; Dagne, 1998).

The large, cosmopolitan genus Asplenium contains a number of useful

ornamentals, including A. scolopendrium, syn. Phyllitis scolopendrium (hatt's
tongue), plants with forked fronds or otherwise divided at the apex being
particularly
prized by gardeners. The fronds are also used in herbal medicine, as are also those
of
A. adiantum-nigrum, while in South Africa A. flabellifolium is a source of HCN.
Species of Osmunda (royal ferns) are also cultivated as ornamentals and locally
eaten
(Brightman and Nicholson, 1966; May, 1978; Launert, 1981; Vickery, 1995).
350 Chapter 18

The metamorphosis steroid a-ecdysone has been isolated from several species of
Osmunda, Polypodium and Pteridium aquilinum, micro quantities of which leads to
precocious metamorphosis in insect larvae, resulting in extremely abnormal growth
and development, and even death. The extract has a potential as an insecticide
(Jacobson, 1982).

The fibres from the cinnamon fern are used as an orchid-growing medium, while
in Japan the hairs surrounding the young fronds are mixed with wool to make a
textile for raincoats. The fibrous black petioles of Pityrogramma triangularis
(goldenback fern) are utilised by the northwestern Amerindians in basketry (May,
1978; Mabberley, 1997).

1.2 Horsetails

The Sphenophyta, syn. Equisetophyta, is represented by the monotypic genus

Equisetum (horsetails), consisting of 15 species which, apart from Australia, have
an
almost cosmopolitan distribution. Its members have a great affinity for
accumulating
and concentrating gold in solution, albeit only 0.25 g gold kg! stems and rhizomes.
Although the commercial extraction of the gold is not economically viable, the
presence of horsetails is seen by prospectors as an indicator plant for gold ore.

While alkaloids, including nicotine are present in horsetails, their toxicity, like
that of bracken, is due to the enzyme thiaminase breaking down the vitamin
thiamine in the browsing animal and leading to a vitamin B, deficiency in horses.
Medical applications include a possible treatment for Alzheimer’s disease.

The shoots of both E. arvense (common horsetail) and E. fluviatile (water

horsetail) were reported to be eaten like asparagus by the Romans, who also used
the
dried stems to make a tisane and as a thickener, Because of its rough stem E.
hyemale
(Dutch rush) was used before the advent of steel wool and nylon pot-scourers for
cleaning cooking pots. Horsetail stems were also formerly used by watch-makers and
brass-workers as an abrasive for giving an extra finish after filing, and by
cabinet-
makers, including the Dutch-born British sculptor Grinling Gibbons (1648-1721), for
polishing wood-carvings. In addition, the Dutch rush was some-times eaten in times
of famine. Although invasive and extremely difficult to eradicate E. hyemale var.
affine, syn. E. praealtum, and E. telinateia, syn. E. maximum (giant horsetail),
are
sometimes grown as ornamentals in water gardens (Brightman and Nicholson, 1966;
Hedrick, 1972; May, 1978; Chiej, 1984; Blackwell, 1990; Mabey, 1996; Mabberley,
1997).

1.3 Lycopods
Although especially abundant in the fossil record of the Carboniferous, the

Lycophyta today are represented by only six genera and are of very little economic
importance.
Useful Ferns, Bryophytes, Fungi, Bacteria and Viruses 351

The genus Lycopodium (club mosses) contains 40 tropical and temperate species,
some of which are exceptional among the pteridophytes in that they contain
alkaloids.
Some are cultivated as ornamentals, and in the Philippines they are grown in
hanging
baskets; others are used for stuffing upholstery and for making baskets, bags and
fishing nets. The spores of L. alpinum (alpine clubmoss) are used to dye wool
yellow,
while the very fine, bright yellow spores of L. clavatum (stag's horn moss), known
as
lycopodium powder, were a former constituent of the ‘flash powder" used in
fireworks
and stage lighting, and by pharmacists as vegetable sulphur for coating pills and
condoms, although it is reported that the latter use may cause allergic granulosis
in
some users. The spores of the stag’s horn moss are also rich in vegetable fat,
containing 50% lycopodium oleic glyceride (Brightman and Nicholson, 1966; May,
1978; Mabberley, 1997).

The subcosmopolitan genus Huperzia with ca. 300 species, like Lypopodium,
species, contains lycopodium alkaloids; both huperzine A and huperizine B being
present in H. serrata. The two alkaloids possess an anti-acetylcholine (anticholine
esterase) activity, and in China the use of huperzine A is approved for the
treatment
of dementia and memory impairment (Xiao and Peng, 1998).

The genus Selaginella, with ca. 700 species, is widely distributed through the
tropical and subtropics; there are also a few temperate species. S. kraussiana and
S.
willdenowii are cultivated as ornamentals, while the tufted and poikilohydrous S.
lepidophylla (rose of Jericho), distributed from southern USA to Peru, is sold as a
curiosity; as well as being used in local medicine (Mabberley, 1997).

14 Whisk Ferns

The phylum Psilophyta, although richly represented in the fossil record of the
Devonian, is today represented by only two genera and, as far as I am aware. are of
little economic importance.

The genus Psilotum has two tropical and subtropical species, of which the widely
distributed terrestrial or epiphytic P. nudum has been cultivated as an ornamental
in
Japan for 400 years (Mabberley, 1997).

2. HORNWORTS

The phylum Anthocerophyta (hornworts or homed liverworts) contain some five

genera, and were formerly included among the liverworts, from which they are
distinguished by their long-lived axial sporophytes. Most botanists now consider
the
homworts not to be very closely related to the bryophytes. The group appears to be
of
very little interest to economic botanists.

Some genera, such as Anthoceros, house N-fixing cyanobacteria, enabling them to

colonise bare rock surfaces. Widely distributed, especially in stagnant water,
species
352 Chapter 18

are capable of rapid growth, rapidly filling shallow waters and where they
eventually
decay and become offensive. While Nitella spp. are good oxygenating plants they are
not recommended for aquaria due to their rampant growth (Perry, 196; Tootill, 1984;
Glime and Saxena, 1991).

3. MOSSES AND LIVERWORTS

The mosses and liverworts together with the homworts were formerly placed
together in the Bryophyta. Under the Five Kingdoms classification they are placed
in
separate phyla, Bryophyta (mosses), Hepatophyta (liverworts) and Anthocerophyta
(hornworts), the latter is briefly discussed in Section 2 above.

The mosses and liverworts are particularly well-represented in the tropics

although largely under-investigated. Such lack of interest is partly attributed to
their
apparent lack of economic importance. However, a global survey of the bryophytes
and their uses have now adequately shown more than 350 taxa to be of minor
economic importance, a selection of which are given below. Although many contain
interesting pharmaceutical compounds, their exploitation has not proved
economically viable, others are of domestic importance, and only the Sphagnum
species appear to be commercially viable (Glime and Saxena, 1991; Schultes and
Hofmann, 1992).

Even so, mosses and liverworts do have an environmental value, including: (1) As
bioindicators of air and water pollution, soil pH and nutrients, and climatic
conditions; (2) SO, sensitive species act as indicators of acid rain, while
resistant
species act as sponges, intercepting the SO, and converting it into harmless
sulphates;
(3) For erosion control by absorbing water, thereby controlling run-off and river
flow.
Sphagnum, for example, can hold up to 30 times its own weight of water; (4) By
trapping minerals supplied by the rain and leachates from the canopy, retain
minerals
that would otherwise be leached from the soil; (4) In arctic, subarctic and alpine
ecosystems the Sphagnum species in association with Cyanobacteria are capable of
fixing nitrogen; (6) Provide nest material for birds, rodents, etc.; and (7)
Provide food
for a wide range of insects, birds and mammals.

31 Mosses

The Bryophyta are widely distributed and represented by ca. 800 genera and ca.
13,000 species. They are relatively small plants, their short stature being due to
the
absence of lignification, with the largest upright forms up to 80 cm tall, although
some aquatic species can be more than 1 m long.

The presence of unpalatable phenolic compounds renders most mosses inedible.

In China they are regarded as famine food, while Laplanders have used Sphagnum as
an ingredient in bread. Not surprisingly, Lindley (1849) wryly refers to Sphagnum
Useful Ferns, Bryophytes, Fungi, Bacteria and Viruses 353

obtusifolium as being ‘a wretched food in barbarous countries.” In cold

environments
the mosses are eaten by a variety of mammalian and avian herbivores, Polysrichum
and Hypnum have even been identified in the stomach contents of Mammuthus
primigenius (woolly mammoth). It is the aquatic insects, however, that are better
known for their feeding on mosses.

In China gallnuts are produced on the leaves of Rhus javanica (Chinese sumac)
parasitised by the gall aphid Schilechtendalia chinensis. The aphids overwinter
cocooned on a number of mosses, especially Plagiomnium spp. Rich in tannin, the
gallnuts are used in tanning, the dyeing of blue silk, and in medicine. Such is the
importance of the gallnuts that aphid production is encouraged by cultivating the
mosses.

In prehistoric times Polytrichum commune (hair moss) provided a fine fibre that
could be used for clothing and other purposes. The large and vigorous aquatic moss
Fontinalis antipyretica (willow moss) was formerly used in the walls of houses in
Lapland as a non-inflammable insulating material; a number of other species were
similarly used (Dimbleby, 1978; Brightman and Nicholson, 1966; Glime and Saxena,
1991).

The aquatic mosses Eurhynchium riparioides, Fontinalis antipyretica, etc, have

the ability to accumulate heavy metals, and are consequently a valuable tool for
monitoring heavy metal pollution. In Japan, which has poor iron reserves, it has
even
been suggested that Polysrichum and Sphagnum, could be cultivated near ferruginous
springs for iron ore production, even so, the economics and productivity of such a
scheme appear rather dubious. Even so, the mineral-tolerant species, including
Merceya ligulata, syn. Scopelophila ligulata (copper moss), do have a potential use
in geobotanical prospecting.

3.1.1 Sphagnum

The Sphagnum species are of particular economic importance as a source of peat.

The total global peat production for 1984 was 260 million tons, with most being
produced in the former USSR. More than 45-50% was used as fuel for domestic and
industrial consumption, including generating electricity and conversion through a
digester to methane. The smoke from the peat-fired malting kilns plays an important
role in flavouring the malts for the Scotch whisky industry.

Peat is widely used in horticulture as a soil additive to improve the water-holding

capacity, as a medium for the cultivation of acid-loving plants, in air-layering,
wreaths, etc. Peat is also used for the reclaiming of strip-mined land. Thuidium
delicatulum (common fern moss) and Hypnum cupressiforme subsp. imponens, syn.
H. imponens, are similarly used as a growing medium by orchid growers. Although
generally regarded as a renewable resource, exploitation often exceeds the ability
of
the peat bogs to recover. Consequently, in the interests of conservation, there is
now a
354 Chapter 18

move to find suitable waste products, such as bark, coconut fibre, cocoa pod shell,
etc.
as acceptable horticultural alternatives.

The ability of peat to absorb minerals has been used as an effective filtering and
adsorption agent for the treatment of waste water and factory effluents containing
acid and toxic heavy metals. The peat can then be burnt to recover the heavy metal
ions, such as Ag, Cu, Cd, Hg, Fe, Sb, and Pb. Peat is also used in the treatment of
waste oils, detergents, dyes, micro-organisms, air pollution control, rubber
reclamation, cigarette filters, sugar refining and as a source of active carbon,
which
is widely used in the chemical industry as a catalyst,

During World War I the absorbent properties of Sphagnum spp. were extensively
used in surgical dressings but less so in World War II; they are still so used in
China
today. Its absorptive powers are put to further use in feeding baby pigs, the
milled
Sphagnum being an ideal binder for the iron and vitamins required by anaemic
piglets.

In the construction industry peat slabs may be used in the insulation of housing
and refrigerators. Peat mixed with concrete and hydraulically pressed to form
peaftcrete has a potential as a cheap, easily sawn and nailed construction material
where mechanical strength is not a criterion. It can be cast and moulded into any
shape and is already being used for garden rockeries, Peatwood from dried, pressed
and heat-moulded Sphagnum blended with a phenolic resin can be used provide an
attractive, lightweight, readily produced material for the construction industry;
the
ultra-light peatfoam based on peatmoss and foamed resin may also have a potential.
A synthetic cork, peatcork, can be obtained from the coarse peat fraction. Finally,
peat may also be used for the manufacture of wrapping paper and pasteboard (Sharp,
1990; Glime and Saxena, 1991).

3.2 Liverworts

The Hepatophyta, contain ca. 400 genera and 5000 species. They are relatively
simple land plants, small and leafy (leafy liverworts) to large, lobed and
thalloid-like
thallose liverworts). As a group they appear to be of little economic interest.

The aquatic Jungermannia vulcanicola and Scapania undulata have the ability to
accumulate heavy metals, They are consequently considered useful for monitoring
heavy metal pollution. Like the mosses Polytrichum and Sphagnum, it has also been
suggested that Jungermannia vulcanicola, could be cultivated near ferruginous
springs for iron ore production! The mineral-tolerant species such as Solenostoma
crenulatum, etc, have a potential for geobotanical prospecting, while other
liverworts
have been suggested for use as bioindicators of atmospheric pollution.

The Doctrine of Signatures influenced the early medical use of the liverish-
looking Marchantia polymorpha for treating liver complaints, and the rosette-
forming Riccia for treating ringworm, despite both lacking in effectiveness.
Observations that herbarium specimens of liverworts are seldom eaten by insects has
Useful Ferns, Bryophytes, Fungi, Bacteria and Viruses 355

led to the discovery of sesquiterpenoid insect antifeedants in species of

Plagiochila
(scale moss) and other genera; when powdered the liverworts are used to protect
stored grain (Glime and Saxena, 1991).

4. FUNGI

The Fungi, as defined in the Five Kingdoms classification, are a distinct kingdom
of saprobic (organisms using dead organic materials for food and commonly causing
its decay, on timber, corals, sea grasses, etc.), symbiotic (in lichens), or
parasitic
eukaryotic organisms. They are believed to contain between 30,000 and 100,000
species. In view of their abundance in the tropics and the paucity of their
collection,
the total may even be as high as 2 million (Schultes and Hofmann, 1992).

Lichens, formerly classified separately, are also now included in the Fungi.
Certain primitive fungi, such as the chytrids, that possess motile stages in their
life
cycle are now placed in a separate kingdom, the Protoctista, although some
authorities prefer to split the Protoctista into Chromista and Protozoa. The most
comprehensive classification of the fungi is that of Hawksworth et al. (1995) who
recognises the phyla Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Chytridiomycota and Zygomycota.
This predates the latest version of the Five Kingdom classification of Margulis and
Schwartz (1998) who refer the Chytridiomycota to the Protoctista. The former Fungi
Imperfecti, which have no known sexual state, are referred to an artificial
assemblage
known as mitosporic fungi. Where such mitosporic fungi can be correlated with the
teleomorphs, i.e. sexual state, in the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota, they are
termed
anamorphs or anomorphic states of those groups. While it is probably that many more
teleomorph/anamorph state connections will be established, a permanent residue of
mitosporic fungi will remain, However, it is possible that in the future advances
in
molecular technology may enable the residue to be placed with the groups of
teleomorphic fungi from which they were derived (Hawksworth et al., 1995).

4.1 Edible Mushrooms and Toadstools

The name mushroom refers to the usually umbrella-shaped edible fruiting body of
members of the Agaricales. The term may also be used in the wider sense for any
macroscopic fungal fruiting body. The designation toadstool is essentially
synonymous with mushroom in both the narrow and broad senses but with the
implication of toxicity. No account has been taken in the differentiation between
mushrooms and toadstools of the large number of fungi that are too leathery to be
edible, even though they are not poisonous. According to The grete herball of 1526,
an anonymous translation from the French and cited by Ramsbottom (1960) “Fungi
ben mussherons .... There be wo maners of them, one maner is deedly and sleeth
them that eatheth of them and be called tode stoles, and the other doeth not”. The
356 Chapter 18

Middle English use of tode, i.e. toad, is based on the mediaeval belief the toad
was
poisonous.

The fruiting bodies of quite a large number of mushrooms sensu lato are eaten by
people world-wide, either as a vegetable or condiment, boiled, fried or pickled,
but
rarely eaten raw. Despite their abundance, there is the general belief in the UK
that
very few of the many edible wild fungi available are safe to eat, which has
resulted in
the terms ‘mushroom’ and ‘toadstool’ being used to emphasise edible and poisonous
fungi respectively. In addition to Agaricus spp. the major edible fungi include
Lepista
saeva, syn. Tricholoma personatum (blewit), Macrolepiota procera (parasol
mushroom), Morchella spp. (morel) and Fistulina hepatica (ox-tongue, lange de
boeuf, poor man's beefsteak), the latter being one of the few bracket fungi eaten
by
man. Although rarely eaten in the UK, Lycoperdon spp. (puffballs) are edible when
young, when the gleba is solid, as is also Langermannia gigantea, syn. Lycoperdon
giganticum (giant puffball). Coprinus atramentarius (common ink cap) is edible
when young but must never be consumed in a meal accompanied by alcohol as it will
cause vomiting and palpitations. This is due to the presence of disulphiram
(tetracthylthiouram disulphide), which is used as the drug Antabuse to treat
alcoholism. Disulphiram was originally discovered independently of the fungus and
it
was only later that it was also found to be present in the fungus (Lange and Hora,
1965; Pegler, 1990; Hawksworth ef al., 1995)

In general fungi contain 90% water and are rich in protein but poor in fats. The
carbohydrates are mainly in the form of chitin in the cell walls. Vitamin C is
present
in Agaricus bisporus, syn. Psalliota bispora (cultivated mushroom), Boletus edulis
(cep, penny bun boletus or steinpilz) and Cantharellus cibarius (chanterelle, horn
of
plenty); the cep and chanterelle also contain vitamin D, negligible quantities of
which
are also present in the cultivated mushroom. Vitamin K has been detected in the
latter and vitamin E in the cep.

Among the more commercially important edible fruiting bodies of

ectomycorrhizal fungi are the penny bun boletus, Cantharellus cibarius and
Tricholoma matsutake (matsutake), plus the truffles, i.e. those members of the
Ascomycota whose hypogeous ascoma (fructifications) occur ca. 10 cm below the soil
surface. The ascoma of Tuber melanosporum (Périgord, black or winter truffle), T.
blotii, syn. T. aestivum (summer truffle) and I. magnatum (Italian white truffle)
are
highly appreciated by Epicureans for their fine flavour. The truffle hunters
normally
use trained dogs and pigs to sniff them out, but in Sardinia goats and in Russia
bear
cubs may be used (Wang er al,, 1997). Of local importance are the underground
fructifications of species of Terfezea and Tirmania, which occur in the deserts of
the
Middle East and only appear above the soil surface when mature,

Few fungal fructifications are cultivated. This is because the mycelia (mycorrhiza)
of most fungi occur in a symbiotic association with the roots of living plants.
Almost
all the commercially cultivated mushrooms are non-mycorrhizal fungi and mainly
members of the Basidiomycota. Among the commonly cultivated fungi are Agaricus
Useful Ferns, Bryophytes, Fungi, Bacteria and Viruses 357

bisporus (cultivated mushroom), which has been grown in France since the 17th
century, A. bitorquis (pavement mushroom), Agrocybe aegerita, syn. Pholiota
aegerita (southern poplar mushroom), Coprinus fimentarius, Kuehneromyces
mutabilis, syn. Pholiota mutabilis (two-tone pholiota), Pleurotus eryngii
associated
with the roots of Eryngium campestre (eryngo) and Stropharia rugoso-annulata (king
stropharia). In the Far East Lentinus edodes (Japanese wood mushroom, shii-take)
accounts for over 20% by value of the global mushroom production. Other cultivated
mushrooms include Auricularia auricula-judae (Jew’s ear), Flammulina velutipes
(velvet shank), Pholiota nameko (slime mushroom), Pleurotus ostreatus (oyster
mushroom), Tremella fuciformis and Volvariella spp. Volvariella bresadolae is
grown in the Philippines on rice, wheat or sorghum straw, V. volvacea (paddy straw
mushroom) is similarly cultivated in China, Indochina, Malaysia, Philippines, also
in
Madagascar and Africa, and V. volvacea var. heimii in Madagascar.

It is possible to cultivate some of the ectomycorrhizal species (see Chapter 5)

such
as Morchella esculenta (morels) on apple pomace from cider presses and Lepista
nuda, syn. Tricholoma nudum (wood blewit) on beech-leaf compost, while in Italy,
inoculums of Suillus granulatus, syn. Boletus granulatus (granulated boletus) have
been successfully grown on Pinus radiata. Despite such possibilities, only the
Périgord and Italian white truffles are cultivated commercially in host plantations
(Ramsbottom, 1960; Brouk, 1975; Rambelli, 1985; Slee, 1991; Hall ef al., 1998a, b).

Forming a non-fruiting, resting stage, sclerotia are firm and frequently rounded
masses of hyphal tissue, with or without host tissue; some are edible. In Australia
the
underground sclerotium of Polyporus myliitae, syn. Mylitta australis (blackfellows’
bread) is among the world’s largest sclerotia. The densely compacted and
agglutinated mass is up to 20-30 cm in diameter and weighing 4 kg or more; it is
eaten by the Aborigines. Other edible examples eaten in times of food scarcity are
the
subterranean sclerotia of P. indigenus and P. saporema from Amazonia; they weigh
over 3 kg, half of which consists of carbohydrates. The sclerotium of Pleurotus
tuber-
regium is similarly caten in Nigeria. Other sclerotia, such as the dark, club-
shaped
structures of Claviceps purpurea (ergot) found in the ears of cereals and grasses
are
highly toxic, producing the serious physiological disease known as ergotism in both
humans and livestock (Brouk, 1975; Prance, 1984; Hawsworth er al., 1995).

4.2 Hallucinogenic Fungi

Some 37 fungal taxa from around the world are recognised as hallucinogenic, 19
of which belong to Central American taxa of the genus Psilocybe. The genera
Amanita and Psilocybe are discussed here (Schultes and Hofmann, 1992). See also
Chapter 20 for further discussion on hallucinogenic plants and their recreational
and
symbolic use,

Without doubt the most spectacular hallucinogenic fungus is Amanita muscaria

(fly agaric), which is widely distributed through Eurasia and North America. The
fly
358 Chapter 18

agaric owes its vernacular name to the former 13th century use of the sliced cap
soaked in milk as a fly trap. The allegedly lethal affect on flies is due to the
ibotenic
acid present which, in humans breaks down into the active hallucinogen muscimole,
which is biologically interesting in that the active principle is atypically
excreted
unmetabolised. Reports regarding the neurotoxic alkaloid muscarine also being
present have proved erroneous.

The fly agaric is probably man’s oldest hallucinogen, and is possibly represented
in ancient India as the legendary god-narcotic Soma, where the Vedic deity Indra
used Soma as the source of his strength; it is believed that the sacred drink of
the
Soma cult was derived from the tly agaric. The fungus is used by Finno-Ugrian
tribes
of north-eastern Siberia as a masticatory and shamanistic inebriant. Two small
fructifications are dried and chewed until soft, and then swallowed; the
intoxication is
strong enough to last an entire day. Its habitual use completely shatters the
nervous
system, so much so that its trade was made a penal offence by Russian law. The
magico-religious cult of the fly agaric is believed to have been carried by ancient
Asiatic migrants to the New World (Brouk, 1975; Rambelli, 1985; Blackwell, 1990;
Schultes and Hofmann, 1992).

The related A. phalloides (death cap), A. verna (spring amanita) and A. virosa
(destroying angel) are noteworthy for their extreme cytopathological toxicity, 50 g
of
fresh mushroom being lethal to adult humans. They rank as the world’s major cause
of death from eating poisonous mushrooms. A. phalloides is the most dangerous
fungus known and is responsible for over 90% of deaths due to fungi. The two
alkaloids responsible in A. phalloides, and probably in the others, are the nerve
and
gastro-enterological toxin amanitin and the liver toxin phalloidin. The symptoms
are
graphically described by Ramsbottom (1949).

Magico-religious ceremonies by the ancient civilisations of Central and South

America possibly date back to prehistoric times. Hallucinogenic fungi belonging to
the genus Psilocybe, of which P. hoogshagenii and P. mexicana are the two most
important and best documented. Conocybe siligineoides, Panaeolus sphinctrinus and
Stropharia cubensis are also used. It should be noted that the latter is a
coprophagous
species and therefore not indigenous and must post-date the arrival of the
Conquistadors and their herbivores. It has been suggested that it was possibly
introduced by cattle brought by Spanish traders from the Philippines to Mexico.

The range of fungi used by the shamans is dependent on the season, weather and
specific usage. Pairs of fungi are used in the religious rites; the similar Finno-
Ugrian
tribal use of a pair of Amanita muscaria fructifications has already been noted
above.
The active ingredient is the indole alkaloid psilocybine, the phosphoric acid ester
of
psilocine, of which only traces usually occur; both compounds can be synthesised.
So
far, present evidence indicates that it is only in Mexico that psilocybine-
containing
mushrooms are used in native ceremonies. Although the archaeological evidence
suggests sacred mushroom cults may also have existed as far south as Peru, there is
Useful Ferns, Bryophytes, Fungi, Bacteria and Viruses 359

no past or present ethnobotanical evidence to support such claims (Brouk, 1975;

Schultes and Hofmann, 1992).

43 Other Macro-Fungi

The fruit bodies of the bracket fungus Fomes fomentarius (tinder fungus) are the
source of the soft, corky material known as amadou, formerly used as tinder and now
used for drying fishermen's flies. The earliest historical use of amadou appears to
be
its presence in the belt pouch of the Neolithic Iceman’ of Hauslabjoch, Austria,
The
related F. officinalis (female, white or purging agaric) was formerly a noted
universal
panacea (Pegler, 1990; Spindler, 1994; Hawksworth et al., 1995).

Another bracket fungus, Fistulina hepatica (beefsteak or oak tongue fungus),

infests a number of broad-leaved species, especially chestnut and oak. In the early
stages of the infestation of oak the fungal mycelia produce a streaky brown
discoloration of the heartwood, before causing any serious decay. Such brown oak is
much sought after by furniture manufacturers and consequently fetches an enhanced
price. Similarly, the mycelia of Chlorociboria aeruginascens, syn, Chlorosplenium
aeruginascens (green wood cup) stain the wood blue-green. The wood of such green
oak was formerly highly prized for marquetry (see Chapter 12), and especially for
Tunbridge ware (Mabberley, 1997).

A number of the macro-fungi are important destructive parasites of trees, shrubs

and timber. Armillaria mellea (boot lace fungus, honey fungus) especially is a
destructive parasite of woods, plantations and garden trees and shrubs. It is
readily
identified by the resemblance of the blackish-brown rhizomorphs (tough, cord-like
and fused mass of parallel aligned hyphae) to leather boot laces. The thin and
spreading fruiting bodies of Coniophora puteana (wet rot fungus, cellar fungus) is
a
common species on the trunks of dead conifers; it also attacks wood in buildings,
hence its vernacular names. The allied Serpula lacrymans (dry rot fungus) occurs
inside buildings, especially cellars and cold, damp houses, where it is notorious
for
the damage it causes to untreated coniferous woodwork. Closely related species
occur
on wood in the wild (Pegler, 1990),

4.4 Yeasts

The yeasts are not a formal taxonomic unit but a growth form exhibited by a
range of unrelated unicellular fungi that reproduce asexually by budding and have
the
ability to ferment carbohydrates. It was Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) who was the
first
to establish that the yeasts from the grape skin were living, single-celled
organisms.
Some 590 species of yeasts are recognised by Barnett er al. (1990), yet only the
appropriate strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker's or brewer's yeasts) are
commonly used by the food industry (see Chapter 9), the potential of other and
often
more versatile yeasts have rarely been exploited.
360 Chapter 18

Yeasts may be used for various purposes in addition to their traditional roles in
baking and alcohol fermentation (see Chapter 9), breaking down glucose into ethanol
(ethyl alcohol) and CO,. For alcohol fermentation the yeasts are sometimes assisted
by other saccharifying moulds. In addition to ethanol the yeasts may also be used
for:
(1) Producing lactic acid, ethanoic (acetic) acid, gluconic acid, glutamic acid and
many other amino-acids; (2) Producing protein from alkanes (paraffins - aliphatic
hydrocarbons) and paper-pulp waste; (3) Producing various alditols, such as
glycerol
or D-glucitol; and (4) As sources of enzymes such as B-D-fructofuranosidase and
lipase.

Chemists have also used yeasts for producing novel carbon-carbon bonds,
optically active compounds such as methyl-diols from aldehydes, secondary alcohol
derivatives used in chiral building blocks for synthesising natural products, and
biologically active molecules such as prostaglandins (a group of related
unsaturated
hydroxylated fatty acids occurring in mammalian organs, tissues and secretions).
There is also a potential for the further exploitation of yeasts in synthesising
precursors of important natural products as well as for much simpler processes,
c.g.
removing contaminating compounds such as a sugar of a particular configuration
from a racemic acid mixture. Enantio-selectivity, i.e. selectivity of isomers
differing
in their configuration at a chiral atom, can also be improved by using a mutant
that
lacks an unwanted enzyme.

Apart from the widely used Saccharomyces cerevisiae, chemists have

occasionally used Candida tropicalis in the production of dodecanedioic acid and
its
derivatives for the plastics industry. They have also used Rhodotorula glutinus,
syn.
R. rubra, Schizosaccharomyces pombe or Zygosaccharmyces bailii in the processes
involved in synthesising prostaglandins. Genetic engineering can enhance such
versatility, while further screening could greatly increase the exploitation of
more
kinds of yeasts. Unfortunately, the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature
(see Chapter 2) by insisting on the preservation of yeasts for type specimens
instead
of living material has meant that those species known only from the type specimens,
e.g. Filobasidiella depauperata, are not available for research (Barnett er al.,
1990).
The location of resource centres holding culture collections of yeasts are listed
in
Kirston and Kurtzman (1988).

The use of yeasts for baking and brewing has been practised since early Biblical
times where, in the case of leaven bread, the practice is recorded of keeping back
a
piece of fermented dough to initiate a later fermentation. The commercial
production
of, for example, bread yeast, is nearly always grown through several stages under
laboratory conditions on a solution of molasses and water. A small quantity of a
pure
yeast culture is first grown in a sterilised and purified molasses solution to
which is
added ammonium salts and phosphates. Within 24 h the culture is transferred to a
larger container and more molasses solution and salts are added, and then aerated
in
order to minimise alcohol production. The process is repeated four or five times,
using larger and larger containers until ca. 5 tonnes of a fermenting liquid known
as
Useful Ferns, Bryophytes, Fungi, Bacteria and Viruses 361

the mother or seed yeast is obtained. The mother yeast is divided into three
separate
tanks, which are used to feed fresh ferments until the initial 5 tonnes has
increased to
45 tonnes. The yeast growth is then arrested as a suspension of yeast cells in a
liquid
residue of molasses solution, after which it is washed and separated in high speed
centrifugal separators. The white, thick and creamy yeast at the bottom of the
separators is then filtered and stored at 2°C until the excess water can be
extracted by
a rotary vacuum filter, after which it is compressed, extruded and packed in blocks
readily for marketing (Moldenke and Moldenke, 1952; David, 1978).

A considerable quantity of single cell proteins (SCP) in the form of baker's yeast
are produced commercially using starch products; SCP, mostly prepared by using
methanol as the feedstock, is also used for animal feed. It is doubtful, however,
whether starch-derived SCP can compete economically with, for example, soya
proteins, Even if the starch-derived SCP was competitive with soya meal, other more
obvious raw materials are available, including waste waters, bran, cellulose waste,
molasses, etc.

Candida utilis is commercially multiplied through the fermentation of molasses to

yield food yeast. During World War II food yeast provided much of the dietary
protein requirements. Unfortunately the high vitamin B content was a problem if
eaten to excess as it could give rise to hypervitaminosis. The process was later
used by
the sugar industries in Bast Africa, India and Malaya with the intention of
providing
supplementary protein to the diet but the schemes failed due to consumer
resistance,
even among starving populations. Nevertheless such microbial processes do have the
great advantage over traditional crops in being able to be carried out in a
controlled
sterile environment independent of the climate (Postgate, 1992).

Fermentation processes are also used to improve the flavour of vegetables, spices,
beverage materials, etc, Two basic types of fermentation processes are recognised:
(1)
By the use of the plant's own enzymes, c.g. the enzyme fermentation of the
polyphenol derivatives of catechin and gallic acid present in the leaves of
Camellia
sinensis (tea) to produce o-guinones, which polymerise to produce coloured
astringent condensation products on brewing, and the enzyme fermentation of the
glucosides present in the capsules of the South American orchid Vanilla planifolia
to
yield vanillin, the source of the fragrance and flavour of vanilla, which is widely
used
in the food and perfume industries. A less commercially desirable vanillin is also
produced as a by-product of the wood pulp industry; (2). Fermentation by bacteria
and
yeasts, as used in the processing of the 'beans' of Theobroma cacao (cocoa). That
well-known standby of Chinese-American cuisine, soy sauce, is obtained by the
fermentation of soya beans, rice and cereal, principally by Aspergillus oryzae and
Zygosaccharomyces rouxii, syn, Z. soja. The enormous quantity of citric acid
required by the soft drinks industry is also obtained by fermentation, by the
action of
Aspergillus niger on sugar (Brouk, 1975; Purseglove, 1985, 1987; Sharp, 1990).
Other industrial uses of yeasts include the development of strains of Trichoderma
reesei for the fermentation of hemicellulose and lignin to yield ethanol. Plastics,
362 Chapter 18

which are usually a product of the petrochemical industry, can also be obtained
from
fermentation processes. The enzymes required for the production of alkene oxides
for
polymerisation to yield plastics, can be synthesised from alkene by the lichen
Cladonia, syn. Cladoniomyces, the fungus Oudemansiella mucida and the bacteria
Flavobacterium spp. Fermentation of starch or sugar by the fungus Aurcobasidium
pullulans, syn. Pullularia pullulans is used in the production of the derived
plastic
pullulan, which resembles styrene in gloss, hardness and transparency but with much
greater elasticity. Since such compounds do not require a plasticiser, they are
especially safe for food packaging. An alternative source of imported y-linolenic
acid
(GLA) from Oenothera biennis (evening primrose) has been developed in Japan
using strains of Mortierella sp. in a liquid culture medium for the commercial
production of a lipid rich in y-linolenic acid (Suzuki, 1988; Subba Rao and
Kaushik,
1989; Robbins, 1995).

Although in the past the bacteria have been largely favoured by industry for the
biodegradation of lignocellulose and other waste products, there is now an
increasing
interest in the use of fungi, especially the various white rot fungi for treating
such
waste (Hawksworth ef al., 1995).

4.5 Other Micro-Fungi

Fungi provide the largest group of plant pathogens, although only ca. 8% of the
6000 genera are responsible. The term mould is used to describe those micro-fungi
that produce a distinct mycelium or spore mass, i.e. mildew, often resembling a
velvety pad on the surface of its host. Among the micro-fungi are members of the
Erysiphaceae (powdery mildews), Uredinales (rust fungi) and Ustilaginales (smut
fungi). The powdery mildews differ from the downy mildews Peronosporaceae
(downy mildews) of the Oomycota, in that they are chiefly superficial and unlike
the
downy mildews do not penetrate the inner tissue.

The micro-fungi are also responsible for a number of human diseases, e.g.
Candida spp. for thrush, and Microsporum spp. for ringworm. Fungal spores,
especially those of Aspergillus, Penicillium, are among those responsible for cases
of
allergic alveolitis, i.e. respiratory diseases, examples of which include farmer’s
lung,
cheese-maker’s lung and mushroom-worker’s lung. Other fungi contain mycotoxins
that contaminate food and food products consumed by humans and animals, and
render them poisonous and sometimes carcinogenic, e.g. Penicillium icelandicum is
the causative agent of yellow rice, a known carcinogenic of rodents and possibly of
humans (Holliday, 1989; Bailey, 1990; Postgate, 1992; Hawksworth er al., 1995).

The antibiotic properties of micro-fungi such as Penicillium notatum and the

action of the purified penicillin and its derivatives, ampicillin,
benzylpenicillin,
methicillin, etc. against the bacteria Neisseria gonorrhoeae, N. meningitidis, N.
pneumoniae, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, etc. are well documented. Other sources
of antibacterial drugs and pharmaceuticals include Claviceps paspali and C.
Useful Ferns, Bryophytes, Fungi, Bacteria and Viruses 363

purpurea for ergometrinine, ergotamine, ergotoxine, etc. The sclerotium (ergot) of

the latter is noteworthy in being the only fungus now in the British Pharmaceutical
Codex (Subba Rao and Kaushik, 1989; Macpherson, 1995).

In the dairy industry Penicillium roqueforti is added to the curd in order to

produce blue-veined Gorgonzola, Roquefort and Stilton, and P. expansum for such
blue-veined cheeses as dolce verde, where the colour of the veins are due to the
spores
of the inoculum. It is noteworthy that the Penicillium spp. used in cheeses are the
only fungi that are consumed entire. Many other cheeses are ripened after they have
been shaped by smearing the surface of the young rind with the appropriate
microbial
inoculum, which then penetrates the young rind and spreads throughout the cheese,
e.g. P. camemberti and P. caseicolum for Camembert and Brie respectively. These
fungi may also be eaten separately or used for a mycoprotein.

In China, Taiwan and Japan the aquatic perennial grass Zizania latifolia
(Manchurian wild rice) is cultivated for the greatly enlarged and succulent culms
infected by the smut fungus Ustilago esculenta. The culms are cooked and eaten as a
vegetable; they are marketed fresh, frozen or canned (Brouk, 1975; Terrell and
Batra,
1982; Postgate, 1992; Hawksworth et al, 1995). See Section 5 for bacterial
inoculums, and Chapter 9 for fermented foods.

In the Far Bast pure cultures or mixtures of moulds as well as yeasts are
traditionally used as starters to aid alcoholic fermentation processes by
hydrolysing
the starch into sugars. For example, the yeast Candida sake and a pure culture of
Aspergillus oryzae are used for fermenting rice for the alcoholic beverage sake,
while
a mixed starter would be used in the fermentation of soya for tempeh. In China the
starters, known as kyoku-shi and in Japan as koji, contain in addition to the
yeasts
species of Absidi, Aspergillus, Monascus, Mucor, Penicillium and Rhizopus.

A number of predatory and parasitic fungi that attack and help control nematodes
have been found among the Fungi and the fungal-like organs of members of the
Chytridiomycota, syn. Chytridiomycetes, and Oomycota, syn. Oomycetes which, in
the Five Kingdom classification are both referred to the Protoctista,

The predatory fungi capture the nematodes by adhesive processes through an

anastomising network of hypha, some of which are sticky, as in Arthrobotrys,
especially A. oligospora, or by a hyphal network with adhesive loops or
projections.
Others form mechanical ring traps of constricting or non-constricting rings in
which
the nematode becomes wedged. More sophisticated trapping devices by non-trap
forming endoparasitic fungi involve a germ tube from a sticky spore penetrating the
nematode cuticle, while Haptoglossa of the Oomycota has evolved a spore so complex
that it is capable of injecting a passing nematode. Others retard nematode
development by chemical secretions, Fusarium oxysporum, for example, inhibits the
growth of Heterodora schactii (beet cyst nematode) when both are present in a field
of sugar beet, However, the converse can also occur, thus the severity of rice stem
rot
caused by Leptosphaeria salvinii decreases when the rice plant is also attacked by
364 Chapter 18

Aphelenchoides besseyi, the nematode responsible for white tip (Drechsler, 1934;
Webster, 1972).

The University of Reading and the Institute for Agricultural Crop Research,
Harpenden are currently investigating the ability of the soil-borne Verticillium
chlamydosporum to suppress root-knot nematodes, the principal nematode pests of
vegetables and some field and perennial crops throughout the tropical, subtropical
and warmer temperate regions. But before such nematophagous fungi can become
available for field control use there remain considerable problems regarding their
formulation and application (Barron, 1977; Hawksworth ef al., 1995; Gowen, 1998).

4.6 Lichens

Lichens, from the Latin lichén, from Greek leikhén, licker, from leikhein, to lick
(presumably referring to their often tongue-like thallus), form a large and
successful
but curious group of an essentially obligate, stable, self-supporting association
of a
mycobiont (fungus) and a phycobiant (green alga or cyanobacteria). Their fungal and
photosynthetic parts each have a separate name, but the name by which the lichen is
known refers to the fungal partner. They are no longer regarded as members of the
Plantae, with most placed in the phylum Ascomycota of the Fungi Kingdom. There
are some 450 genera containing from 16,00 to 20,000 species (Perez-Llano, 1944;
Long, 1994 Hawksworth ef al., 1995).

Three main types of growth habit are recognised: (1) Crustose lichens growing
closely attached to the substrate; (2) Foliose lichens, generally attached loosely
to the
substrate by tufts of hyphae known as rhizinae, the thallus with lobed, leaf-like
extensions; and (3) Fruticose lichens, which are either erect and bushy or hanging
and tassel-like, attached at only one point, e.g. Usnea (Brightman and Nicholson,
1966; Tootill, 1984; Schultes and Hofmann, 1992).

A number of lichens were formerly used, especially in northern Europe and

America, for dyeing wool and other fibres. These dyes have managed to resist
supplantation by synthetic dyes, especially by Scottish and Irish tweed industries,
for
far longer than most other natural dyes. Their use meanwhile by the craft textile
industries in Europe and North America has been undergoing a revival in recent
years, although it is doubtful if there will be any significant global improvement
in
the present low level of international trade. For architectural and other models of
trees and shrubs species of Cladonia are dyed green and made soft and pliable with
glycerol (glycerine).

Roccella tinctoria (orchil), from the Mediterranean region, was formerly used for
colouring wool, silks and wines, and for staining wood. The dye is now used by the
food industry for pickled tongue, sauces and spices. It is prepared by the slow
aerobic
fermentation of the macerated lichen with aqueous ammonia for ca. 2 weeks. The
blue orchil liquor is then extracted with water and the ammonia is driven off by
heating to yield red orchil. The red orchil is then evaporated and ground to a fine
Useful Ferns, Bryophytes, Fungi, Bacteria and Viruses 365

powder or paste known as orseille. A purple dye is similarly extracted from

Ochrolechia tartarea (cudbear) - the name apparently being derived from the
Christian name of a Dr Cuthbert Gordon, an 18th century Scottish chemist, who
patented the dye. A litmus is extracted from the Malagasy Roccella montagnei in a
similar process that also involves the addition of potash and lime to the aqueous
ammonia. In Peru species of Parmelia and Umbilicaria are also used to produce
brown and reddish dyes respectively (Hill, 1952; Brightman and Nicholson, 1966;
Brouk, 1975; Montagné, 1977; Zumbiihl, 1979; Hale, 1983; Long, 1994; Green,
1995).

The lichen dyes can often be used without a mordant to produce a range of subtle,
muted colours, from yellow, brown, red, purple to violet. These lichen pigments
involve a diversity of oxygen ring compounds which are generically, if
inaccurately,
known as lichen acids. The orchil type dyes are direct dyes, which are fugitive to
the
light, and represent a complex series of orcein derivatives of natural depside
pigments, consisting of a mixture of oxy- and amino-phenoxazon or phenoxazin
formed from micro-aerophilic oxidation of orcinol-type secondary metabolites in the
presence of ammonia. The reactive Parmelia dyes are light-fast and are produced by
colourless lichen metabolites with an aldehyde group, such as the depsidone
salazinic
acid (Green, 1995; Hawksworth ef al. 1995).

Lichens are also used in the perfume industry as fixatives of other ingredients. An
unbelievable 8000-9300 tons of the oak mosses, chiefly Evernia prunastri (mousse de
chéne, stag’s horn) and Pseudevernia furfuracea, syn. Evernia furfuracea, are
collected annually in Yugoslavia, southern France and Morocco (Brightman and
Nicholson, 1966; Hale, 1983).

They also serve as a source of food and fodder. Species of Lecanora and
Sphaerothallia occupy vast tracts of barren plains and mountains of western Asia
and
northern Africa. Following long periods of drought they curl up and break loose
from
the soil. Being extremely light the winds may occasionally transport them for
considerable distances before depositing them on the ground, where they may
sometimes form layers several centimetres in depth. These lichens are believed to
be
the Biblical manna 'that fell from heaven' (Numbers, 11, 9). Even today the lichens
are gathered up by the Bedouin and, with the addition of meal, made into bread.
Bread can also be made with fermented Evernaria. prunastri and Pseudevernia
furfuracea, while in Japan the foliose Umbilicaria esculenta (iwatake, rock tripe)
is
regarded as a great delicacy. An edible jelly can be made from the fruticose
Cerraria
islandica (Iceland moss), although the plant must first be thoroughly soaked before
boiling to leach out the bitter flavour, while species of Cladonia require boiling
with
soda to remove the bitter and irritating fumaroprotocetraric acid, etc. before
eating.
Lichens may also be fermented for alcoholic beverages. The reindeer lichens
Cladonia, syn. Cladina, and Cetraria can form 15 cm or more high carpet-like
masses in the arctic and subarctic regions, and provide essential grazing, while
corticolous lichens, such as Usnea are browsed by members of the Cervidae
(reindeer,
366 Chapter 18

moose, caribou) and Bovidae (musk ox). The lichens are also harvested for domestic
stock (Perez-Llano, 1944; Moldenke and Moldenke, 1952; Brightman and Nicholson,
1966; Hale, 1983).

A number of medicinal uses have also been recorded, some have their medical
properties attributed under the Doctrine of Signatures for treating cutaneous
afflictions, but without success. As a consequence the term lichen is now applied
medically to a group of chronic skin diseases. Some contain antibiotics, e.g. usnic
acid, a yellow dibenzofuran derivative present in Cladonia arbuscula and Usnea spp.
with anti-Gram +ve bacterial and antifungal properties. The foliose Peltigera
canina
is used to treat liver complaints and formerly to treat rabies, and Cetraria
islandica is
used for lung diseases and diabetes. In lowland Amazonia Dictyonema sericeum is
regarded as powerful shaman medicine of the Auca tribe; it is also possible that it
is
hallucinogenic. Hallucinogenic lichens have also been reported from north-western
North America, although confirmation of such activity is lacking (Perez-Llano,
1944;
Brightman and Nicholson, 1966; Hale, 1983; Schultes and Hofmann, 1992;
Macpherson, 1985; Hawksworth ez al., 1995)

Squamulose desert species of Catapyrenium, Heppia, Peltula and Psora, and the
crustose Diploschistes grow appressed to the soil and effectively seal and
stabilise the
surface. I have personally observed such lichens in the Sudan resulting in no rain
run
off from otherwise loose sand dunes, where run off would otherwise have been
expected.

Other lichens can provide sensitive indicators of NO,, SO,, Cr, Hg, Ni, Pb and Zn
pollution, especially SO,. This is because the mycobiant or phycobiant is sensitive
to
the pollutants, which can disrupt membranes and lead to chlorophyll breakdown. For
example, in Europe, Hypogymnia physioides dies when SQ, levels exceed 60-70 ng
m’. By using the different sensitivities of the lichens it is possible to provide a
very
sensitive monitoring of pollution levels. The measurement of metal and
radionuclides
take up has even been used to map pollution from the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear
disaster. In California the colour changes in Lecanora cascadensis are used as an
indicator of copper, while Cetraria species is highly correlated with the presence
of
marble and limestone deposits (Hawksworth ef al., 1995).

5. BACTERIA

The kingdom Bacteria represents a heterogeneous group of prokaryotic

organisms, i.e. organisms in which the nuclear material within the cell is not
separated from the cell protoplasm by a nuclear membrane and where cell division is
amitotic, i.e. without the appearance of chromosomes; the nuclear membrane does not
break down and a spindle is not formed. The Cyanobacteria, formerly known as the
Cyanophyta (blue-green algae) are consequently now included in the kingdom. Some
10,000 species of bacteria are known, and these probably represent only a fraction
of
Useful Ferns, Bryophytes, Fungi, Bacteria and Viruses 367

the total number. There are, for example, over 5000 strains of bacteria,
actinomycota,
plasmids and bacteriophages that are available in the UK for use in a wide range of
industrial and teaching institutes. See Dando and Young (1990) for a list of their
uses
and relevant literature references. Their taxonomy and nomenclature, documented by
Holt (1984-1989) and Holt ef al. (1994), is difficult and imperfectly understood.

Two physiologically distinct types of bacteria are recognised, depending on their

staining properties using a violet dye mordanted with iodine or picric acid and
then
decolorised in alcohol. Bacteria that retain the stain are said to be Gram
positive,
honouring the staining method devised by H.C.J. Gram for staining bacteria in
tissue
sections. Such Gram positive bacteria tend to be more exacting in their nutritional
requirements, more susceptible to antibiotics, and more resistant to plasmolysis.
They
include the Corynebacteriaceae, Lactobacillaceae and Neisseriaceae, Those bacteria
that are decolorised and take up a counterstain, usually pink, are referred to as
Gram
negative; they include the Cyanobacteria,

In terms of distribution and numbers bacteria are the most successful of the life
forms. Many occur saprophytically in the soil and are important as decomposers in
the carbon cycle, while others are important in the nitrogen cycle, e.g. the
nitrifying
bacteria, Nitrobacter and Nitrosomonas (see Chapter 5), and denitrifying bacteria,
e.g. species of Clostridium, Micrococcus, Pseudomonas and Thiobacillus. Some are
toxic, others are pathogenic, causing bacterial diseases of plants and animals,
while
others are important in fermentation processes for the food and drinks industries
(Tootill, 1984; Holliday, 1990; Hawksworth et al., 1995).

Among the toxic bacteria are the blooms in stagnant or slow-flowing waters of the
blue-green colonial Anabaena circinalis and Microcystis aeruginosa, syn. Anacystis
cyanea, especially in nutrient-rich regions receiving sewage and drainage effluents
from settlements and agricultural lands. The bacteria contains toxic microcystins,
a
group of related cyclic heptapeptides which damage the liver and are not
inactivated
by the usual treatments of drinking water. The filamentous Oscillatoria spp., which
are usually present as mats in bottom sediments, may become detached and rise to
the
surface, where it too releases substantial amounts of microcystins, as well as
producing potent neurotoxins similar to saxitoxin found in marine algae. Other
marine Dinomastigota (dinoflagellates) of the Protoctista are responsible for red
tides,
resulting in the death of marine animals, including sea birds and farmed salmon in
UK (May, 1978; Hawksworth ef al., 1995; Bailey, 1999).

Examples of bacterial plant pathogens include species of Arthrobacter,

Clavibacter, Curtobacterium, Pseudomonas, Rhodococcus, etc. Among the bacterial
diseases of humans are; brucellosis from Brucella aborius, boils, pimples and spots
caused by Staphylococcus aureus, tuberculosis due to Mycobacterium tuberculosis,
pneumonia from Streptococcus carinii and other bacteria, and the bubonic plague
which so decimated the population of Europe during the Middle Ages from Yersinia
pestis, syn. Pasteurella pestis. Other pathogenic bacteria can also be
advantageous.
The soil-borne Pasteuria penetrans, for example, is currently under investigation
at
368 Chapter 18

the Institute for Agricultural Crop Research, Harpenden and by the University of
Reading. Field results have revealed P. penetrans able to slowly reduce root-knot
nematode populations in continuously cultivated crops (Holliday, 1990; Postgate,
1992; Gowen, 1998).

Other bacteria can be used for the benefit of man as antibiotics. For example,
among the non-filamentous bacteria two genera are responsible for ca. 500
antibiotics, while ca. 3000 antibiotic agents are known from the Actinobacteria
(Actinomycetales). However, of the ca. 5000 antibiotics known, only ca. 100 are
marketed, They include: Streptomyces aureofaciens (tetracycline), S. erythraeus
(erythromycin), S. griseus (streptomycin), S. venezuelae (chloramphenicol, which is
now synthesised), etc. Arthrobacter simplex, syn. Corynebacterium simplex, is the
source of prednisolone, which has five times the activity of cortisone, while
genetically engineered Escherichia coli is now capable of producing insulin 100
times faster than was possible using standard animal production processes (Subba
Rao and Kaushik, 1989; Macpherson, 1995).

Nostoc commune and N. ellipsospermum are cultivated and eaten in China and in
central Asia respectively. Their culture and use as food created considerable
interest,
and in recent years has led to the culture of other highly productive members of
the
Cyanobacteria, such as species of Arthrospira, Nematonostoc, Nostoc, Phormidium
and Spirulina, especially the latter, as sources of SCPs (single cell proteins) as
a feed
supplement for poultry, the high xanthophyll content giving a good colour to egg
yolks. Because of their high cost the SCPs are not fed to ruminants, In the UK SCP
is
produced by the action of Methylophilus methylotrophus on methanol.

Dried cakes made from floating mats of Arthrospira maxima, syn. Spirulina
maxima, from Lake Texcoco in Mexico, and A. platensis, syn. S. platensis, found
growing in shallow lakes near Lake Chad in Africa, have been known and used as a
non-toxic, highly nutritious and easily digestible food by the local inhabitants
for
centuries. A. maxima was harvested for food until the Spanish conquest in the 16th
century, after which harvesting ceased, During the past two decades commercial
firms extracting soda from the lake have resumed harvesting the cyanobacteria as a
by-product, mainly for use as a SCP feed for livestock. A platensis is of local
importance as a food source as well as being the main food of Phoeniconaias minor
(lesser flamingos) in the saline lakes of the East African Rift Valley. Both
contain 62-
68% dry weight of protein.

The economics of SCP culture from organisms such as Arthrospira and Spirulina
are interesting. When cultivated in open ponds Spirulina consumes 25,000 m’ ha” of
water, more water per unit area than the 17,000 m® required for rice. But in terms
of
protein production Spirulina requires only 1000 m’ ton”, considerably less than the
7000 m* required by soya. Containing 75% protein, it has been estimated that 1 ha
of
Spirulina could yield 25.4 tonnes of protein (65% of dry weight) as compared to
4.05
tonnes from wheat and 0.4 tonnes from beef,
Useful Ferns, Bryophytes, Fungi, Bacteria and Viruses 369

Spirulina is also a source of various organic compounds, including the essential

amino-acid y-linolenic acid (GLA), which has a valuable pharmaceutical application.
Currently being marketed in health shops as a dietary supplement, the claimed
benefits of weight loss, physical fitness and well-being, etc. can probably be
attributed
to the GLA rather than the protein, vitamin or mineral content. Unfortunately, GLA
production from Spirulina is more expensive than that from Oenothera biennis
(evening primrose).

While it is possible to produce cyanobacteria in artificial open ponds, there are

problems with contamination by algae and other micro-organisms such as Chlorella,
Euglena and Scenedesmus. These problems can be overcome by using a very alkaline
growing medium, or by the selection of suitable species, especially thermophilic
and
halophilic cyanobacteria, for growing in arid or semi-arid environments where the
harsh conditions would be lethal to the contaminants. Spirulina subsalsa var.
crassior
and Synechococcus elongatus var. vestitus appear to be suitable candidates, the
former with an estimated annual yield of ca. 7.5 tonnes ha” and the latter ca.
12.5-25
tonnes. While the Spirulina can be effectively harvested by netting the unicellular
Synechococcus has proved more difficult. The problem has been overcome by feeding
directly, without harvesting, to either brine shrimps or 7ilapia (Léonard and
Compére, 1967; Gohl, 1981; Ciferri, 1983; Ciferri and Tiboni, 1985; Roughan, 1989;
Shinohara et al., 1989; Horrobin, 1990b).

In the food industry lactic acid fermentation by Lactobacillus brevis, L.

plantatrum and the blue green Leuconostoc mesenteroides are used for pickling
cucumbers and sauerkraut; they are all naturally present on cabbage leaves. The
sour
taste of rye bread is also due to lactic acid bacteria. A lactic acid fermentation
process
dominated by Streptococcus sp. with Pediococcus sp. is involved in the preparation
of the traditional Sudanese food known as sigda from the oilseed cake of Sesamum
orientale (sesame); other participants in the fermentation processes are the yeasts
Candida sp. and Saccharomyces sp. Also in the Sudan, the bacterium Bacillus
subtilis and the yeast Rhizopus sp. are used in the fermentation of the leaves of
Senna
obtusifolia, syn. Cassia obtusifolia, for the production of kowal, a high protein
food
from what was otherwise an unpalatable plant with toxic glycosides. The crushed
seeds of Hibiscus sabdariffa (kerkade) are also fermented for furundu. In West
Africa
Bacillus spp., especially B. subtilis, are the principal micro-organism used in the
preparation of ogili from the seed of Riccinus communis (castor oil plant) and
ogiri
from the seeds of the watermelon Citrullus lanatus, syn. C. vulgaris, for food
(Brouk,
1975; Dirar, 1983; Subba Rao and Kaushik, 1989; Elfaki et al., 1991).

In the dairy industry lactic acid fermentation employing species of Lactobacillus,

Leuconostoc and Streptococcus are chiefly used for dairy products in which the
glucose is broken down under anaerobic conditions into two molecules of lactic
acid.
Cultured sour milk and sour cream is obtained by inoculation with Streptococcus
lactis subsp. lactis or subsp. cremoris, syn. S. cremoris, to produce curdling, and
flavoured by the simultaneous us e of Leuconostoc cremoris, syn. L. citrovorum, and
370 Chapter 18

L. mesenteriodes subsp. dextranicum, syn. L. dextranicum, The fermentation of milk

by Lactobacillus acidophilus is used to produce an acidophilic bioyoghutt. The
inoculation of milk at 37°C with Streptococcus thermophilus produces Bulgarian
buttermilk, to which the addition of L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus, syn. L.
bulgaricus, also yields a yoghurt. Kefir, from cow’s, goat’s or sheep’s milk and
kumiss, usually from mares' milk, also requires fermentation with various species
of
Lactobacillus and Streptococcus and lactofermentation yeast species of Saccharo-
myces. Other species of Lactobacillus are used industrially in the fermentation of
maize and potato sugars.

Cheese from natural milk is soured using a starter. If the milk is being processed
at high temperatures the starter is Streptococcus thermophilus plus a species of
Lactobacillus such as L. delbruekii subsp. lactis; at lower temperatures the
starter
used is S. lactis subsp. cremoris or L. delbruekii subsp. lactis. When the milk
reaches
the required acidity it is curdled by the addition of rennet (an impure form of the
enzyme rennin), which curdles the soluble protein euseinogen but not the insoluble
casein, thereby separating the sour milk into curds and whey.

Some cheeses are further ripened using propanoic (propionic) acid bacteria such
as Propionibacterium freudenreichii, syn. P. shermanii, which is responsible for
the
'eye' in Emmenthaler and other cheeses, with the formation of propanoic and
ethanoic
acids and small quantities of succinic acid and CO, from the glucose. Inoculating
the
rind with the short, reddish, rod-shaped bacteria Brevibacterium erythrogenes and
B.
linens give the characteristic taste and orange colour to Limberg cheese.

In wine-growing districts ethanoic acid bacteria Acetobacter and Gluconobacter

are used to oxidise wine exposed to air into wine vinegar (from the French vin
aigre
= sour wine), in the UK malt is used for malt vinegar, and in the USA cider is
fermented for cider vinegar. The A. aceri subsp. aceri and subsp. xylinum (syn. A.
xylinum) and A. pasteurians (syn. A. kiitzingianum) are capable of breaking down
ethanoic acid into CO, and water, while Gluconobacter oxydans (syn. A.
melanogenus, A. oxydans, A. roseum, A. suboxylans) is incapable of causing any
further breakdown of the ethanoic acid. Since the oxidation by Acetobacter of
alcohol
into ethanoic acid and water occurs under aerobic conditions, it is not a true
fermentation process, which is defined as the anaerobic breakdown of glucose and
other organic fuels to obtain energy (Brouk, 1975; Postgate, 1992; Bailey, 1999).

In the food industry coupling sugar is formed by the action of Bacillus

megaterium on starch and sucrose. It has 80% of the sweetness of sucrose and has
the
additional advantage of not causing dental caries. Coupling sugar does not
caramelise
(discolour) when heated, and as a result has widespread possibilities for use in
the
food industry.

Bacterial fermentation is also used industrially, including the production of

xanthan gum by the action Xanthomonas campestris on waste sugar products, such
as those from the refining of sugar beet and corn starch; other Xanthomonas spp.
act
on a glucose and salts substrate. The gum is used in gel air-fresheners and in
Useful Ferns, Bryophytes, Fungi, Bacteria and Viruses 371

pharmaceuticals, and as a thickener and stabiliser in food glazing, ceramics,

cleaning, polishing, paint emulsions, oil well drilling, textile printing and
dyeing,
also in the production of propanone and butanols (butyl alcohols) for industrial
use,
the latter are used as solvents for resins and lacquers. Other xanthates are used
in the
curing and vulcanisation of rubber, and for the detection of certain metals.
Thiobacillus ferrooxidans and T. thiooxidans are involved in the recovery of copper
from low grade ores.

Among other industrial uses is the synthesis of cyclodextrins from starch using
Bacillus macerans; the cyclodextrins are used for the encapsulation of unstable
materials. Alcaligenes eutrophus is used in the preparation of polyhydroxybutanoic
acid (PHB). In many respects the PHB resembles polypropylene and is used for
surgical sutures and encapsulating materials. The fermentation of sugar and starch
products by Bacterium subtilis, etc. may be used to produce butanoic acid (butyric
acid), the cellulose derivatives of which are used in lacquers and as moulding
plastics, and the butanoates used in flavouring and as plasticisers. The action of
Clostridium acetobutylicum on a maize meal feedstock was formerly used for the
production of butyl esters and propanone (acetone) for synthetic flavouring
essences
and perfumes, solvents, and various other chemicals (Rexen and Munck 1984; Subba
Rao and Kaushik, 1989; Sharp, 1990).

6. VIRUSES AND VIROIDS

Viruses are transmissible, subcellular entities, invisible by light microscopy, and

only capable of replication within the living cell by modifying the genetic
machinery
of the host; they are incapable of multiplication in an inanimate media. They are
not
accepted as organisms within the Linnaean binomial system, neither do they appear
in the Five Kingdoms classification. They are briefly discussed here because of
their
pathological importance for the economic botanist.

It is in the inert state, outside the host cell, that a hierarchical classification
system is currently evolving. The virus name conveys no information as to its
taxonomic position in the hierarchy, and the group name follows the virus name,
e.g.
arabis mosaic nepovirus or carnation etched ring caulimovirus. The five levels
recognised are, in descending order: particle, group, sub-group, virus, and virus
strain, A particle, for example, may be icosahedral or isometric, a straight rod, a
flexuous filament or cylindrical, i.e. bacilliform. The divisions within the
isometric
particle include the ssRNA Nepoviruses and the dsDNA Caulimoviruses, etc. See
Holloway (1990) for further information and literature references,

A virus that occurs in a fungus is known as a mycovirus, one that infects

members of the Prokaryotes, i.e, a bacterium, is known as a bacteriophage or phage.
The phage particles multiply within the host cell, which eventually bursts, thereby
releasing the particles and causing lysis, i.e. the dissolution of a bacterium
infected
372 Chapter 18

with phage. Phage typing is used in identifying bacterial species or types by

testing
their reactions to selected phages, hence the phagotype, distinguished by
sensitivity to
a specific phage. Outside the host cell viruses consist of DNA or RNA typically
surrounded by a protein coat or capsid. It is the serological reaction of the
capsid
proteins that are used to identify the viruses. Some of the simpler viruses, e.g.
tobacco
mosaic virus, can even be crystallised. Virologists regard the viruses as
subcellular
entities with genomes analogous to such molecules as messenger RNA, plasmids or
transpons,

Viruses are the causative agent of many important diseases of man, lower animals
and plants, e.g. poliomyelitis, foot and mouth disease, tobacco mosaic and tomato
mosaic. It should be noted that strains of the tobacco mosaic virus rarely occur in
the
tomato and contrary to popular opinion they compete poorly with those of the tomato
mosaic virus. There are approximately 400 plant viruses, most of which are single-
stranded RNA (ssRNA) viruses. Symptoms include mosaic, leaf spots, and deformed
growth of certain organs. Some may be of horticultural interest, such as the broken
flower colour of certain ornamentals, e.g. the colour breaking in the tepals of
Rembrandt tulips with anthocyanins, the tulip varieties so named after a painting
by
Rembrandt showing characteristic colour breaking on early introductions, Other
viruses may not produce any disease symptoms apart from a noticeable reduction in
yield, They may be transmitted by vectors, infected seed and pollen, Viruses are
generally not found in meristematic tissue, hence the use of tissue culture (see
Chapter 6) to obtain virus-free explants.

Virus neutralisation tests are used to identify the antibody response to a virus
or,
by using a known antibody, to identify a virus, The test depends on a specific
antibody neutralising the infectivity of a virus by preventing it from binding to
the
target cell. The tests may be carried out in vivo in susceptible animals or chick
embryos or, more usually, in tissue culture.

The viroids are extremely small and circular infectious agents consisting solely of
RNA with no enveloping coat or capsid. Examples isolated from plants within which
they are able to replicate and cause characteristic disease symptoms include the
potato
spindle tuber viroid, hop stunt viroid, and avocado sunblotch viroid; they have not
been found in animals. They are not detectable as particles in infected plants, but
when placed in plants they replicate autonomously is susceptible cells and produce
a
characteristic disease syndrome (Holliday, 1990; Walker, 1991; Bailey, 1999).
Chapter 19
Useful Algae

The algae represent an extremely diverse group of predominantly aquatic plants

within the kingdom Protoctista, although the term no longer has any taxonomic
significance. They are eukaryotic organisms, whose cells contain a distinct nucleus
and cell division is usually by mitosis or meiosis. They exhibit relatively little
differentiation of tissues and organs, and range from unicellular organisms through
colonial and filamentous forms to the parenchymatous seaweeds with lamina over 50
m long.

Depending on their pigmentation, food reserves, cell-wall materials, number and

types of flagella and ultrasonic detail, the Protoctista are represented by ca. 50
phyla.
Among those phyla that contain organisms that at some time or other have been
classified with the algae or fungi are: Dinomastigota (syn. Dinoflagellata,
Dinophyta), Haptomonada (syn. Haptophyta), Discomitochondria (euglenids, etc.),
Cryptomonada (syn. Cryptophyta), Xanthophyta (yellow-green algae). Chrysomonada
(syn. Chrysophyta, golden-brown algae), Phaeophyta (brown algae), Rhodophyta (red
algae), Gamophyta (including the desmids and conjugating green algae), Chlorophyta
(green algae) and Diatoms (syn. Bacillariophyta). Of the former algae groups the
Chlorophyta, Phacophyta and Rhodophyta are of particular economic importance.
There was a temporary interest in the genus Chara of the Gamophyta when it was
suggested that their presence was harmful to mosquito larvae bul subsequent
investigation failed to support the idea (Allen, 1950; Bailey, 1999).

The economic value, culture and breeding of both marine and terrestrial algae
requires a detailed knowledge of their classification and taxonomy in order to
better
understand their complex life cycles, sexual and asexual reproduction, gametophyte
and sporophyte generations, etc., subjects outside this present study, although
some of
the problems involved can be deduced from the text.

373
374 Chapter 19
L ALGAL BIOCHEMICALS

Many of the macro-algae, especially among the marine algae, present valuable
and largely undeveloped sources of important biochemicals. Among the halophilous
micro-algae a number are capable of tremendous productivity and provide useful
sources of single cell proteins and other products.

11 Phycocolloids

A colloid is defined as finely divided particles of approximately 1-100 mm in

size dispersed in a continuous medium. As such colloids are intermediate between
coarse suspensions and molecular or ionic solutions, Their economic importance lies
in their surface properties (Sharp, 1990). The colloids obtained from algae are
known
as phycocolloids, consisting of hydrophile colloids of basic polysaccharide
structure
derived from the cell walls or intercellular matrix of the algae. Their commercial
sources are the marine algae (seaweeds), including both the benthic macro-algae of
the sea floor and the free-floating planktonic microalgae. In the absence of any
reported industrial use as producers of polysaccharides the microalgae need not be
considered further here.

The intrinsic properties of the different macromolecular components of a given

phycocolloid may differ more or less from those determined from the actual crude
phycocolloid, so that a comparison between other gums and polysaccharides may not
always be fully justified. Agar, for example, contains both agarose and
agaropectin,
which differ only slightly in structure but have very different physical
properties.
Notwithstanding, it is the actual physical properties of agar itself that are
described
and compared with other polysaccharides having the same industrial application. It
is
their non-toxicity combined with their unique rheological properties, i.e.
elasticity,
viscosity and plasticity, that give the phycocolloids certain advantages over other
sources of industrial gums, although cheaper and lower quality substitutes may
replace phycocolloids for certain uses and regions, especially in times of economic
depression, They are used world-wide in the modern food and pharmaceutical
industries as colloid stabilisers, emulsifying agents, gelling agents and in
immobilising enzymes. Only rarely are they considered to be of therapeutic value.

The four major phycocolloids for industrial application are alginate, laminarin,
agar and carrageenans. The alginates and laminarin are mainly from the Phacophyta
(brown algae) and the more or less sulphated galactans such as agar and
carrageenans
are obtained principally from the Rhodophyta (red algae) and serve the same
industrial purposes as the alginates.
Useful Algae 375
1.1.1 Alginates

The principal constituent of the phycocolloid agin forming the cell walls of the
brown algae and certain bacteria, e.g. Azotobacter vinelandii, is known as alginic
acid, a carbohydrate polymer of D-mannuronic acid and L-glucuronic acid units. It
functions as an ion exchange agent, and is present in both the free state and as
calcium and magnesium alginates in the brown algae. Both the alginic acid and
alginates are of commercial importance. The alginic acid is sufficiently acidic to
displace CO; from a carbonate; it is also insoluble in water but absorbs many times
its
own weight of water to form a slimy gel, hence its incorporation in tablets as a
disintegrating agent,

Alginate production is currently based on Macrocystis pyrifera harvested in the

USA, Durvillea spp. and Lessonia sp. from Chile. In the Far East small quantities
are
obtained from species of Ecklonia, Eisenia, and to some extent Laminaria japonica.
Laminaria digitata is the raw material used in France, and L. hyperborea and
Ascophyllum nodosum in the UK and Norway.

The alginates are mostly utilised for polypropylene glycol alginate (PGA). Stable
under acidic conditions, PGA is widely used to suspend the pulp in fruit drinks,
and
is used in French dressings where an ordinary alginate would be precipitated under
acid conditions. It is also used to stabilise beer foam, the addition of 50-100 ppm
being sufficient to react with the protein without any haze formation.

The industrial potential of alginates is due to the relatively simple manner by

which the viscosity of its solutions can be controlled over a wide range of values.
Gel
stability is not temperature dependent; whether it is brittle, elastic or soft
depends on
the type of alginate, Their low-price and thickening, emulsifying, stabilising,
suspending and gelling properties find numerous applications in the food,
pharmaceutical, cosmetic, textile, paper making, paint, ceramic and rubber
industries.

It was formerly used to suspend cocoa in chocolate milk drinks, for which purpose
it has now been replaced by carrageenans. It was subsequently used as an ice-cream
stabiliser and later extended into food and confectionery products as thickeners,
stabilisers and emulsifiers, especially where an oily substance is involved, such
as in
mayonnaise and sauces. It is also used in preventing water leakage from frozen fish
on thawing, and to prevent the degradation of starch. Alginates are being
increasingly
used for reconstructed foods, such as crab sticks and onion rings, and the pimiento
stuffing of olives.

The ability of alginates to immobilise cells and enzymes is utilised in the

production of ethanol from starch, brewing beer with immobilised yeast, the
production of citric acid, continuous yoghuit production, prednisolone production
from hydrocortisone, etc. as well as glycerol production from the green,
unicellular
Dunaliella tertiolecta. Among the 1583 or more reported industrial uses of glycerol
are in the manufacture of solvents, sweeteners, printing ink, antifreeze and shock
absorber fluid.
376 Chapter 19

The Dunaliella species are unique among aquatic eukaryotic organisms in

occupying a range of saline waters ranging from nearly fresh (<0.1 M NaCl) to
saturated salt solution (>5 M NaCl). D. saline subsp. saline, syn. D. bardawil,
from
the Red Sea is currently under investigation as a commercial source of glycerol.
Free
glycerol is the major product of photosynthesis, with the intercellular free
glycerol
content produced dependent upon the salinity of the growth medium. When grown in
outdoors in a 3 M NaCl medium, the halotolerant D. salina contains ca. 30%
glycerol, 29% protein, 18% lipids, 11% carbohydrates, 8% B-carotene and 1%
chlorophyll, thus providing three valuable commercial products - bulk chemical f-
carotene, high protein feed, and bulk chemical glycerol. When grown under
conditions of increasing light intensity and light period, or under stress
conditions,
such as nutrient deficiency or high salt concentrations, it was found that the
chlorophyll content per cell decreased and the 8-carotene increased. As the ratio
of p-
carotene to chlorophyll increases from ca. 0.4 to 13 g g”' there is an accompanying
colour change from green to a deep orange. The B-carotene, the precursor of vitamin
A, is used to impart colour and provide vitamin A in animal and human foods,
including margarine. It is also used as a sunscreen agent. The algal residue from
the
extraction process contains no indigestible polysaccharide cell walls and can
therefore
be used for livestock feed (Ben-Amotz and Avron, 1983a, b; Fenical, 1983; Kochhar
and Singh, 1989).

Alginates are used in the pharmaceutical industry as a tablet binder to provide a

sustained release. A combination of water-soluble and water-insoluble alginates are
also used to act as a binder in dry tablets, with the alginate’s water absorption
properties promoting tablet disintegration in water, Alginates are also applied as
an
anti-refluxant, a suspension agent in drugs, e.g. penicillin, and as an X-ray
contrast
medium thickener, as an adjuvant for haemodialysis, in haemostasis, and wound and
bum healing. For treating wounds and burns, threads of calcium/sodium alginate are
woven into a fabric or biopaper bandage and gel on contact with the wound. The
alginate's selective ion-binding properties also makes it an interesting agent for
blocking the toxicity of certain ingested heavy metals, Alginates are also widely
used
in the cosmetic industry as a base in creams, jellies, hair-sprays, hair-dyes, etc.
and as
a dispersal agent in shaving soaps and hair shampoos, as well as being used in dust
protection creams for use in factories.

In the textile industry alginates are used as a dressing and polisher, as a

thickener
for colours employed in printing fabrics, and as a hardener and adhesive for
joining
threads in weaving, either alone or mixed with starch or tragacanth gum. Its
cementing and sealing properties are utilised for the glazing and sizing of paper
and
cardboard, impregnating fertiliser bags; and as an adhesive stabiliser for
corrugated
boards, brown coal or lignite briquettes where, by stabilising the viscosity of the
adhesive, it controls the rate of penetration. By converting soluble salts into
insoluble
salts alginates enable the insoluble salts to be used to waterproof fabric. For
example,
ammoniated aluminium alginate, which becomes insoluble on drying, is used to
Useful Algae 377

waterproof tents and other canvas covers. Because they are pliable when moist, the
insoluble salts can be prepared in the manufacture of plastics, linoleum, vulcanite
fibre and imitation leather. Alginates may be used as a binding agent for fish
foods,
in insecticides and fungicides, as well as a binder for printer's ink and in
cartridge
primers.

Its emulsive ability is utilised in casein emulsion paints, while its suspending
properties are used in car polishes and paints. Copper and mercury alginates are a
useful component of underwater marine paints. The heavy metal alginates can be
dissolved in ammonia which, on evaporation produce a waterproof film that can act
as a varnish, while ammoniacal copper alginate is successfully employed for the
impregnation and preservation of wood. The reaction between crude algin and metal
ions to form insoluble alginates is utilised for descalling boilers, the scale
forming
metal ions, which react to form flocculent masses which can be blown out of the
boiler.

Alginates have also been used in the building industry to fire-proof wood, in fire-
retarding compounds formed from chemicals dissolved in sodium ammonium
alginate, for the production of non-splinter glass, as a thickener for bitumen, and
in
the production of a special cement; the waterproofing of bricks and cement has also
been suggested. They are also used in can-sealing compounds, for separating the
plates in storage batteries, and as a flux for coating welding rods and electricals
(Dickinson, 1963; Chapman and Chapman, 1980; McHugh, 1987; Indergaard and
Dstgaard, 1991).

1.1.2 Laminarin

Laminarin consist of a group of B-D-glucopyranose units linked through carbon

atoms 1 and 3. They are produced by the brown algae, especially the sporophylls of
Alaria and Laminaria spp. (kelps) and to a lesser extent by members of the Fucaceae
(rockweeds), and by the Diatoms. There are both soluble and insoluble forms of
laminarin which differ in the size of the colloidal particles and their degree of
branching. Soluble laminarin can be obtained from Laminaria digitata and the
insoluble form from L. hyperborea. Laminarin does not form a viscous solution,
neither does it gel. It is readily decomposed by micro-organisms; it also
stimulates the
bovine rumen flora to increased activity.

Now commercially available, there appears to be a potential application for the

use of sodium laminarin sulphate medicinally as an anticoagulant, where it is
reported as being one third as good as heparin (Chapman and Chapman, 1980;
Indergaard and @stgaard, 1991; Skjék-Braek and Martinsen, 1991; Smidsrgd and
Christensen, 1991).
378 Chapter 19

1.1.3 Agar

Agar, formerly known as agar-agar, is a mixture of two polysaccharides, agarose

and agaropectin, The main constituent is agarose, containing 3,6-anhydro-L-
galactose and D-galactose as the repetitive unit, and agaropectin with the carboxyl
and sulphate groups of native agar.

It occurs in members of the red algae as a constituent of the cell walls, Agar-like
structures are also found in some of the brown algae. Extraction is by hot water.
The
preferred species for commercial agar and agarose extraction are Acanthopeltis,
Gelidiella, Gelidium, especially G. amansii and Prerocladia. In the UK agar is
obtained from Chondrus crispus (Irish moss) and Mastocarpus stellatus, syn.
Gigartina stellata, in Ireland from Gelidium elegans, syn. G. pulchellum, and G.
spinosum, syn. G. latifolium, and in Denmark from Furcellaria lumbricalis, syn. F.
fastigata. From the Arctic region near Archangelsk and in the Far East near
Vladivostok agar is obtained from Ahnfeltia plicata (landlady's wig), and in the
Black
Sea from Phyllophora nervosa. During World War II the USA produced some agar
from Gigartina versicolor, syn. G. cartilagineum.

Agars have a relatively low sulphate content. They are good gelling agents with
water, even at concentrations as low as 0.5%; the relative gel strength of agar
being
four to five times that of any other phycocolloid. For certain bacteriological and
fungal culture media they are regarded as indispensable because, after nutrient
materials have been added, even a dilute solution sets to a firm jelly upon which
the
bacteria or fungi can grow,

Agar is widely used in the food industry as a thickening agent, emulsifier and
stabiliser, particularly in confectionery, and in the canned meat and fish
industries,
especially pet foods. It is used to protect preserved cooked fish against breakage
during transport, also to prevent the blackening or detinning of the cans of
certain
fish, e.g. herrings. It is particularly valuable as a gelling agent in
confectionery,
marshmallows and candies, and may also replace gelatine in the making of jellies,
which set readily as well as being more economical. Agar is also widely used as a
thickening agent for soups and sauces, in the manufacture of ice-cream, malted
milks,
jellies, candies and pasties and as a stabiliser to give smoothness to sherbets,
ice-
creams and cheeses. However, due to its low whipping capacity, it is necessary to
add
a gum, for which purpose sodium alginate has now largely replaced agar. Agar has
also been used in the manufacture of cream cheeses, to improve the texture of
cream,
and in the making of custards, mayonnaise and icing. By tying up the free moisture
in
cake icing, the icing is prevented from adhering to the paper wrapping, doughnut
glazes are similarly prevented from cracking. It is also widely used in the
protection
of bakery products against dehydration, and as a clarifying agent for beer, coffee
and
wine.
Agar is commonly used in pharmaceutical and cosmetic preparations, including
use as a bulk-producing purgative, with its oldest use probably in emulsions with
Useful Algae 379

liquid paraffin for treating constipation. It is used in lubrication jellies,

suppositories,
emulsions and ointments, as a suspending agent for barium sulphate in radiology, a
disintegrating agent and excipient in tablets, and in the compounding of slow-
release
capsules. Agar is also used in prolonged treatments as an anti-theumatic agent and
in
the stabilisation of cholesterol solutions.

In industry agar is used as an emulsifying agent and for the sizing of fabrics,
with
the highest quality agar being used for silks in order not to destroy the sheen.
Japanese agar, obtained from Gelidium spp. is considered to be definitely superior
as
a sizing material to agars obtained from Chondrus or Gigartina. The poorer quality
agars are used as a coating for waterproof paper and cloth, as a high class
adhesive in
the manufacture of plywood, and as a cleaning medium for liquids. It is also used
in
the hot drawing of tungsten wire for electric lights, and in the photographic
industry
for making plates and films. Agar is also becoming increasingly important for use
as
a reagent in molecular sieve chromatography. Other uses include employment in the
finishing of leather for imparting both a gloss and stiffness.

Agar is employed by modellers in the making of plaster of Paris moulds and in

the moulds for the casting of artificial limbs, and was formerly an ingredient for
dental impressions, for which purpose it has largely been replaced by alginates. It
is
also the raw material used in the manufacture of linoleum, artificial leathers and
silks, heat and sound insulations, as an ingredient of water-based paints and in
the
manufacture of storage batteries for submarines (Brouk, 1975; Chapman and
Chapman, 1980; Armisen and Galantas, 1987; Sharp, 1990; Indergaard and
PDstgaard, 1991).

1.1.4 Carrageenan

Carrageenan is a mucilaginous extract consisting of a complex mixture of at least

five polysaccharides, including D-galactose and L-galactose, 3,6-anhydro-D-
galactose and sulphate ester groups; they differ from agars in not forming gels
with
water without the addition of salts. They occur in many of the red algae.

The name carrageenan is popularly reputed to owe its origins to the small coastal
town of Carragheen, near Waterford, although no town of that name exists. The name
is apparently derived from carraigeen, i.e. moss of the rock, which was apparently
the
name first given to Chondrus crispus at some time between 1821 and 1829 (Mitchell
and Guiry, 1983).

The carrageenans are used extensively as an emulsion stabiliser in both the

confectionery and pharmaceutical industries. In the food industry it is widely used
as
a fining agent in the clarification of beer, coffee, honey and wine, and as a
thickener
for soups, salad dressings, sauces, fruit drinks, etc. They also act as secondary
stabilisers in ice-cream, adding creaminess and preventing the spontaneous ejection
of liquid from the gel (syneresis) and crystal formation under freeze-thaw
conditions.

The carrageenans produce a gelling reaction with milk proteins such as casein
380 Chapter 19

following the addition of cold milk, an action that is employed in a wide range of
dairy products, including jellies, blancmanges and instant milk puddings, and for
stabilising the suspension of cocoa in milk chocolate, while in ice-cream
carrageenan
prevents the migration of colours in multicoloured ices.

Because of their cost, availability and improved properties, the canned-food

market formerly dominated by agar has now been replaced by alkali-modified extracts
from Chondrus and Eucheuma. They are also used as thickeners, stabilisers and
emulsifiers in beverages and bakery products, diabetic food, dressings and sauces,
frozen foods, etc. A semi-refined carrageenan is used almost exclusively for the
pet
food market.

Carrageenans soaked in whiskey are traditionally used by Irish barkeepers in New

York as a cough cure! The inclusion of \-carrageenan stabilises emulsions or
suspensions of insoluble pharmaceutical preparations and also gives body to
lotions,
while combinations of t-, k- and A-carrageenans enhance the texture of loothpaste.
They are also used in the textile industry for producing a soft finish and a
surface to
which print will adhere. They give smoothness, gloss and stiffness to leather, as
well
as being extensively used in bool polish, the mucilage holding down and smoothing
out any rough projections in the surface of the leather.

In the manufacture of cold water or casein paints, carrageenan is used to hold the
film on the surface while the casein dries; it is also used to bind briquettes of
charcoal
powder (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962; Dickinson, 1963; Brouk, 1975; Chapman
and Chapman, 1980; Indergaard and @stgaard 1991).

Among the carrageenans recognised are: (1) Furcellarin, a carrageenan-like

product derived from the mucilage of Furcellaria lumbricalis; it consists of 3,6-
anhydro-D-galactose and D-galactose sulphate. Originally produced in Denmark
during War World II, furcellarin is also known as Danish agar; Denmark is still the
major source of supply. It is widely used in the food and pharmaceutical
industries,
especially in Europe, in suspensions, emulsions, foams and tablet disintegration.
It is
particularly valuable in the commercial manufacture of marmalades, jams and jellies
since furcellarin, unlike pectin, does not require prolonged boiling before
selting; it is
also used in preserved meat and fish, milk puddings, icing bases, and canned food.
Its
mucous properties makes it useful in the control of stomach ulcers; it is also used
in
various pharmaceuticals and toothpastes; (2) Eucheuman, cither as an 1-or X-
carrageenan, is obtained from wild and cultivated species of Eucheuma in the
Pacific,
especially around the Philippines. It is a compound intermediate between agar and
carrageenan, It is mainly used in the food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries;
(3) Phyllophoran also has properties intermediate between those of agar and
carrageenan, and is considered to be a valuable bacteriological agar as well as
yielding a volatile oil, geraniol. It is obtained from species of Phyllophora, the
principal area of production being the Black Sea; (4) Hypnrean is obtained from
species of Hypnea. It is essentially a k-carrageenan, providing a gel, whose
strength
can be controlled by the addition of up to 1.5% solution of KCI, thus making it a
Useful Algae 381

potentially valuable carrageenan source; (5) Iridophycan is derived from species of

Iridaea and Iridophycus. It consists of a mixture of x- and A-carrageenans.

Comparable sulphated polysaccharides are also found among South African species of
Aeodes and Pachymenia. Iridophycan is used in refining beer, as a stabiliser in

chocolate drinks, syrups and paint, as well as for the sizing of paper and cloth;
and

(6) Funoran, an agarose-type polysaccharide rather than a carrageenan. It is

obtained

from species of Ahnfeltia, Chondrus, Gloiopeltis, Grateloupia, Gymnogongrus and

Iridaea. Funoran is employed as an adhesive, known in Japan as funori, for glazing

and stiffening fabrics, paper and threads, the cementing of walls and tiles, and in
the

decorating of porcelain. There are possible pharmaceutical applications in lowering

blood cholesterol and anti-tumour activity (Brouk, 1975; Chapman and Chapman,

1980; Prescott-Allen and Prescott-Allen, 1986).

1.2 Minor Chemical Products

The minor chemical products include: (1) Mannitol, a sugar alcohol present as a
cell sap food reserve in a number of brown algae, including species of Ascophylium,
Durvillea, Ecklonia, Fucus, Laminaria, Sargassum and Turbinaria. Laminaria
saccharina (sugar wrack) can even be used as a sweetener. Although costly to
extract,
mannitol has a number of possible uses in pharmaceuticals for tablets, diabetic
foods,
etc. It is also given intravenously as an osmotic diuretic. Mannitol is used
industrially
in paints, lacquers and leather, also in the plastics industry where it is reputed
to
produce better products than those obtained from glycerol (glycerine). When
nitrated
to form nitro-mananitol, it produces a powerful explosive similar to nitro-
glycerine;
(2) Fucoidan, which is probably the calcium salt of a carbohydrate ethereal
sulphate,
is present in the intercellular mucilage of such rock weed species as Ascophyllum,
Fucus, Laminaria, Pelvetia, as well as Ecklonia radiata. It has a potential use as
a
blood anti-coagulant; (3) Fucosan obtainable from Ascophyllum and Sargassum is
used as a tanning substance; (4) Ginnanso is a Japanese adhesive extracted from
Iridaea cornucopiae and Turnerella mertensiana; (5) a-kainic acid is extracted from
Digenia simplex, Tt is marketed in Japan as a broad spectrum anthelmintic. Although
various compounds have been isolated from the seaweeds and have been shown to be
biologically active, o-kainic acid is one of the few exceptions to be utilised; (6)
Lectin, small but commercially available quantities of lectins are obtained from
Codium fragile subsp. atlanticum and Prilota plumosa; (7) Iodine is, with the
exception of the Russian Federation, obtained from brown seaweeds of the Fucales
and Laminariales. In the Russian Federation the red seaweed Phyllophora nervosa is
sufficiently abundant in the Black Sea and Sea of Azov for it to be harvested for
industrial extraction. Although a number of other red seaweeds contain considerable
quantities of iodine in their gland cells, the iodine is present as compounds and
not in
the free state (Brouk, 1975; Chapman and Chapman, 1980; Tootill, 1984; Sharp,
1990; Guiry and Blunden, 1991; Walker, 1991; Macpherson, 1995).
382 Chapter 19
13 Seaweeds for Energy

The large brown algae are readily convertible to methanol which, in turn, can be
economically converted to gasoline. Huge kelp farms are necessary to ensure the
necessary regular bulk production of raw material for commercial processing. The
development of such kelp farms for Macrocystis pyrifera and Pelagophycus porra,
syn. Pelagophora porra in Pacific USA, Durvillea antarctica in Australia, New
Zealand and South America, Ecklonia maxima, syn. E. buccinalis in South Africa,
and Laminaria japonica off Priomorye, Russian Federation, testify to the interest
now
being shown in this source of bioenergy. The possibility of raising kelp bass and
oysters in conjunction with the kelp, and the utilisation of kelp by-products for
minerals, fertilisers and animal feed, are additional attractions (Chapman and
Chapman, 1980).

2. EDIBLE ALGAE

Seaweeds are a traditional staple item of diet in China and Japan and, to a lesser
extent, in the coastal regions of Europe and North America. They may be eaten raw,
cooked or pickled, used in sauces and for thickening soups, made into sweetmeats,
and less frequently, as a condiment. The green seaweed with which the western world
is probably most familiar is Ulva capensis, syn. U. lactuca (sea lettuce), it too
is also
eaten in Japan, as is also U. pertusa.

Among the red algae Porphyra renera (noi) is the basis of the large Japanese
'nori' industry. It has a protein content of 29-35% dry weight, similar to that for
soya
beans and three- and six-fold respectively that of wheat and rice; 75% of the
protein
and carbohydrate are digestible by man. Other important food sources among the red
algae include Palmaria palmata, syn. Rhodymenia palmata (dulse), which is eaten in
Scotland, Ireland, Iceland and Kamchatka, and Porphyra umbilicalis (laver) cooked
and eaten as the renowned Welsh laver bread.

A large number of species from the brown algae, especially Laminaria japonica
(ma-kombu), L. cichorioides (chizi-kombu) and L. religiosa (hosome kombu), are
caten in Japan in soups and tisanes or powdered as a spice for soups and sauces.
Alaria esculenta (murlins) is eaten in Northern Europe and Iceland, and A.
fistulosa
by the Pacific Coast Amerindians.

More than 50% of the dry weight of seaweeds consists of carbohydrates, mainly
roughage as only a small fraction is digestible. Also present are, with some
notable
exceptions, small quantities of protein of mainly undetermined digestibility, fats
and
salts. They contain adequate quantities of K, Na, Cl and 1, although these vary
greatly
with the habitat and season. Almost certainly the scarcity of goitre in the Orient
may
be attributed to the high iodine intake from eating seaweeds. Seaweeds are also
rich
in vitamins A, B, and By,, C and E. The vitamin A content of Porphyra tenera, for
Useful Algae 383

example, ranges from 20,400 to 44,600 IU, the average value being 67 times higher
than that for eggs, and the ascorbic acid (vitamin C) content 1.5 times higher than

that of oranges. Indeed, for some Eskimo tribes the ascorbic acid accounts for more
than 50% of the human requirement (Brouk, 1975; Chapman and Chapman, 1980;

Xia and Abbott, 1987).

21 Algal Animal Feed

There is a long tradition for the use of seaweeds, especially members of the
Fucales and Laminariales, as animal fodder and they are still so used in a number
of
countries today, either in the fresh state or as a prepared feed. Browsing by
sheep,
cattle and horses is still practised in Scotland, Norway and Iceland. In Iceland
the
plants are washed and dried (using geothermic heat), compressed and stored for use
in the winter months, On the west coast of Scotland Pelvetia is fed to fattening
pigs,
and also fed either raw or boiled and mixed with oatmeal to calves. Alaria
fistulosa,
Fucus evanescens and Laminaria bongardiana are also mixed with meal and fed io
pigs, especially after farrowing. In the Commander Islands in the Bering Sea
seaweeds are fed to arctic foxes as part of their normal diet; mink in Ontario also
receive a seaweed ration in their feed. In Cuba Ulva spp. are added to meal and are
being fed experimentally to poultry. The seaweeds appear to be rarely used in the
tropics for animal feed, although dried Sargassum spp. are recorded as being fed to
pigs in Hong Kong.

Factories have now been established in many parts of the world for the
commercial production of a meal from dried and ground seaweeds for inclusion in the
rations fed to cattle, pigs and poultry. The increase in fertility and birth-rate
in
livestock is attributed to the presence of tocopherol, the anti-sterility vitamin
E, while
the improved colour in egg yolks is attributed to the fucoxanthin and iodine
content,
although any improvement in milk butterfat due to an increased iodine intake is
still
inconclusive. The coralline algae known as maérl (see Section 4 below), are rich in
calcium and magnesium and may be used as a mineral supplement (Chapman and
Chapman, 1980; Briand, 1991).

There is now an increasing interest in the use of fresh water algae as a source of
single cell protein (SCP) supplements for feed. Algal meal from dried fresh water
algae such as Chlorella vulgaris and Scenedesmus obliquus, are used as a feed
supplement for poultry, the high xanthophyll content giving a good colour to egg
yolks. Because of their high production costs, however, the SCPs are not fed to
ruminants (Gohl, 1981).
384 Chapter 19
3. SEAWEED MANURE

Traditionally seaweeds have long been used for manure in the Orient and
somewhat more recently in the west. In Europe the largest users of seaweed manure
are the farmers of north-east France, where 30-40 m> ha’ are regularly applied
annually. The autumn manuring of the early potato fields is also practised in the
Scilly and Channel Islands. The large, brown algae are mainly used, the others may
also be used provided they have been washed up in sufficient quantity, especially
Ulva, which is rich in nitrogen. The shore driftweed, however, is rarely if ever,
composed solely of brown weeds and invariably contains an admixture of red and
green algae, Although relatively high in nitrogen, potash and trace elements, the
phosphorus content is low and the crops will eventually require the addition of
phosphate fertiliser. The presence of growth hormones, auxins, gibberellins and
cytokinins in the seaweeds enhance crop growth, especially when used in liquid
extracts. Salt contamination can be a problem if the seaweeds are applied directly
to
crops without giving time for the rain to wash out the salt. On the western and
northern coasts of Scotland and Ireland the pounded ashes of seaweeds, containing
2-
5% of an impure Na,COj, known as kelp was also formerly applied to the fields.

Dried meal and liquid extracts of seaweeds, or their waste products following
phycocolloid extraction, are becoming increasingly popular among horticulturists
and
agriculturists. The meal, with its delayed bacterial breakdown, is the better soil
conditioner and can be advantageously used on such crops as potatoes, asparagus,
flowers, fruit and hops, but not the cereals. The seaweed extracts are also
credited
with improving seed germination, controlling certain fungal infestations and
increasing frost hardiness and shelf life of fruit, as well as improving the
physical
properties of soil. The UK brands of liquid manure, 'Maxicrop' from Ascophy!llum
and
'Alginure' from Laminaria, are now widely used in many countries for horticultural
and glasshouse crops, while the New Zealand product 'Seagro' from imported
Norwegian Ascophyllum is primarily used for pastures and orchard crops.

Known as maérl, the coralline algae Lithothamnion and Phymatolithon, form

extensive deposits extending from Norway to the Mediterranean basin. Consisting
principally of calcium and magnesium carbonates, the maéil is widely used as a
manure in north-western France and as conditioner for compost makers (Low, 1847;
Chapman and Chapman, 1980; Blunden, 1991; Briand, 1991).

4. SEAWEED CULTIVATION

The mariculture of seaweeds is widely practised in Asia but is still in its

relative
infancy in the western world, even though there are insufficient natural resources
available to meet demand. This has led to a need in the western world for
sustainable
harvesting, genetic selection for productivity and efficient, low-cost harvesting
Useful Algae 385

techniques. Since the majority of the economically important genera, particularly

those that are cultivated for food in Asia, also appear in European waters, there
is no
compelling reason for the introduction of any alien genera for cultivation and any
consequential upset of the ecosystem.

The complex environmental considerations required for the mariculture of

seaweeds involves such factors as sea temperatures (which may be modified by water
circulation patterns), light, day length, salinity, nutrient supply, etc. as well
as a
knowledge of the life cycle of the species to be cultivated. This complexity is
illustrated by the fact that in the northern hemisphere, European sea temperatures
occur at higher latitudes than in Asia, i.e. for the same latitude, the European
shore
waters are 8-10°C warmer than Asian waters. Since the reduction in winter day
length and irradiance act in concert with latitude, midwinter light rather than
temperature is the likely factor limiting marine algal growth in Europe.

4.1 Cultivation of Attached Seaweeds

First developed in China and Japan a primitive cultivation technique for

cultivating seaweeds consisted of either the seasonal cleansing of shallow rocks or
the
provision of bundles of brushwood in which the spores from natural populations of
Porphyra could settle. The more recent method for growing Porphyra involves tanks
of sea water kept under glass and the artificial release of carpospores, i.e.
spores
formed by members of the Rhodophyta following the division of the zygote
encouraged by previous drying, followed by squeezing or pulverisation of the
lamina.
The carpospores are then poured into sea water tanks containing local mollusc
shells
and a regular supply of nutrients. In China the tanks are shallow and the shells
lie on
the bottom, whereas in Japan the shells are suspended in deep tanks. The
carpospores
germinate, forming 2n vegetative filaments and eventually producing corchospores,
which eventually develop into the larger haploid thallus. The conchospsores are
seeded onto nets, which are then placed on the sea bed or, if space is limited,
suspended from floating structures for the haploid thallus to develop and
eventually
harvested.

In Japan, naturally seeded nets or ropes are also used for the culture of edible
species of Enteromorpha and Monostroma in a similar manner to that used for
Porphyra. Young sporophytes of Alaria, Gelidium, Laminaria, Palmaria, Ptero-
cladia and Saccorhiza species may also be successfully grown trapped in twisted
rope. In China nets were initially used but more recently the Gracilaria are
attached
to horizontal or vertically suspended ropes. Similarly, in India pieces of
Gracilaria
are inserted info a twisted, not plaited, rope which is then held horizontally
between
two stakes, In Malaysia fertile plants of Gracilaria are suspended over shallow
marine nursery tanks containing a substrate of coral, gravel or shells. The seeded
substrate are later planted out in a suitable seaweed farm. Somewhat similar
methods
have been used in Atlantic Canada, the West Indies and Brazil.
386 Chapter 19

In Chile, Gracilaria lemaneiformis has been successfully grown from small pieces
pushed into the sand, a method also used in Namibia. More recently pieces of algae
were held on the bottom by trapping under sand-filled tubes of soft polyethylene.
They grew well and had produced a well-developed underground thallus system by
the time the plastic had disintegrated (Kain, 1991).

Other attached seaweeds, such as Ahnfeltia plicata and Ascophyllum nodosum,

can be successfully grown on shallow trays kept moist with continuous spraying of
sea water, In Scandinavia spray cultivation has been carried out in greenhouses
under
artificial light and controlled shading, while in Florida such experiments resulted
in
scalding and heavy epiphytic growth from the high levels of irradiance (Schramm,
1991).

42 Cultivation of Unattached Seaweeds

The mariculture of unattached seaweeds includes not only the free-floating

species of Sargassum, etc. but also the growing of normally attached species free
from
their substrate. Their cultivation can involve the management of natural
populations
or growing in land-locked areas such as lagoons, fjords and embayments, offshore
cage culture and floating marine farms, cultivation in land-based tanks, ponds or
raceways, and spray culture. The economics of such systems is dependent on the
maximum exploitation of the plant's physiological characteristics and the optimal
use
of free sunlight, marine heat sinks and natural nutrient resources.

Land-locked cultivation utilising domestic or industrial waste has been

successfully used for increasing production from existing populations of
Enteromorpha, Monostroma and Ulva. The low-intensive pond culture in Taiwan of
Gracilaria species, in combination with milk fish, shrimps or crabs in brackish
polyculture systems, has also proved successful, likewise the commercial non-
intensive pond culture of Caulerpa and Gracilaria in the Philippines. However,
attempts at growing unattached species of Gracilaria coronipifolia in the
Philippines
and G. tikvahiae and Sargassum in Florida have proved unsuccessful due to heavy
epiphytic growth and fouling, so much so that the initial heavy yields dropped
dramatically within 1-2 months.

43 Seaweed Harvesting

A wide range of harvesting techniques can be used, depending on whether the

seaweeds are atlached, free-floating or strand drift, the depth of water,
topography
and the nature of the substrate. In addition, the maximum productivity of biomass
or
biochemicals in relation to the life cycle of the seaweed, regeneration cycle and
the
nature of the resource, have to be considered. Thus, in Europe the strategy has
been to
develop the natural resources, while in Japan 80% of the production is from
mariculture.
Useful Algae 387

Collection by hand or using rudimentary tools such as hand and drag rakes were
the traditional methods, the yield being largely regulated by seasonal storms
bringing
the seaweeds to the strand line. More recently, tractor operated buck rakes and
fork-
lifts have been used to collect drift weed from the sea shore.

By 1913 the necessity for a constant supply for phycocolloid extraction had
stimulated the development of mechanised harvesting techniques. In the intertidal
zone, species such as Ascophyllum nodosum, Chondrus crispus, Fucus serratus, F.
vesciculosus, Gigartina acicularis, G. tweedii and Mastocarpus stellatus, may be
harvested by hand, using a knife or sickle to sever the stipe just above the
holdfast,
and the seaweed loaded directly onto a trailer. Where carting is not practical, the
air
bladders in the thalli of Ascophylium nodosum and Fucus vesciculatus enable the
weeds to float and to be trapped by nets or ropes and towed to a suitable loading
site.
The process may be mechanised by the use of floating barges with a cutter bar and
elevator or suction cutter to load the barge, although the method does have the
disadvantage of poor manoeuvrability and the necessity for calm seas.

Similarly, Gracilaria verrucosa, which grow in pools and channels in the lower
intertidal and shallow subtidal zones, may be harvested from boats using either
grapnels, long rakes and forks to bring the seaweed to the surface, or nets to
collect
cast weed. A more recent development has been a hooked conveyer belt attached to a
specially designed shallow draft boat.

The deep water maérl banks are formed from fragments of members of the
Corallinaceae. The coralline algae grow in shallow waters, where wave action and
strong currents break off portions of the living plants and transport them to form
extensive deposits up to 15 m thick. Formerly, banks exposed by the tide were
harvested by bucket and wheel barrow. A more recent development is the use of boats
equipped with grabs or pump dredgers.

Species such as Laminaria digitata growing in the lower intertidal and shallow
subtidal zones require a different harvesting techniques. The earliest method of
hand-
harvesting involved the use of a long-handled sickle, a method which necessitated
the
operator being able to see the weed. This was followed by the scoubidou, which had
a
hook at one end of a long steel shaft and a hand-operated cranking system at the
other, and pulled the weed up from the sea bottom. In 1963, Scuba divers were used
to cut the seaweeds with sickles, which were then sucked up into the hold of a
specially designed trawler, Divers are similarly used to harvest Gelidium spp. and
Prerocladia capillacea. 1967 saw the development of a trawler with an adaptation of
the scoubidou at the end of a jointed crane which twisted in a gimlet-like action
and
pulled the seaweed to the surface.

Slightly different techniques have to be used where only the stipe of the subtidal
Laminaria hyperborea is required for processing. Various devices have been used,
ranging from a grapnel to drag the seaweed to the surface, hooked conveyer belts,
reciprocating reaper-type cutters and suction tubes, a cutting dredge operated from
a
crane and trawl net, cutter and conveyer belt, and finally to a specialised dredger
388 Chapter 19

developed to only harvest the mature stipes. Even so, in the north of Scotland the
hand collecting of stipes from drift weed still remains a major crofter industry.
In the
Pacific, the often long-lived perennial Macrocystis pyrifera (giant kelp), is easy
to
harvest since much of its buoyant fronds lie on the surface and need only to be cut
close to the surface and removed from the sea.

Not all seaweeds are harvested for their utilisation, In recent years the
industrial
maritime countries have had to deal with macroalgal blooms, especially species of
green seaweeds such as Enteromorpha and Ulva, which either decompose in situ or
in large drifts. Such blooms are a result of pollution and consequent
eutrophication of
coastal ecosystems. Because of their nuisance value they need to be removed from
the
beaches, using bulldozers, scrapers, ensilage machines, balers or special raking
and
sifting machines; a boat-mounted conveyor belt may be used for drift weed. The
seaweeds thus harvested may be spread on fields as a soil additive, stocked in
dumps
or dehydrated for use in premixed poultry feed (Briand, 1991).
Chapter 20

Environmental Uses

The prime purpose of plant life is to create a sustainable environment for all
living organisms. Without plants life on earth would not be possible. The present
human population explosion and the increasing demands for ever higher and higher
living standards in both the developed and developing countries has placed an
almost
impossible burden on the environment. Consequently there is an ever increasing
necessity to manage the ecosystems and preserve the existing genetic diversity for
future generations.

Within the plant kingdom there are members whose primary or secondary use by
man are for improving and maintaining the environment, such as erosion control,
shade, windbreaks, hedges and green manures. Many of these plants are multipurpose
species whose use and management can not only provide the necessities of life but
also help protect the environment.

1 SOIL EROSION

Geological erosion is a natural process whereby the land surface is degraded by

the action of wind, water, frost, earth movements, etc. Erosion per se is a natural
process whereby, within a geological time scale, mountains are worn down and soils
built up in the lowlands. An over-simplification, but it serves to demonstrate the
differences between geological erosion and accelerated erosion by man. Accelerated
erosion is the result of mismanagement of the environment through over-grazing,
deforestation, excessive and unprotected cultivation, especially on steep slopes,
poor
cultivation techniques, such as ploughing across instead of parallel to the
contours,
etc. Such land mismanagement increases the surface water run-off following heavy
rains, as well as increasing surface wind speeds, both assisting in the removal of
the
more fertile top soil and a lowering of the soil water reserves, etc. and resulting
in
ever increasing environmental degradation spiral. Soils that have been built up in

389
390 Chapter 20

geological time can be destroyed by a single heavy storm, requiring engineering

works to control the gullies and an increased vegetation cover to reduce run-off
and
favour the penetration of the water into the soil. Erosion is not confined to the
tropics,
although the effects there can be quite dramatic, it is a universal problem. Poor
drainage systems will inevitably cause salinity problems in irrigation schemes.
Even
good drainage schemes can have surprising effect on some soils. The drainage of the
peat soils in the East Anglian fens in 1850 was responsible for a 3.7 m lowering of
the soil level by 1956 due to the drying out of the peat, oxidation of the organic
matter and wind blow. The latter can destroy seedling horticulture crops grown on
the
fertile fen soils and necessitate further reseeding. Wind blow problem is further
complicated by the high value of the horticultural crops despite one or more
replacement reseeding exceeding the return on a reduced acreage protected by wind-
breaks (Russell, 1950, 1959; Soil Survey Staff, 1951).

Erosion control can be difficult and expensive but is far preferable to the damage
caused by the lack of appropriate control methods. Control of non-cultivated land
basically involves the design and maintenance of a permanent tree, shrub and forb
cover to reduce the action of wind and water. Rapidly growing species, capable of
providing a good surface cover and able to thrive more or less unaided, are
obviously
desirable. The root system can also be important. In the sand dunes of northern
Sudan
I can recall seeing stands of the tufted perennial grass Panicum turgidum bore on 2
m high columns of sand, each column protected by a fine mesh of roots. A change in
the direction of the wind or an increase in strength had deflected the wind around
the
dense grass stools and gouged out the intervening sand, left unprotected by any
ground cover or spreading roots. For cultivated land ploughing parallel to the
contour, the construction of graded and non-graded bunds to control run off, grass
strips, windbreaks, etc. can be used. See Section 2.1 regarding shelterbelts and
windbreaks, and Skerman and Riveros (1990) for suitable tropical grasses.

There is an increasing use by civil engineers of geotextiles in road building,

drainage and for the stabilisation of embankments. They are chiefly made from
strong, non-biodegradable woven or pierced polypropylene fabrics, although some
jute geotextiles and coir matting are also used. When buried in the soil the coir
matting will retain its tensile strength for up to 10 years. In addition its
ability to
retain moisture is an obvious advantage, especially in arid environments (Rankilor,
1986; Robbins, 1995).

11 Amenity Plants

The word amenity is from the Middle English amenite, from Old French, from
Latin amoenitas, from omoenus, pleasant delightful (Long, 1994). Amenity plants
should be both functional and aesthetically pleasing, with the emphasis on
function.
Such plants may be grown for shade, shelterbelts, windbreaks, hedges, screening for
Environmental Uses 391
ugly buildings, as street trees, provide recreational facilities, e.g. public
parks, golf
courses, etc,

12 Shade, Shelter, Windbreaks and Hedges

Plants grown for shade, shelter and windbreaks perform distinct environmental
functions, although the actual functions are often indiscriminately applied,
sometimes
as the result of, for example, a shade plant performing a secondary function as
shelter
and/or windbreak. The desirable characteristics of plants used for windbreaks,
shelterbelts and hedges are shown in Table 28.

TABLE 28. Desirable characteristics of plants used for windbreaks/shelterbelts,

stock-proof and garden hedges

(after Henderson, 1987)

‘Windbreaks/shelterbelts

Stock-proof hedges

Garden hedges

Woody or succulent shrubs or

small trees
Strong trunks; minimum height
usually 5 m

Low lateral branches

Fairly dense, evergreen foliage

Seed or vegetative propagation

easy

Rapid growth and longevity or

permanence

Capability of withstanding
considerable root competition

Disease and pest resistance

Tolerant of wind, and in coastal

areas, salt spray

Non-invasive

Sturdy, woody or succulent

shrubs or low-growing trees
Multi-stemmed from the base, or
low-branching spreading crown
Branches rigid or entangled,

spiny, prickly or thorny

Leaves small, sparse, casting
little shade

Seed or vegetative propagation

easy

Rapid growth and longevity or

permanence

Capability of withstanding
considerable root competition
Disease and pest resistance
Non-toxic, non-irritant
Browse tolerant, capable of
regenerating if damaged
Non-invasive

Impenetrable by livestock

Woody or succulent shrubs or

small trees

Multi-stemmed from the base, or

low-branching

Branches closely arranged;

spines, prickles and thorns sparse
or absent

Dense, evergreen and attractive

foliage/flowers

Seed or vegetative propagation

easy

Relatively rapid growth and

longevity or permanence
Capability of withstanding
considerable root competition
Disease and pest resistance
Non-toxic, non-irritant

‘Tolerant of wind, and in coastal

areas, salt spray

Non-invasive

Impenetrable by livestock

Shade plants are used to diminish the intensity of heat or light for those plants
or
animals sheltering in the vicinity. Permanent or temporary shade trees are often
considered desirable for a number of tropical plantation crops, e.g. Gliricidia
sepium
for bananas, coffee and young cocoa. The foliage is also used as a green manure in
Sri Lanka, Windbreaks are grown to provide protection from the wind and are either
fairly narrow strips of trees and shrubs, or even a single row of leafy shrubs. A
dense
392 Chapter 20

windbreak reduces the wind speed, causing the wind to descend abruptly behind the
break and produce turbulent eddying, A more open row of trees allows some of the
wind to pass through the break so that the effects of the wind are felt further
away.
Shelterbelts are purposely planted to act as a shield and provide shelter against
the
weather, particularly the prevailing winds. The belts are generally wider and the
trees
more closely spaced than for windbreaks. Provided they are sufficiently tall and
dense
they can protect the downwind areas for distances up to 20 times the height of the
shelterbelt. A series of shelterbelts spaced every 250 m, for example, can also
provide
sheltered grazing. The more permeable shelterbelt causes less turbulence than
windbreaks and, although it has less effect on wind speed, the calming effects are
apparent for a greater distance downwind. Both windbreaks and shelter belts can
play
a vital role in controlling wind erosion (Dalal-Clayton 1981; FAO, 1988b; Arnon,
1992).

Hedges are defined as a close row of shrubs or small trees forming a fence or
boundary; they are often planted or maintained to be stock-proof. The life of a
properly maintained hedge is far longer than that of wire or rail fences but are
much
more expensive to establish. Hedges may be grown as: (1) Field boundaries to
contain
the movement of livestock; (2) Decorative hedges to provide privacy or to partition
areas within a garden; and (3) To reduce the force of the wind, acting either as
shelterbelts to provide shelter to people, livestock and homesteads, or as
windbreaks
for orchards and crops (Dalal-Clayton, 1981; Henderson, 1983).

Stock-proof hedges will take several years to establish; they also require regular
maintenance if they are not to become gappy at the base and allow stock to escape.
The traditional rural practice of layering hedges, usually Crataegus monogyna
(hawthorn), to provide an impenetrable, stock-proof hedge can be seen in many
livestock areas of the UK, although rarely seen elsewhere. However, 1 have seen
Pithecellobium dulce (Madras thorn) successfully layered in Nigeria; I also believe
a
number of other tropical species could be similarly layered. Layering certainly
provides a more effective and lasting stock-proof hedge than the more common
practice of filling any gaps with other living or dead species.

Where hedges arc not layered, either due to the unsuitability species or, more
usually, from a lack of technical knowledge, they may have to be constructed from
mixed plantings in order to provide an effective barrier. Henderson (1983)
considers
four life forms are necessary for such mixed plantings. They are: (1) Framework
plants to form the main structure of the hedge; (2) Short fillers to fill gaps at
ground
level. Such plants should be tolerant of shade and have numerous, ridged branches;
(3) Tall fillers to fill gaps in and add height to the hedge. Such plants should be
much-branched and cast little shade; and (4) Entanglers, which are preferably
prickly
climbers casting little shade, thickening the hedge and making penetration more
difficult.
In the tropics very effective, stock-proof, palisade hedges can also be made from
the close planting of truncheons of such plants as Fouguieria splendens (ocotillo),
Environmental Uses 393

columnar cacti, e.g. Stenocereus spp. and columnar Euphorbia, e.g. E. nigrispina,
etc. In Southeast Asia closely planted bamboos, e.g. Bambusa multiplex and
Thyrostachys siamensis, are used for both hedges and windbreaks; the thorny
Bambusa bambos is also commonly planted to exclude wild animals.

In the Sonoran Desert of south-western North America hedges of closely planted

truncheons of Salix sp. (willow) and Populus fremontii (cottonwood) interwoven with
brushwood have been planted by the local Amerindians along the flood-plain margins
of their fields to retard channel cutting, prevent erosion and reclaim land by
trapping
the floodwater sediments (Nabhan and Sheridan, 1977; Dransfield and Widjaja,
1995).

Finally, there are brushwood hedges made from branches of trees felled when
clearing land. These are widely used in some countries to delimit field boundaries
and
prevent trespassing by livestock. However they last for only a few years before
becoming brittle and ineffective. In the semi-arid areas such hedges are also very
effective against wind erosion, with wind-blown sand building up among the
branches, While live hedges are preferable the absence of land ownership in many
developing countries often inhibits the growing of permanent boundary hedges.

13 Urban Trees

A tree-lined border to a road can provide both shade and pleasure. In rural
Zimbabwe 1 have even seen how an avenue of vigorously transpiring evergreen
Eucalyptus trees can transform seasonally impassable soggy ground into an all-
season
road. However, care needs to be taken in the choice of species; trees favoured by
bats
or flocks of birds can be messy, and their excreta ruin the paintwork of any parked
vehicles. A straight, unbranched bole that neither obstructs vision nor interferes
with
the passage of vehicles is an obvious requirement. Strong branches that do not
break
readily are also essential. The crown should be reasonably compact, so as not to
impede high-sided vehicles or create excessive shade. Thick leathery leaves are
easier
to sweep up than thinner leaves that stick to the road surface when wet. Roots can
be
invasive of drainage pipes, etc. and cause heaving of road surfaces and pathways
and
even cause structural damage to nearby buildings The root system should
consequently be deep and compact, not shallow and widespread, neither should they
sucker, Root damage to property is fully discussed by Cutler and Richardson (1989).

The ability to withstand air pollution is also important in urban areas, and
accounts for the popularity of Platanus x hispanica (London plane) in the streets
of
London and other cities. The rain easily washes the leathery leaves clean of
pollutants, although the habit of regularly sloughing off flakes of bark is now
discounted as a cleansing action. There are disadvantages too. Some people are
allergic to the pollen and fruit debris of the London plane and the leaf hairs can
also
be an irritant; they are sometimes used by children as a form of itching powder!
394 Chapter 20

The female Ginkgo biloba (maidenhair tree) is considered objectionable as a

street tree because the fallen seeds stink of rancid butter. Similarly, the large
quantities of pollen produced by staminate trees of Populus fremontii (cottonwood)
and the copious quantities of downy seeds produced by the pistillate trees, are
likewise considered a disadvantage. Falling coconuts and similar heavy and hard
fruits are also unwelcomed (Kearney and Peebles, 1951; Mabey, 1996; Mabberley,
1997).

14 Ornamental Plants

Ornamental plants are grown because they are primarily aesthetically pleasing;
they are not necessarily functional in the full sense of amenity plants, They are
cultivated in public and private gardens, grown indoors in containers to decorate
the
house, office, restaurant, etc. However, the distinction between the amenity and
ornamental plants is blurred. The grass in a public park, for example, is primarily
functional, being used for both walking and recreational purposes, i.e. it is an
amenity, its aesthetic value secondary. A garden lawn may perform a similar
recreational function and/or may be designed as a foreground to beds of ornamental
plants, i.e. it serves as either an amenity and/or ornamental. Shade trees, shelter
belts,
etc. are planted in order to serve a definite purpose but there is no reason why
they
should not also be aesthetically pleasing. However, what constitutes an ornamental
plant is very much in the eye of the beholder. What one nation may regard as a weed
can be considered an ornamental by another, e.g. Calotropis procera is regarded as
a
weed of over-cultivated lands throughout Africa, yet it is sometimes cultivated as
an
ornamental in the Middle East.

The international ornamental plant industry is now largely dominated by

companies based in the Netherlands and the USA. Trade, especially among the
developed countries, is regulated by phytosanitary regulations and import licences
(see Chapter 7), while international trade in prohibited wild species is strictly
controlled by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (see
Chapter 3).

Ornamentals for the cut flower market in the developed countries is now a growth
industry for the developing countries, especially Kenya, Zimbabwe, India and
Columbia, This sacrifice of agricultural land for a cash return has its
disadvantages.
The high quality standards required for export necessitate high inputs of
fertilisers,
pesticides and water, with applications estimated to be up to 10 tonnes ha’ yr,
making commercial flower growing the most polluting of all agricultural industries.
Rumours of low wages and lax pesticide health regulations abound. Falling water
tables are an additional problem (Robbins, 1995). It is a good example of how the
living standards of the developed countries impose an unnecessary strain on the
resources of developing countries,
Environmental Uses 395
2. GREEN MANURES

Green manures are quick-growing crops and other green vegetation sources that
are specifically grown either alone or with other crops for subsequent ploughing-in
or
surface mulching in order to provide humus to the soil, improve soil structure,
conserve soil moisture and, especially in the tropics, assist in reducing soil run-
off
and wind erosion. If the main crop, for example a cereal, can be undersown with a
green cover crop, such as a legume, it may even increase crop yield by improving
soil
fertility and provide a useful ground cover against soil erosion after the main
crop has
been harvested, Leguminous crops that are not allowed to seed have also been found
more effective as green manure than other green crops under semi-arid conditions.
Long-term experiments have shown that green manures are not effective in regions
with less than 375 mm rainfall and are only economically beneficial for dryland
cropping where the rainfall is more than 450-500 mm.

There are other advantages and disadvantages. For example, legumes can reduce
the incidence of Gaeumannomyces graminis, syn, Ophiobolus graminis (take-all), in
cereals by fixing the soil nitrogen and thereby starving the fungus, Similarly, the
crop
residues from Melilotus sp. (sweet clover) have been successfully used to reduced
Phymatotrichopsis omnivora, syn. Phymatotrichum omnivorum (Texas root rot) in the
cotton, presumably by stimulating bacteria antagonistic to the fungus. Conversely,
ploughing in a green crop before sowing cotton or planting potatoes has increased
attack by Pythium spp. and Rhizoctonia solani, due to the decaying green vegetation
favouring the pathogens.

In the temperate regions the green manures are usually herbaceous, such as
legumes, mustard and Lolium multiflorum (Italian ryegrass). In the tropics,
especially
where agroforestry is practised, leafy branches from trees or shrubs such as
Leucaena
leucocephala (lead tree), may be used to provide a surface mulch, which can later
be
incorporated into the soil.

An unusual and widely grown green manure crop in the paddy rice fields of
China and Vietnam is the aquatic Azolla pinnata (water fern) which, in symbiosis of
the blue-green bacterium Anabaena azollae, lives on the water surface. The
bacterium is capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen equivalent to 50-80 kg ha’ in a
growing season. A secondary benefit from the growing of Azolla is that its very
rapid
growth smothers the water surface and prevents mosquitoes from breeding (Dalal-
Clayton 1981; Arnon, 1992; Mabberley, 1997).

3. AGROFORESTRY

Agroforestry is defined by Maydell et al. (1982) as the deliberate planting of

perennials on the same land as agricultural crops and/or livestock, either in some
form of spatial mixture or in sequence, thereby producing a significant interaction
396 Chapter 20

(positive and/or negative) between the woody and non-woody components of the
system, either ecological and/or economical.

Agroforestry species have three important functions: (1) Offer protection against
the environment. For example, in the lower rainfall areas they act as wind breaks
against wind erosion, while in the higher rainfall areas they may protect terraces
and
contour ridges against water erosion; (2) Contribute to maintaining soil fertility,
either by providing foliage for mulching or through nitrogen-fixation; and (3)
Provide
food, fodder, fuel, etc. They are essentially multipurpose species and need to be
carefully selected.

Among the criteria for their selection are: (1) A root system that does not
interfere
with cultivation or compete with the crops for water and nutrients, preferably
extracting them from depth. Eucalyptus would be considered unsuitable in such
situations due to its high water uptake often depleting the water-table; (2) A
canopy
that does not produce excessive shade to the detriment of the growing crop. In some
cases branch pruning may be necessary; (3) Does not harbour crop pests and
diseases;
(4) Does not encroach vegetatively onto the growing crops, i.e. does not sucker or
produce rhizomes; (5) Easy to establish and maintain; (6) Recovers readily when cut
for fuel, fodder, etc.; and (7) Absence of any allelopathic effect on the growing
crops.

4. FIREBREAKS

Fire can be a valuable tool in the management of natural vegetation, provided it

can be controlled. Controlled fire can be used to remove old, dead and surplus
vegetation to provide easier access by man and grazing animals, Fire may be used in
game parks and other recreational areas, including grouse moors, as a conservation
measure, or in hunting to create suitable habitats for game. The latter is commonly
practised by the Australian Aborigines. Controlled burning may be used to control
the
growth of undesirable shrubs, to encourage early grass growth, and possibly control
livestock parasites. For example, in the Grand Teton National Park, USA, an
increase
of plague proportions of bark beetles was attributed to the absence of fire and the
prevalence of old and sick trees. Control was achieved by fire (Edwards, 1984;
Walter
and Breckle, 1985).

The traditional method for controlling the spread of fire is by the provision and
maintenance of firebreaks devoid of combustible vegetation. However necessary, such
breaks can be environmentally unfriendly, expensive and difficult to maintain,
especially in remote regions. In some circumstances it is possible to establish
firebreaks with plants of low combustibility that will reduce the intensity of the
fire
and make it easier to control (see Chapter 5).

The suitability of a tree or shrub for firebreaks is a relative concept and is

dependent upon a number of factors: (1) The flammability of the leaves and finer
branches, and of the bark. A low volatile oil content and a high salt, moisture and
ash
Environmental Uses 397

content will reduce the flammability of the leaves. A low ash residue will also
reduce
the time during which the leaves will continue glow after burning. Unfortunately
the
reverse is true of many Australian species of Callistemon, Eucalyptus, Leptospermum
and Melaleuca, hence the severity of their forest fires. A fibrous or flaky bark
tends to
bum readily and spread the fire to the crown. Obviously plants with a high
flammability risk must be avoided since they can lead to spot fires within the
firebreak caused by burning debris carried ahead of the main fire; (2) Species that
are
able to suppress flammable ground cover can sometimes be advantageous, although
some carefully selected, low growing vegetation is necessary in order to prevent
creating a wind tunnel effect between the trunks of the firebreak; (3) The
retention of
combustible materials, such as dead leaves, bark and other debris by some plants,
can
create a fire hazard; such species should also be avoided; and (4) The selection of
fire
tolerant plants that recover quickly after fire, possibly due to a thick bark
and/or the
ability to shoot readily from dormant buds (see Phillips, 1993 for further
details).

In Australia breaks of selected trees and shrubs for fire protection are being
considered. Such plantings, with certain reservations, follow the general
principles
for shelterbelt design for reducing wind speed, thereby reducing the speed and
intensity of the fire, as well as blocking the direct heat of the fire, filtering
or
deflecting wind-borne burning material and smoke. The effectiveness of the
protection depends on the species grown, its density and height, and the structure,
ability to suppress ground cover, orientation, location and layout of the
firebreak. A
moderate to dense cover of the shrub Eremophila gilesii (turkey bush), for example,
is
able to suppress the ground cover to such an extent that fires rarely spread
through
such areas, The relationship between allelopathy (see Chapter 5), ground cover and
fire retardant species requires further study (Hodgkinson and Griffin, 1982).

In North America low growing and readily established shrubs with fire retarding
qualities and giving a low heat output when burning are being investigated. Among
the promising shrubs for southern California is the low growing Salvia sonomensis
(creeping sage) which, once established, is able to smother the annual ground
flora,
especially grasses, thereby eliminating a potential fire hazard, Other promising
species are Atriplex gardneria (Gardner's saltbush), A. cuneata (Castlevalley
saltbush) and A. canescens (fourwing saltbush). Although the latter will grow into
2
m high, it is apparently less flammable than most chaparral species. The high salt
content of these species and their litter being important factors.

Similarly, the abundant salty litter below the canopy of Tamarix aphylla (athel, or
tamarisk) kills the surrounding vegetation, This absence of any ground vegetation,
plus the non-inflammable nature of the athel litter due to its high salt content,
makes
it a useful tree for growing as a firebreak. The succulent Furcraea foetida
(Mauritius
hemp) is cultivated as a firebreak in Sri Lanka, which suggests other members of
the
Agavaceae could be similarly used (Nord and Countryman, 1972; National Academy
of Sciences, 1980; Booth and Wickens, 1988; Mabberley (1997).
398 Chapter 20
5. POLLUTION INDICATORS AND CONTROL

Air, water and mineral pollution have always been with us, but has only become
an problem of ever increasing severity in the developed and developing countries
during the latter half of the 20th century. Poor mining and mineral extraction
techniques, increased industrialisation without adequate pollution control,
excessive
applications of agricultural inputs, etc. have all contributed to the problem.
Although
there is a greater awareness of what is involved, there is, despite the health
hazards,
an unfortunate lack of political and financial will to fully get to grips with
pollution
control.

The increase in the use of herbicides and pesticides in recent years has become an
increasing cause for concern, especially when excessively or improperly used, and
where tainted crops enter the food chain. The use of lichens in monitoring
pollution
is discussed in Chapter 18. Mabberley (1997) notes that in Poland the aquatic herb
Wolfffia arhiza is also used as a qualitative test for herbicide pollution.

51 Air Pollution

The distribution of mosses and liverworts can be used as bioindicators of

atmospheric pollution (see Chapter 18). The ability of the Bryophyta and
Hepatophyta
to store pollutants can be subjected for chemical analysis to monitor changes in
the
atmosphere. The moss Calymperes delessertii, for example, appears to be a good
indicator of atmospheric lead and to a lesser extent of copper.

Some lichen genera, such as Usnea, are more sensitive to pollutants than others,
such as Lecanora; L. dispersa, for example, will grow in cities where other lichens
are unable to survive. The absence of lichen growth on trees, walls and buildings
can
usually be regarded as an indication of atmospheric pollution by SO, (Brightman and
Nicolson, 1966; Tootill, 1984; Glime and Saxena, 1991).

52 Water Pollution

Clean fresh water is essential for health and there are a number of plants can be
used as indicators of water quality, a facility that is of particular interest to
people
who are totally dependent on natural sources of water for themselves and their
livestock. In Israel and Sinai, for example, there are species that can be used to
indicate salt concentrations ranging from fresh water, e.g. Typha domingensis, syn,
T.
australis, and Mentha spp., to saline water, e.g. Zygophyllum spp. and Arthrocnemum
macrostachyum (Danin, 1983).

Some plants are also capable of removing impurities from water, Only two plants
are discussed here, but see Jahn (1981) for a more comprehensive treatment.
Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth) has been rightly reviled as being the most
Environmental Uses 399

pernicious aquatic weed of the tropics and subtropics (see Section 10). However, in
certain circumstances it has the potential for purifying sewage pollution, and of
absorbing and accumulating extremely toxic heavy metals such as Ag, Au, Co, Cd,
Hg, Ni, Pb and Sr from waters polluted by industrial and mining operations (Cross,
1984; Kochhar and Singh, 1989).

In some developing countries the pounded seeds of several species of Moringa,

especially M. oleifera are used to purify water: Doses of 50-250 mg 1! of powdered,
shelled seeds, equivalent to 1 seed 1" are sufficient to bring about the
coagulation and
sedimentation of solids in turbid waters within 1-2 hr. The coagulation and
sedimentation processes also remove 98-99% of coliform bacteria, although unable to
yield completely coliform-free water. Despite the initial removal, the reduction is
only
temporary. Nevertheless it is a practice that I believe could be more widely used
by
aid agencies in refugee camps. The seeds also contain the horseradish-like
substance
4 a-L-rhamnosyloxy benzyl isothiocyanate, a glycosidic mustard oil with antibiotic
properties (Jahn and Dirar, 1979; Eilert er al., 1980, 1981; Jahn, 1981; Grabow ei
al.,
1985).

53 Salt, Mineral and Mine Pollution

Soil salinity is, with deforestation and desertification, a major factor affecting
land use world-wide. It is particularly prevalent in the arid and semi-arid regions
where precipitation is insufficient to leach sodium and other highly soluble salts
from
the soil. Similarly, alkaline soils are formed where the predominant calcium
carbonates and sulphates fail to be leached from the soil. The situation is further
aggravated by poorly designed and managed irrigation schemes with inadequate
drainage systems. It has been estimated that 3.8 million km” out of the ca. 49
million
km? arid and semi-arid lands of the world are saline. The estimated annual loss to
agriculture from salinity in the Indian subcontinent alone is ca. 400 km? and in
the
USA with its far more sophisticated agriculture 800-1200 km”. The reduction in crop
yields and the often permanent loss of land to agriculture is unacceptable.
Halophytic
members of the Chenopodiaceae, e.g. Atriplex, Halogeton, Haloxylon, Salsola,
Suaeda, etc. are very much in evident. Some halophytic grasses may grow so
vigorously that they are being successfully cultivated for land reclamation in some
regions, e.g. Spartina anglia in the Netherlands, Distichlis spicata in Mexico and
Leptochloa fusca (kalla grass) in India (Aronson, 1985; Bell, 1985). See Chapter 5
for further discussion on salt stress,

The ability of certain plants to adapt to a heavy metal has been accepted by
prospectors as a useful technique for identifying new mineral deposits. For
example,
in Australia the shrub Hybanthus floribundus is regarded as an indicator of nickel;
indeed, its ash can contain up to 22% nickel. In Montana Eriogonum ovalifolium is
considered an indicator of silver, and in Colorado certain species of Astragalus
indicate the presence of uranium. Among the gold accumulating plants of South
400 Chapter 20

Africa is Phacelia sericea, whose gold is chelated as a cyanide, a mechanism

leading
to the accumulation of as much as 21 ppb of gold in the leaves (Harborne, 1988).

In the UK pollen has been found to reflect the presence of copper, manganese,
lead and zinc in the soil, but not magnesium. Pollen collected by honeybees in
Australia can indicate the presence of Coelospermum decipiens, syn. Morinda
reticulata (mapoon, rotten cheesefruit), a shrub associated with selenium in the
soil.
Mining companies in North America have even been investigating the possibility of
using hives of bees for prospecting purposes. Whether this use of pollen could
become
commercially viable has yet to be determined (Crane, 1990).

The rehabilitation of unsightly mine tailings by vegetation can be undertaken by

selecting strains of plants tolerant of high concentrations of toxic metals in the
soils,
including the indicator plants discussed above. Strains of the grasses Agrostis
tenuis
(fine bent) and Festuca ovina (sheep's fescue), for example, have been identified
that
have the ability to rapidly colonise the tailings from heavy metal mines. Some
strains
of the former are even capable of growing successfully on soils containing up to 1%
lead. Other useful plants include copper- and zinc-tolerant strains of Deschampsia
caespitosa (tufted hair grass) and copper-tolerant strains of Silene vulgaris, syn.
S.
cucubalus (bladder campion). Among the tolerant selenium-accumulating plants are
Astragalus spp. from North America, and Coelospermuin decipiens and Neptunia
amplexicaulis (selenium weed) from Australia (Harborne, 1988; Jackson et al.
1990).

The actual mechanism by which metal toxicity is overcome is not yet fully
understood, although a series of plant peptides known as phytochelatins are known
to
have the ability to chelate the toxic cations. More rarely resistance can be
attributed to
phenotypic plasticity instead of the evolution of distinct genotypes. Typha
latifolia
(bulrush, reed mace) would appear to fall in this category, although it is possible
that
Typha may have constitutive zinc-resistance (Harborne, 1988; Fitter and Hay, 1989).

6. WEEDS

A weed is the term loosely applied to any plant growing where it is not wanted by
man, and specifically to any unwanted plant growing in cultivated and grazing land
competing with crops for light, water and nutrients, thereby reducing crop yields,
hindering cultivation and harvesting operations, contaminating the desired product
and sometimes harbouring crop pests and diseases. Genetic engineering has now
brought the danger of weedicide resistance being conferred from crop plants to
weeds,
with obvious difficulties for weed control in the future,

Weeds are plants out of place, and it is because of their adverse economic effect
that weeds are considered with economic plants! However, such prejudices may be in
the eye of the beholder since they are regarded as aesthetically displeasing to the
tidy
minded.
Environmental Uses 401

While such widespread and aggressive weeds as Elymus repens, syn. Agropyron
repens (couch, twitch or witch grass), and Imperata cylindrica (lalang, lang-alang)
are unloved by both manual and mechanised cultivators, some weeds may even be
considered desirable by some subsistence farmers but not necessarily by their more
affluent counterparts. Thus, such cosmopolitan tropical weeds as Cleome gynandra,
syn. Gynandropsis gynandra (cat's whiskers), and Portulaca oleracea (purslane) may
be left among the growing crops by the subsistence farmer and harvested as required
for food or medicine.

In grazing lands weeds may replace more palatable species and even be toxic to
the herbivores, e.g. Senecio jacobaea (ragwort) and Moraea spp. When consumed by
livestock some weeds. e.g. Anthemis spp. (chamomiles) and Ranunculus spp.
(buttercups), may taint products such as milk, Other weed seeds can contaminate the
crop product. In a mustard crop, for example, the seeds of the Sinapsis arvensis
(charlock, wild mustard) are inseparable from those of Brassica juncea (brown or
oriental mustard). Similarly, seeds of Galium aparine (cleavers, goosegrass) and
Vaccaria hispanica, syn. Saponaria vaccaria (cow cockle), are inseparable from
Sinapsis alba (white or yellow mustard) and their hard and brittle seed coats can
even
cause problems during milling (Miller and West, 1956; Hemingway, 1995).

Weeds may also harbour pests and diseases, which can then spread to nearby
crops. The following example well illustrates the ramifications of mistletoe
infestation in the cocoa plantations of Ghana, especially on old, unshaded trees,
The
prevalence of cacao swollen shoot virus and other pests and diseases, e.g. the
capsids
Distantiella theobroma and Sahlbergella singularis, and the oomycot Phytophthora
palmivora (Butler's fungus), responsible for black pod disease of cocoa, are
associated with mistletoe infestation, especially by Tapinanthus bangwensis, and to
a
lesser extent by other mistletoes. The holes bored by the haustoria are almost
invariably inhabited by Cataenococcus loranthi (mistletoe mealy-bug), whose
abundant honey-dew attracts large numbers of Crematogaster ants. These ants tend
and possibly transport the mealy-bug vectors of the swollen shoot virus; it is also
possible that the spores of Butler’s fungus may be spread in the detritus used for
the
ant tents covering the mealy bugs. Unfortunately the Crematogaster ants are
antagonistic to the capsids’ principal predator, the ant Oecophylla longinoda,
making
biological control difficult. Other mistletoes affect rubber and teak plantations
in
Cameroon and Nigeria, shea butter trees in Burkina Faso, and citrus and guava in
the
Sudan. Globally, the greatest damage is caused by species of Arceuthobium (dwarf
mistletoe), especially in the coniferous plantations of the northern hemisphere
(Polhill and Wiens, 1998).

Weeds are opportunists, often invading bare ground, thereby providing protection
against erosion and often improving soil fertility during periods when the land is
not
being cultivated. Provided they can be eradicated during cultivation, such weeds
can
be considered beneficial. Other weeds can be highly invasive. For example, the
South
American and now pantropical ornamental climber Lantana camara (cherry pie) can,
402 Chapter 20
under the right conditions, form impenetrable thickets and rapidly smother and, in
extreme cases kill, tree plantations. In the UK the introduced Fallopia japonica
(Japanese knotweed) is now a major weed of gardens and waste places; its almost
indestructible root system makes it extremely difficult to eradicate.

Also from South America, the free-floating aquatic, Eichhornia crassipes (water
hyacinth) has become a major pantropical weed of waterways. Introduced as an
aquatic ornamental for a hotel garden pond in Uganda, it only took two decades from
first sighting in 1958 before severely impeding the flow of water and blocking the
passage of shipping through the Sudd region of the Nile. The water hyacinth also
chokes irrigation channels, blocks hydroelectric installations, and seriously
affects
fisheries. So far, efforts to control the water hyacinth with herbicides and other
methods have failed, primarily because the dead plants sink, decay and recycle
their
nutrients, thereby enriching the water and encouraging further growth of the weed.
Scientists are now trying to make use of this enormous plant resource for animal
fodder, paper, insulation board, fertiliser and methane gas generation, and as a
source
of leaf proteins and hormones. Its potential for water purification are discussed
in
Section 6.2 (Obeid Mubarak et al,, 1982; Kochhar and Singh, 1989). There are two
lessons to be learnt from the water hyacinth saga (and other introduced weeds). The
first is that plant quarantine arrangements must not be ignored, the second, to
look
for possible beneficial use!
Chapter 21

Social Uses

Social uses refer to those plants used by people that are not essential for
survival
but are considered socially desirable, or are of ritual or spiritual significance.
In some
cases they may even be detrimental to health, yet provide a sense of well-being,
e.g.
alcoholic beverages and tobacco.

1. FUMITORIES AND MASTICATORIES

Fumitories and masticatories are plant materials that are smoked and/or chewed,
usually for their stimulative and narcotic effects. In some cases the alkaloids
present
may affect the central nervous system, although not all contain alkaloids, such as
the
dried herbs smoked as tobacco substitutes, likewise the chewing latex chicle from
Manilkara chicle.

1.1 Fumitories

Of the fumitories tobacco is by far the best known and widely used. There are two
commercially important species of tobacco, Nicotiana rustica (Aztec or wild
tobacco)
and N. tabacum (smoking tobacco). Aztec tobacco has been cultivated in Mexico and
eastern North America from pre-Colombian times. The species is unknown in the
wild, the cultigen possibly originating in Peru as a cross between N. paniculata
and
N. undulata. Early observations by Spaniards noted the tobacco being smoked by the
Amerindians either through a forked stick or the leaves rolled in the manner of a
cigar. It was first introduced into Spain in 1519, and to the UK by Sir John
Hawkins
in 1573 where it was much popularised by Sir Walter Raleigh. The craze for smoking
had started by 1586 and was originally believed to be of medicinal benefit.
However,
in 1603 King James I issued a pamphlet entitled A Counterblast to Tobacco
proclaiming the many harmful consequences of smoking. A heavy import duty was

403
404 Chapter 21

also placed on tobacco in order to deter its use. Smoking was later banned by Pope
Urban VIII (1623-44) with offenders excommunicated, while in Russia Tsar Michael
I (1596-1645) went as far as to order the execution of second offenders. Both
measures failed to influence its use.

Tobacco is now cultivated in Russia for the alkaloid nicotine for use as an
insecticide; the cured leaves containing up to 10% nicotine. Smoking tobacco was
also cultivated in tropical America from before the arrival of Columbus and it too
is
not known in the wild, with N. otophora, N. sylvestris and N. tomentosiformis as
its
pugitive ancestors. The cured leaves contain 1.5-4% nicotine (Baker, 1964; Brouk,
1975; Mabbetley, 1997).

Tobacco quality depends very much on the weather, variety, soil and curing. Four
types of tobacco are recognised according to the method of curing the mature
leaves:
(1) Flue cured using artificial heat for drying in specially constructed barns and
producing Virginia and Amarelo tobaccos; (2) Air cured by drying on racks in the
shade at ambient temperatures for Burley (for cigarettes, pipe and chewing
tobaccos),
Maryland and cigar tobaccos; (3) Sun cured, i.e. sun dried, for Turkish and other
oriental varieties; and (4) Fire cured by direct drying over a fire to produce
Kentucky
tobacco.

The cured leaves are then fermented in heaps for 4-6 weeks, a process that results
in the disintegration of any remaining chlorophyll and the removal of any volatile
nicotine, leaving only the fixed nicotine. Liquorice paste, honey, sugar, molasses,
rum
and the fragrant seeds (which contain 2-3% coumarin) of Dipteryx odorata (Tonka
beans) cured in rum, may be used to flavour the tobacco. Buyers select according to
leaf size, thickness, colour, texture, flavour/aroma, rate of burn and processing
qualities.

Tobacco is mainly used in cigarettes, cigars and for pipe tobacco; small quantities
of chewing and snuff tobaccos are also being produced. For cigarettes old leaves
are
known as fillers and the young leaves as leaf tip; the cigarette papers are made
mainly from flax fibres. Heavy bodied and aromatic cigar-fillers form the core of
cigars, and are bound together by finer textured and more elastic cigar-binders,
with
an outer layer of the elite, thin and silky cigar-wrappers. While tobacco
consumption
has declined in the West because of an increased awareness of the health risk, it
has
increased in the East in pace with increasing populations (Brouk, 1975; Purseglove,
1987; Robbins, 1995).

12 Masticatories

Masticatories, from Late Latin masticare, Greek mastikhé, to grind the teeth, refer
to substances that are chewed to produce salivation. They have a long history. The
resin of Pistacia lentiscus (mastic), for example, has been used as a masticory at
least
since the time of Theophrastus (ca. 370-287 BC), as its Greek vernacular name
testifies (Long, 1987; Mabberley, 1997).
Social Uses 405

Chewing gum from the latex of Manilkara zapota (chicle, chiku, naseberry,
sapodilla [plum], beef apple} of Mexico and Central America was being chewed by
the Mayan people of Guatemala long before the sweetened, flavoured version was
commercialised in the late 19th century. The chicle is tasteless and contains no
alkaloids, the flavours are added later. It became famous during World II following
the arrival of US troops in Europe. The latex contains 20-40% of a gutta-percha-
like
material, which is boiled and evaporated for chewing gum. The latex from other
Manilkara species are now used as a substitute for that of M. zapota. Chewing gum
also contains 85% of a latex from the Malaysian tree Dyera costulata (jelutong);
during World War II the latex of Couma macrocarpa (sorva, lechi-caspi) from the
Upper Amazon was used as a substitute (Brouk, 1975; Briicher, 1989).

Through much of southern Asia to Oceania the half ripe and cured or fully ripe
seeds Areca catechu (betal palm) are chewed as a masticatory. The seeds are
normally sliced and mixed with various spices, such as cinnamon, cloves, cardamom
(Elettaria cardamomum) and nutmeg and wrapped in the leaf of Piper betel (betel
pepper) smeared with lime. Alternatively the betel may be mixed with tobacco, with
or without additives, before wrapping. It is a mild stimulant, blackening the teeth
and
giving a red stain to saliva as well as sweetening the breath. Its use has been
known
from antiquity, being mentioned by Herodotus in 340 BC. Betel contains the alkaloid
arecoline, a mild narcotic, producing a sense of well-being and dulling the
appetite,

The seeds (cola nuts) of Cola species (cola) from tropical Africa are also chewed.
They contain 2-4% caffeine, with traces of theobromine and the glucoside kolanin,
which acts as a heart stimulant. The use of the nuts in cola drinks has now been
largely supplanted by synthetics.

In the eastern Andes the local inhabitants daily chew the dried, powdered leaves
of Erythroxylum coca (coca) mixed with unslaked lime and the alkaline ash of
Chenopodium quinoa. The users are able to maintain their blood glucose levels
despite poor diets. The leaves of £. novagranatense from lower altitudes are
similarly
used. The leaves are slightly narcotic, containing 1% cocaine and are the source of
the drug cocaine. Cocaine is a debilitating, addictive narcotic, causing euphoria,
indifference to pain and tiredness, increased alertness and sexual desire (Brouk,
1975;
Mabberley, 1997). The presence of both cocaine and nicotine in Egyptian mummies
is still an ethnobotanical mystery and suggests an early unrecorded trade between
the
Old and New Worlds. Tests for these drugs in the ancient dead from India and the
Far East may indicate a possible route.

Although commonly referred to as a narcotic, Duboisia hopwoodii (pituri) is best

regarded as a masticatory. It is chewed by the Aboriginal tribes of Central
Australia
as a stimulant, to promote excitement, and was used before fighting or other
important events, and on long and difficult walks to reduce fatigue. Indigenous
species of Nicotiana are similarly used (M. Lazarides, pers. comm., 1998).
406 Chapter 21

2. NARCOTICS

Narcotics are toxic drugs that dull the senses, induce sleep and, with prolonged
use, become addictive. When used medicinally to induce sleep such drugs are
referred
to as hypnotics. It is the actual dosage that distinguishes between being a poison,
a
medicine or a narcotic (‘Sola dosis facit venenum’ of Paracelsus). In modern
society
the use of narcotics is largely recreational, while in more primitive societies
their use
may include medicinal, ritual, religious and recreational purposes (Schultes and
Hofmann, 1992; Macpherson, 1995).

21 Hallucinogens and Psychoactive Drugs

Hallucinogens are compounds characterised by their ability to produce distortions

of perception, emotional changes, depersonalisation and a variety of effects on
memory and learned behaviour. They may also produce psychosis, a serious disorder
of the mind, amounting to insanity. Some 150 plants are known to be used for their
hallucinogenic properties, with many more with hallucinogenic properties that are
apparently not used as such. Surprisingly, the aboriginal populations of Australia
and
New Zealand and the peoples of the Pacific Islands do not use hallucinogens,
although plants containing hallucinogenic principles are certainly known to occur
in
Polynesia. The majority of plant hallucinogens contain alkaloids as their active
principles. The major exception is Cannabis, where the active principles are the
non-
nitrogenous cannabinoids present in a resinous oil. See Chapter 19 for a discussion
on hallucinogenic fungi (Schultes and Hofmann, 1992; Macpherson, 1995).

21.1 Cannabis

Cannabis sativa subsp. indica (Indian hemp) is believed to be native to Central

Asia, possibly China. The plant has been cultivated and used for medicinal purposes
in India since 900-800 BC, and in North Africa since medieval times. Its
cultivation
has now spread throughout the world, apart from the Arctic regions and the tropical
rain forest, It is reputed to be the US’s most lucrative cash crop, worth $32
billion.
The more northerly distributed subsp. sativa (hemp) is cultivated for its fibre and
is
considerably less potent, despite which its cultivation in the UK became illegal
1951.
Cannabis-free cultivars are now available and production was reintroduced in 1993,

The short and much branched cultivars are the source of the volatile psychoactive
cannabis resin exuded from glandular hairs, The resin may be smoked as a
hallucination inducing fumitory, creating a pleasurable state of mind, albeit
damaging to the health. It is also used as a snuff or chewed.

There are wide variations in the psychoactive effects of cannabis preparations,

depending on the type of plant used, preparation, method of administration, dosage,
personality of the user, and social and cultural background. While the use of
cannabis
Social Uses 407

is reputed not to cause physical dependence, its abuse leads to passivity, apathy
and
inertia, effects that were first described in 2736 BC in the pharmacopoeia of the
Chinese herbalist, Emperor Shen Nung.

The crude resin known as charas is mainly produced in central Asia and is
extracted by rubbing the tops of the plants with the hands, or beating with a
cloth.
The purified resin known as marihuana, marijuana (Mexico), pot (US), dagga
(South Africa), kif (Morocco), hashish (Turkey), is obtained from the dried flower
heads of female plants. Ganja (India) is obtained from the resin-rich pressed and
dried unfertilised flower heads of female plants. It is usually smoked, often with
tobacco. A relatively mild preparation known as bhang (Hindustani), is the pounded
paste of spices and the dried leaves and flowering heads of both male and female
plants. It is consumed either as candy or as a tisane (Kirby, 1963; Brouk, 1975;
Purseglove, 1987; Schultes and Hofmann, 1992; Macpherson, 1995; Robbins, 1995;
Mabberley, 1997).

The active component of cannabis resin is A'-tetrahydrocannabinol (A-9-THC).

The member of the active fraction present in most cases is the Al-3 4-trans isomer;
the isomeric A®-3,4-trans isomer also occurs naturally and is similar to the A!
isomer
in pharmaceutical activity. It has now been demonstrated that the cannabinoids are
centrally acting analgesics with a distinct mode of action, which could lead to new
classes of non-opioid analgesics.

The A-9-THC has proved lethal to some insects. However, in trials with the larvae
of Arctia caja (tiger moth) and the grasshopper Zonocerus elegans, some insects
died
while others survived by storing the THC in their bodies (Harborne, 1988; Sharp,
1990; Schultes and Hofmann, 1692; Meng et al., 1998).

212 Opium

The second major hallucinogenic drug from the Old World is opium. From
among the ca. 25 alkaloids present the principal alkaloid of opium is morphine
which, with its salts, are very valuable albeit highly addictive analgesic drugs.
Opium
is produced from the dried latex harvested from the lanced immature capsules of the
cultigen Papaver somniferum subsp. somniferum (opium poppy), a process that has
remained unchanged since it was described by Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD) in his
Historia Natuuralis, Opium has been used for millennia as a medicine and
recreational drug. Cultivated in the Neolithic, it is mentioned in the Sumerian
writings, and dispensed by the pharmacies of ancient Egypt and Persia.

In China the opium addicts smoke powder balls; in the Western World addicts
either inject liquid morphine or the synthetic alkaloid based on morphine known as
diamorphine hydrochloride (heroin), which can also taken as a snuff, The tincture
of
opium known as laudanum, obtained by dissolving opium in alcohol, was first
prepared in the mid-17th century by Thomas Sydenham, he is also credited with
prescribing Peruvian bark, i.e. quinine for treating malaria. Laudanum was, until
408 Chapter 21

modern times, a popular soporific and analgesic drug (Renfrew, 1973; Brouk, 1975;
Sharp, 1990; Duin and Sutcliffe, 1992; Mabberley, 1997).

2.1.3 Peyote

Mexico is undoubtedly the world’s richest area of plant diversity and use of
hallucinogens among aboriginal societies, with South America a close second. In
Mexico the best known hallucinogenic drug is peyote, obtained from the spineless
woolly cactus Lophophora williamsii (peyote cactus). The ritual use of peyote has
now
spread northwards through the USA to the Amerindians of Canada. The fresh or
dried aerial parts, mescal buttons, are either chewed or used a tisane prepared by
boiling in water. The active principles are non-volatile so that the buttons loose
none
of their potency during storage. Some 30 alkaloids are present, of which the active
ingredient is the alkaloid mescaline ( B-(3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl)-ethylamine),
which
is closely related to a neurotransmitter, the brain-hormone norepinephrine.
Mescaline
acts as a depressant of the central nervous system, producing kaleidoscopic
hallucinations and a feeling of weightlessness. It has even been suggested that the
use
of mescal by the shamans stimulated the strikingly bizarre artistic designs of the
early
American civilisations (Brouk, 1975; Sharp, 1990; Schultes and Hofmann, 1992;
Mabberley, 1997).

2.1.4 Other Hallucinogens

In South America the indigenous peoples use hallucinogens obtained from a

number of species, including the seeds of Anadenanthera, the bark of
Banisteriopsis,
and the bast resin of Virola; even the leaves of Erythroxylum coca can produce
hallucinations if sufficient quantities are masticated (Prance, 1984; Schultes and
Hofmann, 1992).

Ott (1998) discusses the effect of a number of toxic honeys, in which bees have
sequested naturally occurring secondary metabolites from floral and extrafioral
nectaries. For example, the Mayans deliberately exploited the psychoactive honey
from Turbina corymbosa (ololiuqui) for the ritual mead, balché, which was used as a
shamanic inebriant for hallucinations and visions. Elsewhere in southern Mexico the
seeds are used in Aztec ceremonies as a hallucinogenic intoxicant with reputed
analgesic properties. The active principles are ergotine alkaloids and lysergic
acid
derivatives. These were previously known from the cereal fungus Claviceps purpurea
(ergot). Ergotism, from eating flour contaminated by ergots, resulted in intense
pain
and hallucinations, a condition known as St Anthony’s fire. Although Linnaeus
(1763) in his De Raphania, wrongly attributed ergotism to the seeds of the common
black turnip-radish mixed in the grain (Schultes and Hofmann, 1992; Mabberley,
1997).
Social Uses 409
3. SOAPS, COSMETICS AND FRAGRANCES
31 Soaps

Soaps are cleansing agents manufactured in bars, granules, flakes, or liquid form
from the sodium and potassium salts of fatty acids, particularly stearic, palmitic
and
oleic acids. The vegetable oils and fats from which many soaps are prepared consist
essentially of the glyceryl esters of these acids. During manufacture vats
containing
the oils or fats are heated with dilute NaOH (less frequently KOH) solution. When
hydrolysis is completed the soap is ‘salted out” or precipitated with NaCl. The
soap is
then treated as required with perfumes and made into tablets. For example, Castile
soap is manufactured from olive oil, transparent soap from decolorised vegetable
oils,
and liquid green soap from KOH and vegetable oils.

Traditional cleansing agents are based on saponins, i.c. water-soluble glycosides

that foam when agitated. They occur in a wide variety of plants, where their
presence
is believed to deter predation. Typical examples of such soap substitutes include
the
leaves of Agave spp., Atriplex polycarpa (all scale), Carica papaya (pawpaw) and
Saponaria officinalis (soapwort), and the fruits of Sapindus spp. (soapberry);
among
the species used for hair shampoos are the seeds of Simmondsia chinensis, the
leaves
of Vaseyanthus sp. and the young shoots of Gynerium sagittatum (uva grass) (Sharp,
1990; Cotton, 1996; Mabberley, 1997).

32 Cosmetics

Cosmetics are preparations applied to either beautify or decorate the body (from
French cosmétigue, from adjective ‘of adornment’, from Greek kosmétikos, skilled in
arranging, from kosméros, well ordered, from kosmein, to arrange, from kosmos,
order). Their use dates back into antiquity. The powdered leaves of Lawsonia
inermis
(henna) are believed to have been used in Pharaonic Egypt for colouring the finger
nails red, and of Isatis tinctoria (woad) for colouring the bodies of the Ancient
Britons blue. Henna is still used today, as is the orange colouring obtained from
the
testa of Bixa orellana (annatto), the original Amerindian body paint. The Seri of
Baja
California use a range of face paint materials; they also tattoo their bodies with
the
mashed leaves of Condalia globosa mixed with the ashes of Olneya tesota
(ironwood). In some cultures it is customary to blacken the teeth using wood tar
obtained from such species as Eugenia tumida, Fagraea racemosa, Tamarindus
indica, etc., or the juice from Rothmannia macrophylla. First used by the
inhabitants
of the Sonoran Desert for dressing the hair, the liquid wax from the seeds of
Simmiondsia chinensis (jojoba) is now widely used in a number of commercial
cosmetic preparations (Manatee, 1990; Cotton, 1990; Fleeter and Mossier, 1985;
Lemons ef al., 1991; Mabberley, 1997).
410 Chapter 21
33 Fragrances

Fragrances based on essential oils (see Chapter 15) have been widely used from
the earliest times. Today they are added to such products for personal use as
perfumes, deodorants, shampoos, bath lotions, toilet soaps, toothpastes and mouth
washes, and industrially for laundry soaps, detergents, cleaning agents, air
freshness,
etc. (Coupon, 1995).

The Ancient Egyptians were famous for their scents and perfumes. Because the
distillation of alcohol was not known until the 4th century BC, the essential oil
had to
be extracted by steeping plants, flowers or shavings of fragrant wood in oil, which
is
then added to other oils or fat. The oils used included balanas oil from Balanites
aegyptiaca, moringa oil from Moringa peregrina, syn. M. aptera (the M. oleifera,
syn. M. pterygosperma cited by Manniche (1989) is a native of northern India and
Pakistan, and is not known from the wild in Egypt fide Verdcourt (1985)), olive oil
from Olea europaea, almond oil from Prunus dulcis, etc. According to Theophrastus,
Concerning Odours, balanos was the preferred oil because it was the least viscous,
followed by fresh raw olive oil and almond oil. One of the more famous of the
Egyptian perfumes was made in the Delta city of Mendes, consisting of balanos oil,
myrrh and resin from Commiphora spp. Interestingly, the order in which the
ingredients were added to the oil was extremely important since the last one to be
added imparted the most pungent scent. See Manniche (1989) for other recipes.

The origins of the present-day industry began in 1367 with the creation by the
Queen Elizabeth of Hungary of an alcoholic solution of fragrant herbs known as
‘Queen of Hungary Water’. This was followed in 1690 by the development of ‘Eau de
Cologne’ by Jean-Antoine Farina. During the 18th century commercial perfumery
houses began to appear, with producers and compounders providing the essential oils
and creating fragrance compounds for the perfumery houses. In the 19th century
developments in organic chemistry led to the synthesis of the first organic
products,
such as vanillin and benzyl aldehyde. Despite such advances, the essential oil
industry is a conservative one which does not readily lend itself to synthetic
substitutes for the better class of perfumes (Brud, 1995; Coppen, 1995).

The essential oils are the most widely used source of perfume by indigenous
societies. An example of an alternative mode is in the Sudan where the smoke from
Combretum adenogonium, syn. C. fragrans and Terminalia brownii are used by
women to scent their bodies. In West Africa sachets containing the rhizomes and
tubers of Cyperus spp. and Kyllinga spp., or their smoke, are used for scent. As an
antithesis of fragrance, in Nubian Egypt the leaves of Lawsonia inermis placed in
the
hollows of the arms act as a deodorant (Burkill, 1985; Manniche, 1989).
Social Uses 411

4. CONTRACEPTIVES AND ABORTIFACIENTS

Plant sources of contraceptives as means of avoiding pregnancy despite sexual

activity are based on the hormone progesterone to govern the growth and
development of the uterus during pregnancy. Progesterone can be manufactured from
the animal sterol cholesterol and from certain plant steroid sapogenins, such as
diosgenin from the fruits of Balanites aegyptiaca and Trigonella foenum-graecum
(fenugreek), the fleshy tubers of Dioscorea elephantipes (elephant’s-foot,
hotentot-
bread), D. opposita (Chinese yam), and from stigmasterol. Stigmasterol was first
extracted from the seeds of Physostigma venenosum (Calabar bean), it is now readily
isolated from many plant sources, often in the presence of sitosterol, from which
it is
difficult to separate. Toxic alkaloids too can cause abortion, inchiding the fungus
Claviceps purpurea (ergot), and even from tobacco smoke (Abu-Al-Futuh, 1989;
Lapinskas, 1989; Okigbo, 1989; Tyler, 1989; Blackwell, 1990; Sharp, 1990).

Plants containing volatile oils have been widely utilised in traditional medicines
to induce or stimulate menstrual flow, i.e. emmenagogues, and are known somewhat
less euphemistically as abortifacients. They bring about artificial abortion by
producing pelvic congestion through intestinal irritation; toxic doses of the
actual
volatile oil being more effective than the plant material (Tyler, 1989). The latter
include the leaves of Ruta graveolens (tue), the leaves and tips of Chrysanthemum
vulgare (tansy), Hedeoma pulegioides (American pennyroyal) and Mentha pulegium
(European pennyroyal), the tops of Juniperus sabina (savin), the fruits of
Juniperus
communis (juniper) and Petroselinum crispum (parsley), and the oleoresin of Pinus
palustris (longleaf pine).

Manniche (1989) suggests that the seeds of Apium graveolens (celery) and not
parsley were used as an emmenagogue by the Ancient Egyptians. While Lawless
(1992) also reports emmenagogue properties for celery, other literature sources,
e.g.
Launert (1981), Chiej (1984) and Mabey (1988) only mention parsley. This example
serves to illustrates how information is often handed down without the recipient
checking the primary references and plant identities, and thereby providing a major
source of conflicting information.

S. PLANTS OF RITUAL OR RELIGIOUS SIGNIFICANCE

Tree worship and the use of leaves, flowers, etc. in religious ceremonies almost
certainly date back to prehistoric times. That useful plants should be venerated is
understandable, less understandable are the very many plants without apparent
usefulness to a community that are also associated with myths and traditions. Their
use is presumably due to their association with religious beliefs, or perhaps
because of
their resemblance to the emblem of a particular deity or even the name of a sage
associated with them, and thereby making the plant sacred. Various plant parts are
412 Chapter 21

traditionally used to counteract witchcraft or the evil eye, or burnt to drive away
mosquitoes and other pests. Scents and perfumes are used to appease the gods, while
others are believed to restore fertility, etc. (Gupta, 1971).

The Ancient Greeks associated some plants with particular gods and their godly
attributes, e.g. purification, fertility and growth. Thus wheat is sacred to
Dementer,
who taught agriculture to man, and the vine associated with Dionysus, the god of
wine and ecstasy. Victorious athletes were awarded garlands of wild olive leaves
(Olea europaea) at the Olympic Games, bay leaves (Laurus nobilis) at the Pythian
Games, and wild celery (Apium graveolens) at the Nemean Games.

Similarly, in India the traditional Hindu almanac, the Panchang, which is based
on an astrological concept of the movements of the Sun through the constellations,
has a reigning deity for each constellation together with an associated sacred tree
to
be worshipped. Plants are also believed to influence body functions, ailments and
disease, and have been linked with reputed medical properties of plants to
counteract
that influence. The root bark of Calotropis gigantea, for example, is associated
with
the constellation Sravena and the diety Vishnu, and is used to treat intermittent
fever.
While in Bali the Hindu burial ceremonies include the yellow variety of the bamboo
Schizostachyum brachycladium.

In Europe the 17th century some philosophers and herbalists still maintained that
every plant and every illness was governed by a constellation or planet and that a
disease caused by one planet could be cured by a plant belonging to an opposing
planet, or conversely, by a herb belonging to the planet responsible for the
disease.
Probably the best known of these astrological botanists was Nicolas Culpepper and
his Physicall Directory published in 1649 and his fanciful linking of herbs with
astrology. Fortunately for medicine other herbals were free of such fancies
(Vickery,
1995). See Chapter 16 for further information on herbals.

The hallucinogenic drugs may also have a ritual or religious significance in

addition to their purely narcotic usage, their hallucinogenic properties being
associated with evil spirits, particularly by the New World shamans. In medieval
Europe the three notorious hexing herbs were Atropa belladonna (deadly
nightshade), Hyoscyamus niger (henbane) and Mandragora officinarum (mandrake).
All three contain relatively high concentrations of tropane alkaloids, chiefly
atropine,
hyoscyamine and hyoscine (scopolamine), with the hyoscine producing the
hallucinogenic effects considered responsible for their magical attributes (Bennet
et
al., 1992; Schultes and Hofmann, 1992; Dransfield and Widjaja, 1995; Rose and
Dietrich, 1996).

In some mythologies forked roots are attributed with human properties. Thus the
fanciful resemblance to the human form of the forked roots of the mandrake were
regarded as a talisman by the ancient Assyrians; the roots were used to ward off
evil
spirits. In early western mythology the mandrake was reputed to emit screams when
pulled from the ground, Dioscorides describes how a dog is tied by the neck to the
plant and a piece of meat thrown to the dog, causing it to lunge and uproot the
Social Uses 413

mandrake. The shrieks and groans during the uprooting plus the foul odour brought

about the demise of the dog, while the master’s ears are stopped against the sound,

which would otherwise drive him mad. Mandrake was also known as a ‘gallows man’

because it was believed to grow beneath a gallows, fertilised by the urine or semen
of
the hanged man. Such gallows men were attributed with greater powers than

mandrakes found elsewhere. The foul-scented root of Ferula assa-foetida (Satan’s

faeces) was also used as a talisman to ward off evil (Embooden, 1974; Blackwell,
1990; Schultes and Hofmann, 1992).

In Africa there are numerous myths concerning Adansonia digitata (baobab).

Many cultures believe the tree to be inhabited by spirits, and in Senegal the
Séreres
make use of any hollow baobabs for bodies denied burial, i.e. those of the griot
cast -
poets, musicians, sorcerers, drummers and buffoons. They are suspended for
mummification so that their bodies will not pollute the earth. In East Africa,
Resa,
Lord of Rain, is said to live in a great baobab that holds up the sky. Elsewhere
prominent trees may be regarded as the traditional meeting place for the elders,
others are worshipped as fertility symbols, etc. (Wickens, 1982).

In Australia myths relate how careless land owners will become blind unless
certain lands are protected from burning. As a result fragments of the rain forest
are
protected from fire and valuable fire-sensitive species, e.g. Dioscorea spp. (yams)
are
conserved, While such a protective practice has a practical function in conserving
the
yams as a food resource, some argue that the advantageous consequences of a social
practice does not necessarily explain its existence (Cotton, 1996).

Europe too has its fair share of religious and ritual plants. Floral tributes at
funerals were probably first used to mask the odour of rotting flesh. In Italy
white
chrysanthemums are a favourite funeral flower and as such are never used for indoor
decoration. In various parts of the UK Sambucus nigra (elder) was often planted
near
habitation for protection against witches; sometimes it was also associated with
fairies
and good luck (Vickery, 1995).

In Ireland ands Wales a sprig of Ulex europaeus (gorse) was traditionally hung
over the doorway or brought into the house on May Day to ward off witches and
fairies (Grigson, 1958; Lucas. 1960), On the other hand Vickery (1995) provides
examples from Ireland and the Channel Islands where it is considered unlucky to
bring gorse into the house, and from Hampshire where dragons were believed to
either live or were born in gorse flowers.

The tradition of well-dressing in the Peak District of Derbyshire is considered by

some to have its origins in pagan times when springs and wells were decorated with
green branches and flowers. With the coming of Christianity such veneration was
banned but many of the wells were purged of their pagan associations and
rededicated
to the Blessed Virgin Mary or a saint and the pagan rite continued under the banner
of Christianity. While at Tissington well-dressing is claimed to be in thanksgiving
for
the village escaping the ravages of the Black Death. What ever their origin, well-
dressing is certainly a tourist attraction. (Vickery, 1995, who should be consulted
for
414 Chapter 21

further examples). The importance of such religious and ritual use of plants to
communities cannot be ignored. People are entitled to their beliefs and
administrators
and developers should be aware of such uses and beliefs and respect them.

6. SEASONS AND WEATHER

Most people are familiar with the changing seasons and their association with the
life cycle of wild and cultivated plants. Apart from biologists relatively few
among the
industrialised nations today correlate the changing life cycle with other
biological
events. In the UK there are a number of old country sayings that still reflect such
observations. Thus, when the lilac (Syringa vulgaris) is in flower it is a bad time
to
buy calves. This is because flowering coincides with lush pastures and rich milk
causing the calves to flower.

The so called ‘primitive societies’ may even rely on certain plants, referred to as
‘calendar plants’, for their hunting and survival. Often with conspicuous flowers,
they
serve to indicate certain important seasonal occurrences that could otherwise be
difficult to assess, such as when an animal food resource is at its best. For
example,
when Brachychiton paradoxus is flowering the Arnhem Land Aborigines know that
there are plenty of baby sharks in the sea, scrub fowl have laid their eggs, and
mudcrabs contain eggs and are at their best (Yunupinu et al., 1995).

Plants may also be used to forecast the weather. In Wales rapidly opening lilac
blossoms indicates rain falling soon; if they quickly droop and fade it is a sign
of a
warm summer, Also in the UK some people hang a piece of dried seaweed near the
door, when it gets damp it is a sign of rain (Vickery, 1995). As a child I was
taught
that rain would follow when the wind blowing through trees and shrubs reveals the
underside of leaves.
Chapter 22

At the Start of the 21st Century

The world population is now 6 billion, of whom 0.8 billion are malnourished and
1.2 billion live on a daily income of less than US$1.00. The population is
continuing
to rise and is expected to reach 11,5-12 billion by 2050, Even now many of the
undeveloped nations are doubling their populations within 20-25 years, expanding at
a faster rate than sustainable agriculture and forestry can be maintained. The
effects
of this demographic explosion is likely to be compounded by the necessity of
adapting
to the yet unknown full effects of global warming. The balance between the need to
conserve the environment and the ever increasing demand for land and water
resources will become more difficult to maintain.

Sustainable productivity, whether from natural resources, agriculture (crops and

livestock), forestry, etc. without damaging the environment, is the dream of all
conservationists. In theory sustainable productivity is probably attainable
although in
practice it is economically unattainable. This is because the developed countries
continue to seek ever higher living standards, for which they require cheap imports
from the less developed countries on their own terms, regardless of the
environmental
and human consequences for the developing countries. For facts and figures for
North
America see Prescott-Allen and Prescott-Allen (1986).

1 DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

While it is theoretically possible to feed the world’s population, present-day

economics and politics make such a possibility unlikely. Food security is, and is
likely
to continue to be, a major global problem, especially for the developing countries
where crippling debt repayments, low agricultural inputs, erosion, desertification
and
deforestation make it difficult, if not impossible, to grow sufficient food for
local
needs. Yet, in order to obtain foreign currency, these countries are compelled to
supply non-essential products, such as. out of season salad crops, cut flowers and

415
416 Chapter 22

newspaper pulp, to the developed countries. On the other hand, the developed
countries have the capacity to provide food for export yet fail to do so because
crop
surpluses would mean lower prices for their farmers. Even if surplus food was made
available to those countries in need, the transport costs, etc. are prohibitively
high.

For example, during the Ethiopian famine in the 1980s 1 ton of wheat costing ca.

£100 at the port of lading had doubled in value by the time it had reached the port
of

unloading, to which distribution costs had to be added!

A very wide range of under-utilised crops and other plant resources have been
identified and are available to suit the needs of both the developed and less
developed
nations of the world, although I fear that the economics of production will always
control what product reaches the world markets. For example, it is largely the
economics of jojoba oil production that currently restricts the crop to a
relatively
small scale acreage for the lucrative cosmetics industry, whereas large scale
cropping
would be required to provide a cheap substitute for the oil from the endangered
sperm
whale. Growers would have to accept a substantial drop in sale price to meet that
demand.

From the very beginning of human life on earth plants have been utilised by man,
and many poor people in the developing countries continue to rely on non-wood
forest products (NWFP) for their survival and/or income, while the developed
countries have tended to regard NWFP solely as objects of commerce. It is only
during the past two decades that the international organisations have fully
appreciated the scale and importance of NWFP for the rural populations of
developing countries.

Throughout history wild plants have been brought into cultivation to meet an
increasing demand for guaranteed quantity, quality and price for food and industry,
accompanied by a shift from a domestic to a plantation or industrial economy. Where
these demands cannot be met an often more profitable development in recent years
has been to produce synthetic substitutes, especially for pharmaceuticals.
Plantation
and industrial production have also resulted in the rural producers loosing their
competitive edge in the national and international markets and having to
increasingly
rely on supplying rural households and local markets, (Wickens, 1991; Killman,
1999).

No single country can be expected to produce the range of plant products that it
requires from its own internal natural resources, yet many countries still fail to
fully
utilise what they have available. India’s Green Revolution was a good example of
what can be done to provide greater self sufficiency and a better trade balance,
although the swing to monoculture and high agrochemical inputs is rapidly becoming
a cause for concern. Trade, of course, is essential, but it should be for the
mutual
advantage of both the exporting and importing countries, narrowing the currently
widening monetary gap between the developed and less developed nations. As
Mohandas Ghandhi has wisely stated “The earth has enough for everyone's needs but
not for somebody’s greed.”
At the Start of the 21st Century 417

The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity adopted at Nairobi in

1992 encouraged “co-operation between government authorities and the private
sector in developing methods for sustainable use of biological resources.” It also
called for an equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of
biotechnology by
apportioning access to genefic resources, the transfer of relevant technologies and
suitable reimbursement for the rights over resources and technologies. Among the
many ethical and legal issues now recognised regarding NWFP, especially between
the developing countries and the multinationals, are: (1) Who is the rightful
owner?
(2) What are the benefits for the rural population/indigenous group/country of
origin?
(3) Who monitors their interests? (4) What are the mediation/negotiation processes
available? and (5) How successful have they been?

The pharmaceutical industry provides a good example as to how the Rio

Convention can be implemented. Basically, the global concentration of plant
diversity
and traditional healers are in the species-rich tropical forests, while the
technological
infrastructure, pharmaceutical expertise and financial resources are mainly in the
developed countries of the temperate regions. Thus, plants collected in the tropics
are
being mainly investigated and developed by academic institutions and private
companies in Europe, USA and Japan. The imbalance between the accessors and
owners of indigenous knowledge raises a wide range of ethnic and political issues,
a
number of which have been addressed by the Nairobi Convention. The recent interest
by pharmaceutical companies in the ethnobotanical approach to herbal remedies
discussed in Chapter 16. has meant a new approach to research protocols. Thus,
Shaman Pharmaceuticals have developed a working collaborative relationship with
local communities, traditional healers and local scientific institutions, providing
a
working model as to how a large pharmaceutical company can create an equitable
and potentially lucrative partnership within the Nairobi Convention. In the long
term
Shaman will return a percentage of its profits to all the indigenous communities
and
countries with which it has worked (Carlson ef al., 1997b). It is to be hoped that
other
industries will develop a similar philosophy and partnerships.

2. GENETIC ENGINEERING

World trade is increasingly being controlled by multinational organisations

motivated by profit. This is exemplified by the development of genetically modified
crops whose seeds not only respond to the seed and agrochemical industry's own
brands of herbicides/pesticides but could include the introduction of a terminator
gene
to prevent the germination of future generations, thereby forcing the farmer to buy
new seed each year. Obviously the terminator gene cannot be used for all cereals,
the
brewing, distilling and starch industries still require cereals capable of
germinating!
In early October 1999 Monsanto bowed to popular outrage, particularly from Europe,
and have ceased production involving the terminator gene, at least for the time
being.
418 Chapter 22

Perhaps the terminator gene technology could be beneficially applied to Cannabis

sativa subsp. indica to control the psychotropic drugs industry? However, should
the
terminator gene escape the effects would be disastrous,

There are extravagant claims of GM crops being able to solve the world’s food
problem. This would be possible if the GM crops were suitable for the developing
countries and in the unlikely event of the subsistence farmers in these developing
countries being able to afford the cost of the seeds and chemical inputs. Even so,
there
could be potential benefits for the developing countries if, for example, suitable
low
input GM crops could be developed to solve their problems of hunger and nutrition
by
using the technology now available to increase the calorific content of starch-
storage
organs of the major starch crops and the vitamin content, etc. of others. This
would
undoubtedly be beneficial not only to the undernourished people of the developing
countries but also help reduce the indignity of famine relief. Perhaps the savings
made by the developed countries in costly relief could be used finance such
developments? It should be remembered that there are ethical problems regarding the
introduction of animal genes into food plants for those whose religions forbid the
eating of animals.

Both pharmaceuticals and GM foods undergo rigorous health investigations for

any injurious effects before they are considered safe. Pharmaceuticals, unlike
food,
are usually consumed in small quantities for relatively short periods. Foods are
consumed daily and in large quantities, presenting the possibility, however remote,
of
a build up of injurious substances. I am unaware of any long-term studies on the
consumption of GM foods, especially on pregnant women and their offspring. Until
such studies have been completed to the satisfaction of nutritionists and other
concerned bodies, there must remain a shadow of uncertainty regarding their safety.

A more serious danger is the long-term effect of GM crops on the environment,

which has never been properly assessed. This includes the ‘scorched earth’ action
of
the agrochemical input on birds, insects and soil organisms, and the inevitable
escape
of genes from the GM crops into the environment. If highly trained nuclear
scientists
can still have the occasional ‘accident’, then the chances of farmers having more
frequent ‘accidents’ is even greater. There is already the example of a seed
merchant
supplying oilseed rape accidentally contaminated with GM rape and the seeds being
widely planted in Europe and the crop being destroyed prematurely as unmarketable.

The US Corn Belt, for which the GM technology was first developed, with vast
cultivated fields and the minimum of headlands, hedges and other wildlife habitats,
certainly does not provide the most suitable environment for such investigations.
It
was left to the more environmentally conscious Europe to demonstrate that there are
dangers to some species of wildlife. The adverse effects on a single insect species
can
have unseen consequences elsewhere in the food chain. Darwin (1859) was the first
to
provide simple examples of such food chains, e.g. Trifolium pratense (red clover)
relying on pollination by the bumble bee, whose nests are destroyed by field mice
who, in turn, are eaten by cats, to which I might add the malicious rumour,
hopefully
At the Start of the 21st Century 419

untrue, that the cats are sometimes curried and served up in oriental restaurants.
A
failure in one link will have repercussions further down the chain. But, as Wilson
(1992) has pointed out, this is an over-simplification since each link in the chain
is
linked to other chains, forming a veritable mesh. Other chains will link the red
clover
with the fungus Sclerotinia trifoliorum (clover rot) and the eelworm Anguillulina
dipsaci responsible for ‘clover sickness’ (Robinson, 1947). The monitoring of the
environmental effects is clearly a highly complex and long-term investigation,
especially in the developing countries and in the species-rich tropics.

MAFF (1996) has already reported the sobering fact that 41% of the fruit and
vegetables analysed in the UK contain pesticide residues. Insecticide and pesticide
pollution of the environment are already well documented; could there be any
additional risk from growing GM crops? There are already indications that the
increase in use of glyphosate herbicides in association with glyphosate-resistant
GM
crops could have an adverse effect on wild life. Despite the manufacturer’s claims
that glyphosate has a half-life of 25 days, the results from independent scientists
range between 40 and 150 days. It has also been demonstrated that glyphosate has
adverse effects on N-fixing and other soil organisms, stunt the growth of worms and
change the microbial balance of the soil. Although the GM crops require fewer
applications than non-GM crops, they do require insecticides/pesticides designated
by
the breeder, the accumulative effect of successive applications of which on the
environment have yet to be investigated. There is no possibility of using more
environmentally friendly agrochemicals (Anonymous, 1998). How long will it take
before the pests and diseases build up a resistance to the agrochemicals. It has
happened with non-GM crops and there is no reason why the GM crops should be
the exception.

The escape of genes from GM crops into related non-GM crops and wild species
is now recognised. Cross-pollination is the obvious culprit. The ability to
identify and
destroy every GM escapee is an impossible task and will become an increasing
problem as the growing of GM crops becomes more widespread. Since the honeybee
forages over a radius of 5 km (Butler, 1959), pollen transfer by bees can be
expected
to occur over a similar range. Isolating wind pollinated GM crops is clearly an
impossible task

As the growing of GM cops increases in area short distance wind dispersal of

contaminated pollen will become more widespread (see Chapter 6 for details). What
is even more worrying is the possibility of wind dispersal over even greater
distances.
The best authenticated long distance pollen transport is 800 km for pollen carried
by
the harmattan winds of the southern Sahara and the Sahel (Maley, 1972). The danger
may be minuscule but it still exists. Such risks are shared by non-GM crops but
with
the difference that the GM crops are still very much an unknown risk.

While there is considerable consumer resistance, especially in Europe, to GM

foods and the manner in which the multinationals appear to impose their products
into the food chain, the technology should not be condemned. Less controversial are
420 Chapter 22

the attempts by organisations such as the International Crop Research Institute for
the

Semi-arid Tropics (ICRISAT) to modify the physiological resistance of crops to

drought, salinity, etc. intended for the benefit of the less developed nations,
There are
considerable technical problems involved since such GM modifications involve
several genes, unlike the more common single gene manipulation for food crops.
There are also definite benefits to be obtained from producing GM pharmaceutical
and medical products, hopefully under rigorous security control to prevent any
abuse.

3. ECONOMIC BOTANY AND THE UK

During the 20th century the UK’s involvement in economic botany has passed
through several stages: (1) The colonial period, developing new crops and
introducing them to the various colonics in «.der to provide a balanced supply of
raw
materials within the British Empire. The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (RBG) played
an active role in recommending, col!z-ting and introducing new plants and training
economic botanists for the colonies; (2) The doldrums of post colonialism, with the
former colonies working independently and trying to adopt a veneer of western
civilisation regardless of the costs. The individual countries were unable to
maintain
an internal balanced flow of raw materials, and their economies deteriorated.
Research at the RBG on economic plants virtually ceased; and (3) The reawakening.
As part of the EU’s Common Agricultural Policy there has been increased interest
during the past two decades in alternative crops for the UK. Amongst other
activities
a new unit, the Alternative Crops Unit, was established within MAFF to investigate
alternative crops for the UK, and research on biomass as a source of energy is
being
funded by the Department of Trade and Industry (Dover, 1985; Carruthers, 1986;
Chisholm, 1994; MAFF, 1994a).

With the help of funding by OXFAM, research on economic plants at the RBG
recommenced in 1981 with the setting up of the Survey of Economic Plants for Arid
and Semi-arid Tropics (SEPASAT) which, in 1985, became the Survey of Economic
Plants for Arid and Semi-arid Lands (SEPASAL). SEPASAL, together with other
units and the Museum collections now form Kew’s Centre for Economic Botany,
recreating with modern technology Sir William Hooker's idea of “a collection that
would render great service, not only to the scientific botanist, but to the
merchant,
the manufacturer, the physician, ...... ” (Wickens, 1993). The UK Chapter of the US
parent Society for Economic Botany was founded in 1991 and goes from strength to
strength. The UK's first MSc course in Ethnobotany at the University of Canterbury,
held in conjunction with the RBG, commenced in 1998. The UK economic botanists,
whatever their disciplines, are once again active and united in a common cause.
At the Start of the 21st Century 421
4. FINIS

There are several lines of research that are likely to become increasingly
important in the future: (1) An increased search for novel biochemicals and
pharmaceuticals, especially among the marine algae; (2) An increased use of
biofuels
and their by-products. As a renewable resource the plants offer a suitable
alternative
to the world’s ever diminishing reserves of fossil fuels. According to Morris and
Ahmed (1992) not only is it possible for plants to recapture their share of the
industrial materials market that they enjoyed in the 1920s, they could also replace
at
least one-third of all such materials derived from petroleum-based stocks. The
potential is there but it will be the economics that decide; (3) A greater use of
the
Cyanobacteria as a source of food, especially in the developing countries of the
arid
and semi-arid tropics; (4) An increase in the use of genetic engineering; and (5)
Greater emphasis on reclamation and maintenance of the environment, especially in
the realm of pollutants and, in the case of heavy metals, their sequestering and
recycling.

Whatever the future globally, it is ultimately cost, supply and demand that will
control what plants will be used where and for which purposes; the more cynical may
even believe that profit alone will be the sole deciding factor.
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Taxonomic Index

Taxa arranged according to the Five

Kingdoms classification

Families and genera of the vascular plants

(Brummit, 1992) and authors of plant names
(Brummitt and Powell, 1992) are according to
those recognised at the Royal Botanic Gardens,
Kew. Accepted names are in bold, synonyms

noted in the cited literature are in italics.

Super Kingdoms, Kingdoms, Sub Kingdoms

and Phyla

ACRASIOMYCOTA see PROTOCTISTA

ACTINOBACTERIA see BACTERIA
ANGIOSPERMOPHYTA see ANTHOPHYTA
ANIMALIA sce page 492
ANTHOCEROPHYTA see page 482
ANTHOPHYTA see page 460
ARCHAEA see BACTERIA
ARCHAEBACTERIA sce BACTERIA
ASCOMYCOTA see FUNGI

BACTERIA see page 490

BASIDIOMY COTA see FUNGI

BRYOPHYTA see page 483
CHYSOMONADA see PROTOCTISTA

459

CHYTRIDIOMYCOTA see PROTOCTISTA

CRENARCHAEOTA s¢e BACTERIA

CRYPTOMONADA see PROTOCTISTA
CRYPTOPHYTA see PROTOCTISTA
CONIFEROPHYTA see page 480
CYANOBACTERIA see BACTERIA
CYCADOPHYTA sce page 480
DIATOMS see PROTOCTISTA
DINOFLAGELLATA see PROTOCTISTA
DINOMASTIGOTA see PROTOCTISTA
EQUISETOPHYTA see SPHENOPHYTA
EUCLENIDA see PROTOCTISTA
EUKARYA Table 3; 30
EURYACHAEOTA see BACTERIA

EUSTIGMATOPHYTA see PROTOCTISTA

FILICOPHYTA see page 481

FUNGI see page 483
GAMOPHYTA see PROTOCTISTA
GNETOPHYTA see page 480
GINKGOPHYTA see page 480
HAPTOMONADA see PROTOCTISTA
HEPATOPHYTA sce page 483
LABRINTHULOMY COTA see
PROTOCTISTA
LYCOPHYTA sce page 481
LYCOPODOPHYTA see LYCOPHYTA
MYCOPHYTA see FUNGI
MYXOMYCOTA see PROTOCTISTA
OOMYCOTA see PROTOCTISTA
PHAEOPHYTA see PROTOCTISTA
PLANTAE Table 3; 30, 362
PLLASMODIOPHOA see PROTOCTISTA
PLASMODIOPHOROMYCOTA see
PROTOCTISTA
PROKARYA Table 3; 30
PROTOCTISTA sce page 487
PROTOZOA see PROTOCTISTA
PSILOPHYTA see page 481
PTERIDOPHYTA see FILICINOPHYTA
RHODOPHYTA see PROTOCTISTA
SPERMATOPHYTA 30
SPHENOPHYTA see page 481
460

THALLOPHYTA Table 3; 30
XANTHOPHYTA sce PROTOCTISTA
ZYGOMYCOTA see FUNGL

ANTHOPHYTA (Angiosperms)

Abehnoschus esculentus (1..) Moench.

(Malvaceae) 344
A. manihot (L.) Medik. 274

Acacia (Leguminosae-Mimosoideag) 14, 83, §8,

96, 97, 213, 227, 241, 288

subgenus Aculeiferum 283
subgenus Ileterophyllum 78, 81
A. albida Del. = Faidherbia albida 25
A. aneura F.Muell. 81, 88, 228
A. catechu Willd. 226, 289
A, caven (Molina) Molina 84
A. confusa Mcrr. 344
A. cowleana Tate 294
A. georginae Bailey 222,334
A. harpophylla F.Muell. ex Benth, 97
A. karroo Hayne 283
A. kempeana F.Muell. 227
A. laeta Benth. 283
A. mearnsii Dc Willd. 288, 290
A. mellifera (Vahl) Benth. 283
A. nilotica (L.) Del.
subsp. indica (Benth. Brenan 53
subsp. nilotica 84
A. polyacantha Willd. 283
A, saligna Lindl. 81
A. senegal (L.) Willd, Table 18; 19, 121, 203,
214, 283
A. seyal Del. 253, 283
A. victoriae Benth. 81
A. xanthophloea Benth. 283
ACANTHACEAE Table 4
Acanthosicyoes naudinianus (Sond.) C.Jeffrey
(Cucurbitaceae) 130, 189
Acer (Betulaceae) 241
A. nigrum F.Michx. 201

Taxonomic Index

A, saccharum Marshall 201

Acorus calamus L. (Acoraceae) 281, 340
Actinidia deliciosa (A.Chev) Liang &
AR Ferguson (Actinidiaceae) 123
Adansonia digitata I. (Bombacaceae) 4, 25,
51-52, 72,79, 84, 176, 413
Adenostoma fasciculatum Hook. & Am.
(Rosaceae) 103
Adesmia spinosissima Meyen & Vogel
(Leguminosae-Papilionoideae) 82
Aegilops speltoides Tausch, (Gramineae) 34
A.squarrosa lL. 34
Aeschnomene virginica (L.) Britton, Sterns &
Poggenb. (Leguminosae-Papilionoideae)
Table 26
Aesculus hippocastanum L.
(Hippocastanaccac) 224
Agathophora alopecuroides (Del.) Fenzl ex
Bunge (Chenopodiaceae) 82
AGAVACEAE Table 4; 69, 397
Agave (Agavaceac) 196, 265, 409
A. cerulata Trel. 189
A. fourcroydes Lem. 265
A, lophantha Schiede 277
A, sisalana Perrine Table 16, 17; 14, 265
Ageratina riparia L. (Compositac) Table 26
Agropyron junceum P.Beauv. (Gramineae)
Table 26; 112
A. repens (L.) P.Beauv. = Elymus repens 401
Agrostis tenuis Sibth. (Gramincac) 400
Agrostis stolonifera I. x Polypogon
monspeliensis (L.) Del. 34
Ajuga remota Wall. ex Benth. (Labiatac) 340
AIZOACEAE Table 4
Albizia saman (Jacg.) F.Muell. (Leguminosae-
Mimosoidcae) 234
Aleurites (Euphorbiaccae) Table 19, 20
Alexa (Leguminosac-Mimosoideae) 22
A. leiopetala Sandwith 22
Alhagi maurorom Medik. (Leguminosae-

Papilionoideac) 201
Taxonomic Index

Alhagi pseudalhagi Desv.= A. maurorum

Medik. 201
Allium (Alliaceae) 18, 82
A.cepal. 179
Alloteropsis semialata (R.Br.) Hitchc.
(Gramineae) 90
Alnus (Betulaceae) 224, 241
A. formosana Makino 344
Alstroemeria (Alstroemeriaceae) 41
Althaea rosea Cav. (Malvaceae) 38
AMARANTHACEAE Table 4; 155
Amaranthus (Amaranthaceae) 172, 221, 259,
295
A. caudatus L.. 152,173
A, cruentus L. 173
A, hybridus L. 173
A, hypochondriacus L. 173
A. powellii S. Watson 173
A. quitensis Kunth 173
Ambrosia maritima L. (Compositae) 339
A senegalensis DC. = A. maritima 339
Ambherstia (Leguminosae-Caesalpinioideae) 51
Ammannia (Lythraceae) 345
Amorphophallus (Araceae) 306
A. konjak K. Koch 131, 306
Amsinckia (Boraginaceae) 335
AMYRILIDACEAE 313
Anabasis setifera Mog. (Chenopodiaceae) 201
ANACARDIACEAE 85, 288
Anacardium orientale L. (Anacardiaceae) 179
Anadenanthera (Leguminosae-Mimosoideae)
408
Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. (Bromeliaceae)
203, 324
Ananas sativus (Lindl) Schult, f. = A, comosus
324
ANGIOSPERMOPHYTAE = ANTHOPHY TA
Table 3; 33
Angraecum sesquipedale Thouars
(Orchidaceae) 51
Aniba duckei Kosterm. (Lauracgae) 300
A. pretiosa (Mez.) Kosterm. 300

461

Aniba rosaeodora Duke 300

Anogeissus latifolia (DC.) Wall. ex Guill.& Perr.
(Combretaceae) Table 18
Anthemis (Compositae) 401
ANTHOPHYTA Table 3; 33
Anthyllis cystisoides L. (Leguminosae-
Papilionoideac) 80
APIACEAE, sce UMBELLIFERAE 36
Apium graveolens L. (Umbelliferae) 411, 412
var. dulce (Mill.) DC. 179
APOCYNACEAE Table 23, 24, 25
Arachis hypogea L. (Leguminosae-
Papilionoideae) Table 19, 20; 14, 142, 178
Arceuthobium (Viscaceae) 401
Arctostaphylos glandulosa Eastw. (Ericaceae)
103
A. uva-ursi (L.) Spreng, 324
Areca (Palmag) 91
A. catechu L. 405
ARECACEAE, see PALMAE 36
Arenga pinnata (Wurmb.) Merr. (Palmace)
179, 201, 277
A. saccharifera Labill. = A, pinnata 277
Argania sideroxylon Roem. & Schult. = A.
spinosa (Sapotaceae) 187
A, spinosa (L.) Skeels 110, 187
Aristida (Gramineae) 171
A. purpurea Nutt. 84
A. sieberana Trin. 214
Armoracea rusticana Gaernt., Mey. & Scherb.
(Ctruciferae) 199
Artemisia (Compositag) 79, 88
A, absinthiom L. 195
A. californica Less. 102
Arthocnemum macrostachyum (Moric.)
C.Koch (Chenopodiaceae) 398
Artocarpus (Moraceae) 63
A, altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg 205
ASCLEPIADACEAE Table 4, 24, 25; 85
Asclepias (Asclepiadaceae) 276
A, curasssavica L. 114
A, syriacaL. 114
462

Aspalanthus linearis (Burm.f.) R. Dahlgren

(Leguminosae-Papilionoideae) 5, 188
Asparagus officinalis I, (Asparagaceae) 39,

154,179
ASTERACEAE, sce COMPOSITAE 35
Astracantha gammifera (Lab.) Podlech
(Leguminosac-Papilionoideac) Table 18
A. microcephala (Willd.) Podlech Table 18;
78
Astragalus (Leguminosae-Papilionoidcae) 82,
335, 399, 400
A, adscendens Boiss. & Hausskn. 201, 228
A. gummifera Lab. = Astracautha gummifera
Table 18
A. microcephalus Willd. = Astracantha
microccephala Table 18, 78
Astrocaryum murumuru C. Mart. (Palmae)
Table 19. 185
A, tucuma C Mant. 185
A, vulgare C Mart. 185
Atriplex (Chenopodiaceac) 182, 221, 399
A, canescens (Pursh) Nutt. 397
A, cuneata A Nelson 397
A. gardneria D.Dietr. 397
A. halimus L. 199
A, hortensis L.. 152
A. nummularia Lindl. 13
A. polycarpa (Torr.} S$. Watson 409
A. vesicaria Howard 87
Atropa belladonna L. (Solanaceae) Table 23;
26,221,412
Attalea funifera C.Mart. (Palmae) 265, 277
A. insignis Drude 86
Auncoumea klaineana Pierre (Burseraceae) 230
Autranella congolensis (De Wild.) Chev.
{Sapotaceac) 233
Avena (Gramincac) 167
A. abyssinica A.Rich. 167
A. byzautina C.Kech 167
A. fatua 1. = A. sativa subsp. fatua 167
A.nudal. 167

Taxonomic Index

Avena sativa L. 167

subsp. fatwa (L.) Thell. 167
subsp. sativa 167
A. strigosa Schreb. 167
Avicennia (Avicenniaceac) 91
A. marina (Forssk.) Vierh. 199
Azadirachta indica A Juss. (Meliaceae) 342

Baccharis (Compositae) 78, 259

B. salicifolia (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers. 259
Baikiaea insignis Benth. (Leguminosac-
Caesalpinioideac) 232
Baillonella toxisperma Pierre (Sapotaceac) 235
Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. (Balanitaceae)
38, 339, 410, 411
B. roxburghii Planch. 37
Bambusa (Gramineae) 239
B. arundinacea (Retz) Willd. = B, bambos
239
B. bambos (L.) Voss 239, 240, 272, 393
B. blumeana Schult. & Schult.f. 240
B. multiplex (Lour.) Raeusch. ex Schult. &
Schult.f. 393
B. oldhamii Munro 183
Banisteriopsis (Malphigiaceac) 408
Banksia ornata F.Muell. ex Meissn. (Proteaceae)
86
Basella alba L. = B. rubra (Basellaceae) 152
B.rubra L. 152
Bauhinia (Leguminosae-Caesalpinioideae) 51
B. megalandra Griseb. 51
Bertholletia excelsa Bonpl. (Lethcidaceae) S,
122,178
Beta (Chenopodiaceae) 85
B. vulgaris L. Table 10; 94, 154, 198
subsp. maritima (L.) Arcang. 152, 182
subsp. vulgaris 131, 201
Betula Betulaceae) 241
B.lenta [.. 190, 326
B. papyrifera Marshall Table 12; 232
BETULACEAE 48
BIGNONIACEAE 51
Taxonomic Index

Bixa orellana L. (Bixaccae) Table 10; 292, 409

Boehmeria (Urticaceae) Table 16
B nivea (L.) Gaudich. Table 17; 265
Boerhaavia erecta L. (Nyctaginaceae) 227
BOMBACACEAE 51, 77, 253
Bombax (Bombacaceae) 51
BORAGINACEAE Table 4
Borago officinalis L. (Boraginaceae) Table 20
Borassus flabellifera L. Palmae) 179, 201,
267,278
Boscia senegalensis (Pers.) Lam. ex Poir.
(Capparaceag) 253
Boswellia (Burseraceag) 302
B. sacra Flueck. 302
Brachiaria (Gramineae) 171
B. decumbens Stapf 98
B. deflexa (Schum.) Robyns 172
B. ramosa (L.) Staph 172
Brachychiton (Sterculiaceae) 189
B. paradoxus Schott 414
Brachystegia (Leguminosae-Caesalpinioideae)
79
Brassica (Cruciferae) 85, 144, 207
B. campestris L. = B.rapa 344
B. hirta Moench. Table 20
B. juncea (L.) Czerniak. 186, 199, 200, 401
B.napus L. Table 19, 20; 113, 114, 186
B.nigra (L.) KKoch 200
B. oleracea L. 40, 154
B. oleracea L. Botrytis Group 179
B. oleracea L. Capitata Group 182
B.rapaL. 114,344
B. rapa L. Rapifera Group 78
BRASSICACEAE, see CRUCIFERAE 35
Brocchia dichotoma Mauri ex Ten. =
Simmeondsia chinensis (Simmondsiaceae)
Table 2; 33
BROMELIACEAE Table 4
Bromus burkartii Miinoz = B, mango
(Gramineae) 171
B. mango Desv. 171
B. rubens L. 84

463

Broussonetia (Moraceae) 274

B. papyrifera (L.) Vent. 241, 265
Brownea (Leguminosae-Caesalpinioideae) 51
Bruguiera (Rhuizophoraceae) 91
Buddleja lindleyana Fort. (Buddlejaceae) 337
Bursera (Burseraceae) 259
BURSERACEAE 259, 286
BUTACEAE Table 4
Butea frondosa Roxb. ex Willd.
(Leguminosag-Papilionoideac) 226
B. monosperma (Lam.) Taub. 226
Butyrospermum parkii (C.F.Gaertn.) Hepper =
Vitellaria paradoxa (Sapotaceae) 185
BUXACEAE Table 2; 30, 313
tribe SIMMONDSIACIEALE Table 2
Buxus californica Hort.ex Baill.= Simmondsia
chinensis (Simmondsiaceac) Table 2
B. chinensis Link = Simmondsia chinensis
Table 2; 33

CACTACEAE Table 4; 51, 69, 77, 90

Caesalpinia (Leguminosae-Cagsalpinioideae) 51
C. brasiliensis L. = C, violacea 292
C. cristal. 226
C. echinata Lam. 292
C.sappanL. 292
C. violacea (Mill.) Standl. 292
Cajannus cajan (L.) Millsp. (Leguminosae-
Papilionoideae) 180, 226
Calamus (Palmae) 238
C. caesius Blume 238
C. egregius Burret 238
C. manan Miq. 238
C. merrillii Becc. 238
C. optimus Bec, 238
C. ornatus Blume 238
C. ovoideus Thwaites ex Trimen 238
C. trachycoleus Becc. 238, 239
Calathea lutea (Aubl.) G.Mey. (Morantaceae)
304
Callistemon (Myrtaceae) 397
Calluna vulgaris (L.) Hull (Ericaceae) 224
464

Calotropis (Asclepiadaceac) 276

C. gigantea (L.) W.T.Aiton 265, 412
C. procera (Aiton) W.T. Aiton 238, 265, 394
Camelina sativa (L.} Crantz (Cruciferae) Table
20
Camellia (Theaceae) 63
C. sinensis (L.) Kuntze 14, 188, 361
var. assamica (Mast.) Kitam 188
var. sinensis 188
Campsiandra (Leguminosac-Cacsalpinioideae)
96
Camptotheca accuminata Decne. (Cornaceae)
321
Cananga ordorata (Lam.) Hook. f. &
Thomson (Acanthaceae) 301
Canarium (Burseraceae) 178
C. luzonicum (Blume) A.Gray 287
Canavalia (Leguminosac-Papilionoideae) 144
C. ensiformis (L..) DC. 142, 180
C. gladiata (Jacq.) DC. 180
Canna edulis Ker Gawl. (Cannaccae) 78, 133
C. indica L. Table 22; 133, 179
Cannabis (Cannabaceae) 406
C. sativa l.. Table 16
subsp. indica (Lam.) E.Small & Crong. 406
subsp. sativa Table 17; 263, 406, 418
CAPPARACEAE Table 4
Capparis (Capparaceae) 201
Capsicum annuum I. (Solanaccac) Table 10
Caragana (Leguminosae-Papilionoideae) 80, 82
Carapa grandiflora Sprague (Meliaceae) 232
C. guianensis Aubl. 232
C. procera DC. = C, guianensis 232
Carica papaya L. (Caricaceae) 114, 176, 203,
324, 409
Cartudovica palmata Ruiz & Pav.
{Cyclanthaceac) 279
Carthamus tinctorius L. (Compositae) Table
19
Carya ovata (Mill) C.Koch (Juglandaceae}
Table 12

Caryocar nuciferum L.. (Caryocaraceac) 178

Taxonomic Index

CARYOPHYLLACEAE Table 4; 81
CARYOPHYLLALES 30
CARYOPIIYLLIDAE 30
Caryota urens L. (Palmae) 201, 267
Cassia italica (Mill.) Spreng. = Senna italica
(Leguminosae-Cacsalpinioideae) 74
C. vbuusifolia L. = Senna obtusifolia 205,
324, 369
C. senna L. = Senna alexandrina 324
C. sicherana DC. 253
Castanea (Fagaceae) 63, 231
Csativa L.. 290
Castanospermum (Leguminosac-Mimosoideae)
22
C. australe A.Cunn. ex Mundic 21
Castilla clastica Sessé (Moraceae) 288
Casuarina equisetifolia L. (Casuarinaceae)
224
C. glauca Sicber 344
CASUARINACEAE 48
Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don
(Apocynaceae) Table 23; 324, 328, 329
Ceiba (Bombacaceae) S1
C. acuminata (S.Watson) Rose 85
C. pentandra (L.) Gaertn. Table 16; 265, 276
Celtis (Ulmaceae) 253
C.australisL. 1
C. integrifotia Lam. 1
Cenchrus (Gramineae) 171
C. biflorus Roxb. 172
C. ciliaris L 14
Centropodia glauca (Nees) Cope (Gramineae)
76
Cepaelis ipecacuanha (Brot.) Rich. =
Psychotria ipecacuanha (Rubiaceae)
Table 23
Ceratonia siligna I. (Leguminosac-
Caesalpinioideac) Table 18; 276, 282
Cereus (Cactaceae) 51
Ceriops (Rhizophoraceae) 91
Ceroxyton (Palmac) 66, 82
Taxonomic Index

Chamaecrista (Leguminosae-Caesalpinioideae)
96
Chamaedorea (Palmae) 238
C, elatior Mart. 238
Chamaerops humilis L. (Palmae) 267
CHENCPODIACEAE Table 4; 78, 80, 81, 84,
85,90, 155, 182, 399
Chenopodium (Chenopodiaceae) 172. 221
C. album L. 174
C. berlandieri Moq. subsp. nnttalliae (Saff.)
Wilson & Heiser 175
C. nutailiae Saff. = C. berlandieri subsp.
nuttalliae 175
C. pallidicaule Aellen 175
C. quinoa Willd. 105, 124, 174, 405
Chlorophora excelsa (Welw.) Benth. &
Hook f. = Milicia excelsa (Moraceae) 232
C. regia A. Chev. = Maclura regia 232
C. tinctoria (L.) Gaud. = Maclura tinctoria
292
Chondrilla juncea L.. (Compositae) Table 26
Chondrodendron tomentosum Ruiz & Pav.
(Menispermaceae) 336
Chrysanthemum (Compositae) 93, 95
C. indicum L. 340
C. vulgare (L.) Bernh. 411
Chrysophyllun maytenoides Mart. Sapotaceac)
232
Cicer arietinum L. (Leguminosag-
Papilionoideae) 181
Cinchona officinalis L.. (Rubiaceae) Table 23;
323
C. ledgeriana Bern.Moens ex Trimen Table
23
Cinnamomum (Lauraceae) 63
C. camphora (L.) ).Presl 300
C. verum J.Presl 195, 199, 301
C. zeylanicum Blume = C. verum 301
x Citroncirus webberi JW Ingram &
H.E.Moore (Rutaceae) 41
Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Mansf.
{Cucurbitaceae) 14, 130, 189, 367

465

Citrulus vulgaris Eckl. & Zeyh. = C, lanatus

367
Citrus (Rutaceae) 14, 300, 302
C. aurantivm L. 301
var. amara Kost = C, aurantium 301
C. maxima (Burm.) Merr. 176
C. reticulata Blanco 28, 176
Cleome gynandra L. (Capparidaceae) 182, 401
CLUSIACEAE, see GUTTIFERAE 36
Cocos (Palmae) 63,91
C. nucifera L. Table 17, 19, 20; 187, 201,
265
Coclospermum decipiens Baill. (Rubiaceae)
400
Coffea arabica L. (Rubiaceae) 14, 109, 188
C, canephora Pierre ex Frohner 188
C. liberica W_Ball ex Iliern 188
Coix (Gramineae) 171
C. lacryma-jobi L.. 172
Cola (Sterculiaceac) 189, 405
COLCHICACEAE Table 23
Colchicum autumnale L. (Colchicaceae) Table
23;324
Colocasia esculenta (L..) Schott (Araceae)
Table 22; 63, 133, 179, 183
Colophospermum mopane (Benth.) Léonard
(I.eguminosae-Caesalpinioideag) 227
Colutea abyssinica Kunth & Bouché
(Leguminosae-Papilionoideae) 37
C. abyssinica sensu Bak. non Kunth &
Bouché 37
C. istria Mill. 37
C. istria sensu Bak. = C. abyssinica 37
COMBRETACEAE 288
Combretodendron macrocarpum (P.Beauv.)
Keay = Petersianthus macrocarpus
(Lecithidaceag) 232
Combretum aculeatum Vent. (Combretaceae)
82
C. adenogonium Steud. ex A.Rich. 410
C fragrans F.Hoffm. = C. adenogonium 410

Commelina (Commelinaceae) 84
466

Commiphora (Burseraceae) 410

C. myrrha (Nees) Engl. 301
COMPOSITAE Table 4, 25; 35, 78, 81, 85,
132, 258, 313, 323
tribe CYANAREAE 258
Condalia globosa I. M.Johnst. (Rhamnaceae)
409
Conium maculatwn L. (Umbelliferae) 146,
319, 334
Conocarpus lancifolivs Engl. & Diels
(Combretaceae) 83
Conopodium majus (Gouan) Loret
(Umbelliferae) 178
CONVOLVULACEAE Table 4

Convolvulus tricolor L. (Convolvulaceae) 340

Copaifera (Leguminosac-Caesalpinioideac) 286

C. langsdorffii Desf. 260

C. multijuga Hayne 260
Copernicia cerifera (Armada) Mart. = C.
prunifera (Palmae) 66
C. prunifera (Mill.) H.Moore 66, 86, 276,
303
Corallorrhiza (Orchidaceae) 99
Corchorus (Tiliaceae) 265
C. capsularis L. Table 16, 17
C. olitorius L. Table 16; 152
Cordeauxia edulis Hemsl. (Leguminosae-
Caesalpinioideae) 178, 292, 294
Coriandrum sativam L. (Umbelliferae) Table
20; 199
Coriaria arborea Lind. (Coriariaceac) 224,
228
CORIARIACEAE 224
Corylus (Corylaceae) 178
Couma macrocarpa Barb.Rodr.
(Apocynaccae) 405
Coursetia (Leguminosae-Papilionoideae) 259
C. glandulosa A.Gray 226, 250
Crambe abysinica R.E.Fr. = C, hispanica
(Cruciferae) 260
C, hispanica L. Table 20; 260
CRASSULACEAE Table 4; 90

Taxonomic Index

+ Crataegomespilus (Rosaceae) 40, 41

Crataegus (Rosaceae) 41
C. monogyna Jacq. 40,392
Cratoxylon (Guttiferae) 91
Crescentia cujete L. (Bignoniaceae) 51
Cressa cretica L. (Convolvulaceae) 199
Crithmum maritimum L. (Umbelliferae) 182
Crocus (Iridaceae) 18, 78
C. sativus L. Table 10; 291, 292, 319
Crotalaria (Leguminosae-Papilionoideae) 33,
333
section CALYCINAE 33
C. juncea L. Table 16,17; 32,33
Croton (Euphorbiaceae) 232
CRUCIFERAE 35, 144, 146, 288, 333
Cucurbita foetidissima Kunth (Cucurbitaceae}
13,85
C.pepoL. 179
CUCURBITACEAE Table 4; 178
Cuminum cyminum L. (Umbelliferae) 319
Cuphea (Lythraceae) Table 20; 260
Curcuma domestica Val. = C. longa
(Zingiberaceae) 293
C. longa L. (Zingiberaceae) Table 10; 179,
200, 293
C. zedoaria (Christm.) Roscoe Table 22
Cyamopsis tetragonolobus (L.YTaub.
(Leguminosae-Papilionoideae) Table 18;
276, 282
Cydamen (Primulaceae) 78
CYCLANTHACEAE 279
Cymbopogon flexnosus (Steud.) W. Watson
(Gramineae) 300
Cynara scolymus L. (Compositae) 179
Cydonia oblonga Mill. (Rosaceae) 177
CYPERACEAE Table 4
tribe CYPEREAE Table 4
tribe FIMBRISTYLIDEAE Table 4
Cyperus (Cyperaceae) 410
C. difformis L. 345
C. esculentus L. 178, 179
C. papyrus L. 261,272
Taxonomic Index

Dactyloctenium (Gramineae) 171

Daemonorops (Palmae) 238, 286
Dalbergia (Leguminosae-Papilionoideac) 226
D. melanoxylon Guill. & Perr. 230
DATISCACEAE 48
Daucus carota L. (Umbelliferae) Table 20; 85,
179
Delonix (Leguminosae-Caesalpinioideac) 51
Delphinium (Ranunculaceae) 335
Dendrocalamus (Gramineae) 239
D. asper (Schult f,) Backer ex Heyne 183
D. latiflorus Munro 183
D. strictus (Roxb.) Nees 239, 240, 272
Dendrosenecio (Compositae) 72
Derris (Leguminosae-Papilionoideae) 340
D. elliptica (Roxb.) Benth. 341
D. ferrugiana (Roxb.) Benth. 341
Deschampsia caespitosa (L.) P.Beauv.
(Gramineae) 400
Desmoncus (Palmae) 238
Dianthus (Caryophyllaceae) 119
Dicorynia guianensis (Leguminosac-
Caesalpinioideae) 232
DICOTYLEDONAE Table 3; 33, 288
DIDIEREACEAE Table 4; 77
Diefffenbachia (Araceae) 335
Digitalis lanata Ehrh. (Scrophulariaceae) 324
D. purpurea L. 324
Digitaria (Gramineae) 171
D. cruciata (Nees ex Steud.) A.Camus 172
D. decumbens Stent 98
D. sanguinalis (L.) Scop. 172
Dioscorea (Dioscoreaceae) 3, 18, 63, 78, 183,
413
D. deltoidea Wall. 328
D. elephantipes (L’Hér.) Engl. 411
D. esculenta (Lour.) Burkill Table 22
D. opposita Thunb. 411
Dioscoreophyllum camminsii (Stapf) Diels
(Menispermaceae) 202
Diospyros (Ebenaceag) 255
DIPTEROCARPACEAE 185, 286

467

Dipteryx odorata (Aubl.) Willd.

(Leguminosae-Papilionoideae) 234, 404
Distichlis (Gramineae) 171
D. palmeri (Vassey) Fassett ex LM. Johnst.
171
D. spicata (L.) Greene 399
Dracaena (Dracaenaceae) 286
Dryobalanops (Dipterocarpaceag) 230
Duboisia hopwoodii (F.Muell.) Pax & K.Hoffm.
(Solanaceae) 405
Durio (Bombacaceae) 51
Dyera costulata (Miq.) Hook.f. (Apocynaceac)
405

Echinochloa (Gramineag) 171

E. colona (L.) Link 172
E. crus-galli (L.) P.Beauv. 345
Echinochloa frumentacea Link 172
E. oryzicola Vasinger = E, oryzoides 92
E. oryzoides (Ard.) Fritsch 92, 172
Echium (Compositag) 325
Eichhomia crassipes (C.Mart.) Solms-Laub.
(Pontederiaceag) Table 26; 261, 398, 402
ELAEAGNACEAE 48
Elaeis (Palmae) 91
E. guineensis Jacq. Table 19, 20; 52, 91, 123,
140, 186
Elaeodendron buchananii (Loes.) Loes.
(Celastraceae) 335
Eleocharis dulcis (Burm.f.) Hensch. Cyperaceae)
179
Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton
(Zingiberaceae) 405
Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn. (Gramineae)
155
Elymus lanceolatus (Scribn. & 1.G.Sm.) Gould
(Gramineae) 84
E. repens L. 401
Emex spinosa (L.) Campd. (Polygonaceae) 189
Encelia farinosa Torr. (Compositae) 226
Endospermum macrophyllum Pax & Hoffm.
(Euphorbiaceae) 232
468

Entandrophragma cylindricum (Sprague)

Sprague (Meliaceae) 230
Eperua falcata Aubl. (Leguminosae-
Cagsalpinioidcae) 51,78
Epicampes macroura Kunth = Muhlenbergia
macroura (Gramineae) 278
Epipogium (Orchidaceae) 99
Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter (Gramineae) 172
E. tremula Steud. 214
Eremophila gilesii F. Muell. (Myoporaceae)
397
E. maculata (Ker Gawl.) F.Muell. 222,335
Erica (Ericaccac) 224
E. arborea L. 113
ERICACEAE 81, 99, 224
Eriogonum ovalifolium Nutt. (Polygonaceae)
399
Erodium crassifolium L’Hér. (Geraniaceae)
189
E. hirtum (Forssk) Willd. = E. crassifolium
189
Eryngium campestre (Umbeliferac) 357
Erysimum (Cruciferae) 95
Erythrina (Leguminosae-Papilionoideae) 51
Erythrophleum guineense D.Don = E,
suaveolens (Leguminosac-Caesalpinioideae)
233
E. ivorense A. Chev. 233
E. suaveolens (Guill. & Perr.) Brenan 233
ERYTHROXYLACEAE Table 23
Erythroxylum coca Lam. (Erythroxylaceac)
Table 23; 324, 405, 408
E. novagranatense (Morris) Hieron. 405
Espeletia (Compositae) 72
Eucalyptus (Myitaceae) Table 12; 14, 85, 86,
87, 241, 259, 273, 286, 301, 303, 393, 396,
397
E. amygdalina Labill. 301
E. camaldulensis Dehnh. 40, 301, 344
E. citriodora [look 303
E. dives Schauer 303
E. exserta FMuell. 303

Taxonomic Index

Eucalyptus globulus Labill. 241, 301, 303

E. grandis W.Iill ex Maiden 241
E. polybractea R.Baker 303
E. radiata Sieber ex DC. 303
ii R.Baker 303
E. staigeriana F.Mucll. ex Bailey 303
E. viridis R Baker 303
Euchiaena = Zea (Gramineae) 162
EUDICOTS 30
Eugenia tumida Duthie (Myrtaceae) 409
Eulaliopsis binata (Retz.) C.E. Hubb,
(Gramineae) 272
Eupatorium japonicum Thunb. ex A. Murray

E. smi

{Compositac) 54
Euphorbia (Buphorbiaceae) Table 20; 30, 80,
335,393
E, antisyphilitica Zucc. 303
E. enterophora Drake 78
E. hybermaL. 338
E. nigrispina N.E.Br. 393
EUPHORBIACEAE Table 2, 4, 25; 30, 77, 80,
90, 232, 313
Exogonium purga Wender. = Ipomoea purga

{Convolvulaceae) 286

FABACEAE, sce LEGUMINOSAE 33, 36

FABALES, see LEGUMINALES 33
FABOIDEAE, sec LEGUMINOSAE subfamily
PAPILIONQIDEAE 33
FAGACEAE 289
Fagopyrum (Polygonaceae) 172
F. dibotrys (D.Don) Hara 175
F. esculentum Moench. 340
subsp. ancestralis 175
subsp. esculentum 175
F. tartaricum (L.) Gaertn. 175
Fagraea racemosa Jack & Wall. (Loganiaceae)
409
Fagus (Fagaccac) 38,177,241
Faidherbia albida (Del) A.Chev.
(Lecguminosae-Mimosoideae) 25, 84, 213
Taxonomic Index

Fallopia japonica (Houtt.) Ronse Decr.

(Polygonaceae) 53, 402
Ferocactus wislizenii (Engelm.)} Britton & Rose
(Cactaceae) 189
Ferula (Umbelliferae) 258
F. assa-foetida L. 413
Festuca ovina L. (Gramineae) 400
F.rubraL. 40
Ficus (Moraceae) 18, 51,223
F. caricaL. 52,203
F. elastica Roxb. ex Homem. 287
F. petiolaris Kunth subsp. palmeri (S. Watson)
Felger & C.H.Lowe 259
Filipendula ulmaria L. (Rosaceae) 325
FLACOURTIACEAE Table 25
Fouquieria splendens Engelm. (Fouquieriaceae)
80,392
FOUQUIERIACEAE 77
Fragaria x ananassa (Duchesne) Guédes
(Rosaceae) 176
Fraxinus (Oleaceae) 241
F. americana L. Table 12
F.ormus L. 131, 201, 228
Fritillaria pudica Spreng. (Liliaceae) 102
Funtumia elastica (Preuss) Stapf (Apocynaceae)
12
Furcraea (Agavaceag) Table 16
TF. foetida (L.) Haw. 265, 397

Galanthus nivalis L. (Amaryllidaceae) 113

Galega officinalis L. (Leguminosae-

Papilionoideae) 318

Galium aparine L. (Rubiaceae) 401

G.verum L. 203

Garcinia hanburyi Hook.f. (Guttiferac) 290

Gardenia jasminoides Ellis (Rubiaceae) 198,

292

GARRYACEAE Table 2

Gastrolobium {Leguminosae-Papilionoideae)
222

Gaultheria procumbens L. (Ericaceae) 325

469

Gelsemium sempervirens (L.) I.St.Hil.

{Loganiaceae) 224
Genista (Leguminosae-Papilionoideae) 78
Gentiana (Gentianaceae) 324
GERANIACEAE Table 4
Geranium robertianum L. (Geraniaceae) 27
Gerbera (Compositae) 84
Geum (Rosaceae) 95
Gigantochloa (Gramineae) 239
G. albociliata (Munro) Kurz 183
G. levis (Blanco) Mer. 183, 239
Gladiolus (Iridaceac) 78
G. segetum Ker-Gawl. 102
Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp.
(Leguminosae-Papilionoideae) 391
Glyceria maxima (Hartm.) Holmb. (Gramineae)
92
Glycine max (L.) Merr. (Leguminosae-
Papilionoideae) Table 19, 20; 13, 179
Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (Leguminosae-
Papilionoideae) 340-
Gmelina arborea Roxb. (Verbenaceae) 241
Gonystylis bancanus (Miq.) Kurz
(Thymelaeaceae) 229
Gossypium (Malvaceae) Table 16, 19, 20; 14,
42,187, 264
G. arborewm L. 42
G. barbadense L. = G. vitifolium 42
G. herbaceum L. 42
G. hirsutum L. 42
G. vitifolium Lam. Table 17; 42
GRAMINEAE Table 4; 22, 35, 48, 81, 84, 88,
145, 155
subfamily ARUNDINOIDEAE Table 4
subfamily BAMBUSOIDEAE 239
tribe BAMBUSEAE 239
subfamily CHLORIDOIDEAE Table 4
subfamily ERAGROSTOIDEAE Table 4
subfamily PANICOIDEAE Table 4
Grindelia camporum E.Greene (Compositae)
341
Guaiacum (Zygophyllaceae) 232, 233
470

Guizotia abyssinica (L. f.) Cass. (Compositae)

Table 19, 20

Gunnera (Gunneraceae) 96

GUNNERACEAE 48

Gutierrezia sarothrae (Pursh) Britton & Rusby

{Compositae) 344

GUTTIFERAE 36, 288

Gymuema sylvestre (Retz.) Sm.

(Asclerpiadaceae) 202

Gynandropsis gynandra (L.) Brig. = Cleome

gynandra (Capparidaceae) 182, 401

Gynerium sagittatum (Aubl.) P. Beauv.

(Gramineae) 409

Haberlea rhodopensis Friv. (Gesneriaceae) 69

Haematoxylon (Leguminosae-Caesalpinioideae)
292
H, campechianum L. 292
Halimodendron halodendron (Pall.) Voss
(Leguminosae-Papilionoideae) 82
Halogeton (Chenopodiaceae) 399
Haloxylon (Chenopodiaceae) 80, 399
HH. ammodendron (C.A. Mey.) lljin 90
IL. aphyllum (Mink.) Iljin 78, 90
H. persicum Bunge ex Boiss. & Buhse 90
H. salicornicum (Moq.) Bunge ex Boiss. 201
Hammada salicornia = Haloxylon salicornicum
(Chenopodiaceae) 201
Harpagophytum procumbens DC. ex Meisn.
(Pedaliaceae) 85
Hedeomna pulegivides (L.) Pers. (Labiatae) 410
Hedera helix L. (Araliaceae) 39
Helianthus annuus L. (Compositae) Table 19,
20,154,178
Helianthus tuberosus L. 38, 78, 132, 154, 261,
305
Heliotropium (Boraginaceag) 327, 335
H. bacciferum Forssk. 327
H. ramosissimum {Lehm.) Sieb, ex A.DC.
327
Heracleum montegazzianwn Sommier & Levier
(Umbelliferae) 335

Taxonomic Index

Heteranthera limosa (Sw.) Willd.

(Pontederiaceae) 343
Heteropogon contortus (L.) P. Beauv. ex Roem.
& Schult. (Gramineae) 87
H. triticens (R.Br.) Stapf 189
Hevea (Euphorbiaceae) 63, 287
H. benthamiana Muell.-Arg. 287
H. brasiliensis (A.Juss.) Muell.-Arg. 12, 124,
287
H. guianensis Aubl. 3036
Hibiscus (Malvaceae) Table 16; 51, 226
H. cannabinus L. Table 17
H. manihot L. = Abelmoschus manihot 274
H. sabdariffa L. Table 17; 179, 188, 367
Hordeum (Gramineae) Table 22; 164
H. distichon L. 164
H. spontaneum (K.Koch) Korn 164
H. vulgare L. Table 22; 164
Humulus lupulus L. (Cannabaceae) 190
Hyacinthus (Hyacinthaceae) 95
H. orientalis L. 94
Hybanthus floribundus (Lindl) F.Muell.
(Violaceae) 399
Hyoscyamus niger L. (Solanaceae) 95, 412
Hyphaene thebaica (L.) C.Mart. (Palmae) 253

Hex paraguariensis A.St.Hil. (Aquifoliaceae)

188
Hlicium (Illiciaceae) 340
L anisatom L. 337
Imperata cylindrica (L.) P.Beauv. (Gramineae)
401
Indigofera (Leguminosae-Papilionoideae) 144,
291, 292
Inula (Compositag) 340
Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. (Convolvulaceae}
Table 22; 133, 179, 183, 345
I. purga (Wender.) Hayne 286
Iris (Iridaceag) 133
I. pseudocorus L. 92
Isatis tinctoria L. (Cruciferae) 291, 409
Taxonomic Index

Isoberlinia globiflora (Benth.) Greenway =

Julbemardia globiflora (Leguminosac-

Caesalpinioideae) 234

Jasminum officinale L. (Oleaceae) 301, 302

Jatropha curcas L. (Euphorbiaceae) 260
Jessenia = Oenocarpus (Palmae) 227
J. bataua (C.Mart.) Burret = Oenocarpus
batuana. 185
Juglans (Juglandaceae) 63, 178
J. regia lL. 38, 344
Julbernardia globiflora (Benth.) Troupin
(Leguminosae-Caesalpinioidcae) 234
Juncus effusus L. (Juncaceae) 92
Jussiaea repens L. = Ludwigia repens

(Onagraceae) 91

Kalmia latifolia L. (Ericaceae) 224

Khaya (Meliaceae) 27

Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth. (Bignoniaceac)

51

Kobresia (Cyperaccac) 214

Krugiodendron ferrenm (Vahl) Urb,

(Rhamnaceae) 233

Kyllinga (Cyperaccae) 408

LABIATAE Table 4; 36, 81, 85, 288, 341

Lactuca sativa L. (Compositac) 152, 182, 344
Laguncularia (Combretaceae) 91
LAMIACEAE, see LABIATAE 36
Landolphia (Apocynaceac) 12
Lantana camara L. (Verbenaceae) 401
Larrea divaricata Cav. (Zygophyllaceae) 83
subsp, tridentata {(DC.) Felger & C.H.Lowe
226
Latipes (Gramineae) 171
Lathyrus (Leguminosae-Papilionoideae) 144
L. sativus L. 144
Launaea arborescens (Batt.) Maire
(Compositae) 82
Laurus nobilis L. (Lauraceae) 199, 412
Lavandula (Labiatae) 301

471

Lawsonia inermis L. (Lythraceae) 291, 292,

409, 410
Ledum = Rhododendron (Ericaceae) 224
LEGUMINALES 33
LEGUMINOSAE 33, 36, 48, 81, 95, 96, 110,
131, 144, 145, 176, 288, 292, 306, 313
subfamily CAESALPINIOIDEAE 51, 96
tribe CAESALPINIEAE 96
tribe CASSIEAE 96
subfamily MIMOSOIDEAE 48, 51, 79, 96
tribe MIMOSEAE 97
subfamily PAPILIONOIDEAE Table 23, 25;
33,48,97
tribe CROTALARIEAE 33
tribe DIPTERYXEAE 97
tribe EUCHRESTEAE 97
tribe SWARTZIEAE 97
Leontice leontopetalum L. (Berberidaceae)
78
Lepidium sativum L. (Cruciferae) 179
Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Forrsk.) Decne.
(Asclepiadaceae) 85
Leptochloa fusca (L.) Kunth (Gramineae)
75,97, 98,399
Leptospermum (Myrtaceae) 397
Lesquerella (Cruciferae) Table 20; 260, 299
Leucaena (Leguminosae-Papilionoidcae) 145
L. leucocephala (Lam.) De Wit 216, 220,
344, 395
Licania (Chrysobalanaceae) 232
L. sclerophylla Mart. Table 19
LILIACEAE Table 4; 313
Lilium (Liliaccae) 40, 41, 119
L. candidum L. 41
L. longiftorum Thumb. 95
Limnanthes alba Hartw. ex Benth.
(Limnanthaceac) Table 20; 260
L. douglasii R.Br. 340
Linum usitatissimum L. (Linaceae} Table 16,
17,19, 20; 265
Liguidambar (Hamamelidaceae) 241

L. formosana Hance 344

472

Liquidamber styracifiua L. 244

Lithops (Aizoaceae) 71
Lobelia (Campanulaceae) 72
LOGANIACEAE Table 23, 24, 25; 224
Lolium multiflorum Lam. (Gramineae) 395
L. perenne L. 41
Lonchocarpus (Leguminosae-Papilionoideae)
340
Lophophora williamsii (Salm-Dyck) J.M.Coult.
(Cactaceac) 408
Ludwigia repens (L.) Sw. (Onagraceae) 91
Luetzelburgia auriculata Allemio) Ducke
{Leguminosae-Papilionoideae) 85
Lunaria annua L. (Cruciferae) Table 20
Lupinus (Leguminosae-Papilionoideae) 335
L. luteus L. Table 23
L. mutabilis Sweet 146, 188
Lychnis (Caryophyllaceae) 95
Lycopersicon cheesmanii Riley (Solanaceae)
75
L. esculentum Mill. Table 23; 75, 93, 179
Lygeum spartum L. (Gramineae) 84, 275

Macadamia (Proteaceae) 14
Maclura regia (A.Chev.) Corner (Moraceae)
232
M. tinctoria (L.) Steud. 292
Macroptilium (Leguminosae-Papilionoideae)
14
Madhuca (Sapotaceae) 185
M, butracea (Roxb.) Macbr. 185
M. latifolia (Roxb.) Macbr. 185
M. longifolia (Koenig.) Macbr. 185
M. motleyana (de Vriese) Baehni 185
Maerua crassifolia Forrsk. (Capparaceae) 253
MALPHIGIALES 30
Malus x domestica Borkh. (Rosaceae) 40, 176
MALVACEAE 51
Mandragora officinarum L. (Solanaceae) 412
Mangifera (Anacardiaccae) 63
M.indicaL. 176,224

Taxonomic Index

Manihot esculenta Crantz (Euphorbiaceae) 63,

133, 162, 179, 183
M. glaziovii Muell.-Arg. 12, 85, 258
Manilkara (Sapotaceae) 405
M. chicle (Pittier) Gilly 403
M. zapota (L.) van Royen 405
Marah gilensis Greene (Cucurbitaceae) 85
Maranta arundinacea L. (Marantaceae) Table
22; 133
Medicago sativa L. (Leguminosae-
Papilionoideac) 41, 216
Melaleuca (Myrtaceae) 397
Melampodium divaricatum DC. (Compositae)
12
Melandrum rubrum (Weigel) Garcke = Silene
dioica (Caryophyllaceae) 27
Melanoxylon {Leguminosae-Caesalpinioideac)
96
Melia azedarach L. (Meliaceae) 340
M. volkensii Giirke 110
Melilotus (Leguminosae-Papilionoideac) 393
Melinis minutiflora Beauv. (Gramineae) 340
Mentha (Labiatac) 199, 398
M. pulegium L. 411
Mespilus germanica L. (Rosaceae) 40, 41
Metroxylon (Palmae) 52
M. ‘ramphii’ 52
M. sagu Rottb Table 22; 52, 78, 91, 184
Milicia excelsa (Welw.) C.C.Berg (Moraceae)
232
Miscanthidium sorghum (Nees) Stapf =
Miscanthus sorghum (Gramineae) 278
Miscanthus sorghum (Nees) Pilg. (Gramineae)
278
Mitragyna ciliata Aubrév. & Pellegr.
(Rubiaceae) 91
Molinia caerulea (L.) Moench. (Gramineae)
80
MONOCOTYLEDONAE Table 3; 288
Mora (Leguminosae-Caesalpinioideae) 230
MORACEAE Table 24, 25, 292
Moraea (Iridiaceae) 221, 334, 401
Taxonomic Index

Morinda citrifolia L. (Rubiaceae) 292

M. reticulata Benth. = Coleospermum
decipiens 400
Moringa (Moringaceae) 399
M. aptera Gaertn. = M, peregrina 410
M. oleifera Lam. Table 20; 203, 399, 410
M. peregrina (Forssk.) Fiori 410
M. pterygosperma Gaertn. = M, oleifera 410
Morrenia odorata (Hook. & Arn.) Lindl.
(Asclepiadaccac) Table 26
Morus alba L. (Moraceae) 182,225
Mubhlenbergia macroura (Kunth) A.Hitchc.
(Gramineac) 265, 278
Musa (Musaceae) 42, 63, 176
M. acuminata Colla 42
M. x paradisiaca L. 182
M. textilis Née Table 17; 265
MYRICACEAE 48
Myristica (Myristicaceae) 63
M. fragrans Houtt. 199
Myroxylon balsamuin (L.) Harms var.
balsamum (leguminosae-Papilionoideac)
287
var. pereirae (Royle) Harms 287
M. pereirae Royle = M, balsamum var,
pereirae 287
MYRTACEAE 81

Narcissus (Amaryllidaceae) 95

Nauclea diderrichii (De Wild.) Merr.

(Rubiaceae) 232

Nelumbo (Nelumbonaceae) 178

Neoglazovia variegata (Arruda) Mez

(Bromelliaceag) Table 16

Neoporteria Thelocephala group (Cactaceae)

71

Neottia nidus-avis (L.) Rich, (Orchidaceae) 99

Nephelium L. (Sapindaceae) 63

Neptunia amplexicaulis Domin

(Leguminosae-Mimosoideae) 400

Nerium oleander L. (Apocynaceae) 81

Nicotiana (Solanaccae) 340, 405

473

Nicotiana glauca (x) N. langsdorfii 42

N. otophora Griseb. 404
N. paniculata L. 403
N. rustica L. 403
N, sylvestris Speg. 404
N. tabacum L. Table 23; 14, 93, 328, 403
N. tomentosiformis Goodsp. 404
N. undulatum Ruiz & Pav. 403
Noaea mucronata (Forssk.) Aschers. &
Schweinf. (Chenopodiaceae) 81
Nolina parryi S.Watson (Dracaenaceae} 81
Nopalea cochenillifera (L.) Salm-Dyck =
Opuntia cochenillifera (Cactaceae) 226
NYCTAGINACEAE Table 4
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis I. (Oleaceae) 392
Nymphaea macrosperma Merr. & Perry
(Nyphaeaceae) 189
Nypa fruticans Wurmb. (Palmas) 91
Nyssa (Cornaceae) 241

Ochroma lagopus Sw. (Bombacaceac) 233

O. pyramidale (Cav.) Urb = O. lagopus 233
Ocotea pretiosa Mez. = Aniba pretiosa
(Lauraceae) 300
Oenocarpus (Palmae) 227
O. batana C Mart. 185
0. distichus Mart. 185
Oenothera biennis L. (Onagraceae) Table 20;
362, 369
Olea (Oleaceae) 76
O. cuspidata Wall. ex G.Don = O, europaea
subsp. cuspidata 34, 35
Olea “cuspidata subsp. europaea” 34
O, europaea L. 34,410,412
subsp. cuspidata (Wall. ex DC.) Ciferri 34
subsp. europaea Table 15, 20; 34, 187
var. europaea 109
var. sylvestris (Mill.) Lehr. 109
Olneya tesota A.Gray (Leguminosac-
Papilioneideac) 409
Oncosperma (Palmae) 91
Opilia campestris Engl. (Opiliaceae) 259
474

Opuntia (Cactaceag) 78
0. cochenillifera (L.) Mill. 226
0. ficus-indica (L.) Mill. 72
Orbignya (Palmae) 260
0, cohune (C.Mart.) Standl. Table 19
O. martiana Barb.Rodr. = QO, phalerata 185,
213
O. oleifera Burret Table 19; 185
O. phalerata C. Mart. Table 19; 87, 185, 213,
227
ORCHIDACEAE Table 4; 99
Orobanche (Scrophulariaceae) 112, 344
Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz (Bignoniaceac)
51
Oryza (Gramineae) 159,171
0. barthii A.Chev. 159, 172
0, glaberrima Steud. Table 7; 159, 172
©. nivara $.D.Sharma & Shastry 59
O. rufipogon Griffith 59, 159
0. sativa L. Table 7, 22; 59, 91, 159, 344,
345
Oryzopsis (Gramineae) 171
O. hymenoides (Roem. & Schult.) Ricker
84
OXALIDACEAE Table 4
Oxalis (Oxalidaceae) 221
O, tuberosa Molina 78

Pachyrhizus erosus (L.) Urb.

(Leguminosae-Papilionoideag) Table 22
Palagquium gutta (Hook.[.) Baill. (Sapotaceae)
287
PALMAE 36, 86, 238, 288
subfamily ARECOIDEAE 238
subfamily CALAMOIDEAE 238
tribe CALAMINAE 238
subfamily CEROXYLOIDEAE 238
Panax ginseng C.Meyer (Araliaceae) 324
P. quinquefolius L.. 324
Panicom (Gramineae) 171
P. miliaceum L. 172

P. sonorum Beal 171

Taxonomic Index

Panicum sumatrense Roth ex Roem. & Schult.

172
P. turgidum Forssk. 390
Papaver somniferum L. (Papaveraceae) Table
23
subsp. somniferum 324, 407
PAPAVERACEAE Table 23; 313
Parkia (Leguminosae-Mimosoideae) 51
Parkinsonia aculeata L. (Leguminosae-
Caesalpinioideac) 80
P. florida (Benth. ex A.Gray) Torr. 80
P. microphylla Torr. 80
Parthenium argentatum A. Gray (Compositae)
12,13, 124, 344
Paspalum (Gramineae) 171
P. notatum Fluegge 98
P. scrobiculatum L. 172
Pastinaca sativa L. (Umbelliferac) 190
Paullinia cupana Kunth (Sapindaceae) 189
Payena leerii (Teijsm. & Binn.) Kurz
(Sapotaceae) 287
Pelargonium (Geraniaceae) 119
Pennisetum (Gramineae) 89, 169
P. glaucum (L.) R.Br. 14, 169
P. violaceum (Lam.) Rich. 169
Perilla frutescens (L.) Britton (Labiatac) Table
19
Persea (Lauraceae) 63
P. americana Mill. 188
Petasites palmata A.Gray (Compositae) 199
Petersianthus macrocarpus (P.Beauv.) Liben
(Lecythidaceae) 232
Petroselenium crispum (Mill.) A.W Hill
(Umbelliferag) Table 20; 411
Phacelia sericea A.Gray (Hydrophyllaceae) 400
Phalaris aquatica I.. (Gramineae) 221
P. arundinacea L. 221
Phalaris caroliniana Walt. 171
P. wberosa L. = P, aquatica 221
Phaseolus (Leguminosae-Papilionoideae) Table
1; 220
P. acutifolivs A.Gray 13
Taxonomic Index

Phaseolus. aureus Roxb. = Vigna radiata

344
P. coccineus L.. 179, 180
P. lunatus L. 179, 180
P. vulgaris L. 97, 180
Phlox drummondii Hook. (Polemoniaceae) 40
Phoenix (Palmae) 91
P. dactylifera L. 50, 52
P. sylvestris (L.) Roxb. 201
Phormium tenax Forst. & Forst.f.
Phormiaceae) Table 16, 17; 265
Phyllanthus (Ephorbiaceae) 259
Phyllostachys edulis (Carr.) Houz. (Gramineae)
183, 184, 240
P. pubescens Mazel ex Houz. = P, edulis 183,
240
Physostigma venenosum Balf. (Leguminosac-
Papilionoideae) 324,336, 411
Phytelephas (Palmae) 306
Phytolacca americana L. (Phytolaccaceae)
142, 294
P. dodecandra L'Hér. 339
Pimpinella anisum L. (Umbelliferae) 195
Pinguicula vulgaris L. (Lentibulariaceae) 203
Piper (Piperaceae) 300
P. betel L. 405
P. nigrum L. 199
PIPERACEAE Table 4
Pistacia (Anacardiaceac) 76
P, lentiscus L. 286, 404
Pisum sativum L. (Legumimosae-
Papilionoideae) 92, 179, 180, 345
var. macrocarpum Ser. 180
Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
(Leguminosae-Caesalpinioideae) 392
PITTOSPORACEAE 81
Pittosporum resiniferum Hemsl.
(Pittosporaceag) 260
PLANTAGINACEAE Table 4
Plantago afra L. (Plantaginaceae) 285
P. psyllium L. = P. afra 285

475

Platanus x hispanica Mill. ex Miinchh.

(Platanaceae) 391
Plectocomia (Palmae) 238
Plectrachne (Gramineae) 286
Ploiarium alternifolium (Vahl) Melch.
(Guttiferae) 91
Poa (Gramineae) 171
POACEAE, sce GRAMINEAE 36
Polianthes tuberosa L. (Agavaceae) 302
POLYGONACEAE Table 4; 155
Polygonum (Polygonaceae) 341
Populus (Salicaceae) Table 12; 224, 241, 259
P. fremontii S. Watson 393, 394
P.nigral. 83
Portulaca (Portulacaceae) 221
P. oleracea L. 74, 152,182, 401
PORTULACACEAE Table 4
Proboscidea peruviana Eselt (Pedaliaceae) 85
Prosopis (Le guminosae-Mimosoideae) 83, 96,
213, 253
PROTEACEAE 81, 86
Protium (Burscraceae) 259
Prunvs (Rosaceae) 63
P. dulcis (Mill.) D.Webb 178, 410
Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L.) DC.
(Leguminosae-Papilionoideac) 5, 187
Psychotria ipecacuanha (Brot.) Stokes
(Rubiaceae) Table 23
Pterocarpus (Leguminosae-Papilionoideae)
286
Punica granatum L. (Punicaceae) 291
Puya (Bromelliaceae) 72

Quercus (Fagaceae) 63, 76, 177, 221, 231, 241

Q.albaL Table 12; 249

Q. coccifera Moench. subsp. caliprinos Webb)

Holmboe 227
subsp. coccifera 226, 227

Q. coccinea Miinchh. 249

Q. falcata Michx. 103

Q.ilex L. 227
476

Quercus infectoria sensu auct. non Olivier =

Q. pubescens 294
Q. petraea (Matt.) Liebl. 249
Q. pseudococcifera Webb = Q. coccifera
subsp. caliprinos 227
Q. pubescens Willd. 294
Q. suberL. 227,249

Ramonda myconi (L.) Reichb. Gesneriaceae)

69
RANUNCULACEAE 35,313
Ranunculus (Ranunculaceae) 35, 401
R. flammula L. 203
Raphanus (Cruciferae) 85
R. raphanistrum L. 113
R, sativus L. 179
Raphia (Palmae) 91
R. farinifera (Gaertn) Hyl. 265, 267
R. hookeri G.Mann & H. Wendl. 28, 277
Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Kurz (Apocynaceae)
324
R. tetraphylla L. 324
R. vomitoria Afzel. 324
Reaumuria (Tamaricaceae) 199
Reseda luteola L. (Resedaceac) 291
RHAMNACEAE 48, 85
Rhamnus purshiana DC. (Rhamnaceag) 324
Rheum x hybridum Murray (Polygonaceae)
152, 190
RHIZOPHORACEAE 288, 289
Rhododendron (Ericaceae) 221, 224
R. ponticum L. 224
Rhus (Anacardiaceae) 288
R. javanica L. 353
R. radicans L. 33
R. vemiciflua Stokes 286
Riccinus communis L. (Euphorbiaceae) Table
19, 20; 369
Richardella dulcifica (Schum. & Thonn.)
Baehni = Synsepalum dulcificam
(Sapotaceae) 202

Taxonomic Index

Robinia pseudoacacia L. (Leguminosae-

Papilionoideae) Table 12; 73, 235
ROSACEAE Table 25; 35, 48, 78, 85, 145,
288, 316, 310
Rothmannia macrophylla (Teysm. & Binn.)
Tirveng. (Rubiaceae) 409
Rubia tinctoria L. (Rubiaceae) 291, 292
RUBIACEAE Table 23; 292
Rubus (Rosaceae) Table 26; 177
R. nitidoides W. Watson 41
R. spectabilis Pursh 182
Rumex acetosa L. (Polygonaceae) 152
Ruscus aculeatus L. (Ruscaccae) 78
Ruta graveolens L. (Rutaceae) 335, 411

Saccharum (Gramineae) 89
S. officinarum L. 14, 78, 131, 201
Salicornia (Chenopodiaceae 75
S. bigelowii Torr. 74, 260
S.europaeal. 5, 182
Salix (Salicaceae) 182, 207, 241, 258,393
S.albaL. 325
Salsola (Chenopodiaceae) 221, 399
S$. baryosma (Roem. & Schult.) Dandy = S.
imbricata 74
S. imbricata Forssk. 74
S. tetrandra Forssk. 81
Salvadora persica L. (Salvadoraceae) 74
Salvia fruticosa Mill. (Labiatae) 81
S.leucophylla Torr. 102-103
S.sclareaL. 301
S. sonomensis S.W.Greene 397
Samanea saman (Tacq.) Merr. = Albizia saman
(Leguminosae-Mimosoideac) 234
Sambucus nigra L. (Caprifoliaceae) 190, 413
Samuela carnerosana Trel. (Agavaceag) Table
16
Sansevieria (Dracaenaceae) 265
Santalum accuminatom (R.Br.) ADC.
(Santalaceae) 14
S. album L. 232, 300, 301, 303
Sapindus (Sapindaceac) 409
Taxonomic Index

Sapium sebiferum (L.) Roxb. (Euphorbiaceae)

Table 19; 260
Saponaria officinalis L. (Caryophyllaceae)
399, 407
S$. vaccaria L. = Vaccaria hispanica 401
Sarcopoterium spinosoum (1..) Spach
(Rosaceae) 81
Saxifraga rotundifolia L. (Saxifragaceae) 95
SAXIFRAGACEAE Table 4
Scheelea (Palmae) 227
Schinopsis (Anacardiaceac) 288, 290
Schizostachyum brachycladum (K.Schum.)
Holttum (Gramineae) 239, 412
S. zollingeri Steud. 239
Schoenoplectus lacustris (L.) Palla
(Cyperaceae) 92
Secale (Gramineae) 38, 169
S. africanum Staph 169
S.cerealeL. 169
S, montanum Guss. 169
S. vavilovii Grossh. 169
Senecio (Compositac) 334, 335
S. jacobaea L 335, 401
S. riddellii Torr. & A.Gray 334
S. vulgaris L. 92
Senna acutifolia (Delile) Batka = S,
alexandrina (Leguminosae-Caesalpinioideag)
324
S. alexandrina Mill. 324
S, italica Mill. 74
S. obtusifolia (L.) Irwin & Barneby 204, 205,
369
Seriphidium tridentatum (Nutt.) W.H. Weber
{Compositac)} 81
Sesamum indicum L. = 8, orientale
(Pedaliaceae) 187
Sesamum orientale L. Table 19; 187, 369
Setaria (Gramineae) 171
S.italica (L.) P.Beauv, 172
S. geniculata (Willd.) P.Beauv. 171
S. pumila (Poir.) Roem. & Schult. 172
Shorea (Diptocarpaceae) 27, 286

477

Shorea palembanica Mig. 185

Shorea seminis (de Vriese) Slooten 185
var. martiana Scheff. = 8, splendida 185
S. splendida Burck. 185
Sideroxylon sessiliflorum (Poir.) Capuron ex
Aubrév. (Sapotaceae) 66
Silene cucubalus Wibel = 8, vulgaris
{Caryophyllaceae) 400
S. dioica (L.) Clairv. 27
S. vulgaris (Moench)Garcke 400
Simmondsia (Simmondsiaceac) Table 2; 34
S. californica Nutt. = S, chinensis Table 2; 33
S. chinensis (Link) C.K.Schneid. Table 2; 13,
28, 33, 46, 50, 110, 123, 229, 409
S. chrysophyila Hort. ex Gentil = S, chinensis
Table 2
S. pabulosa Kellog = S. chinensis Table 2
SIMMONDSIACEAE Table 2; 28, 30
SIMMONDSIACEES nom. illegit. Table 2; 34
Sinapsis alba L. (Cruciferae) 179, 199, 200,
399
S.arvensisL. 401
SOLANACEAE Table 23, 24, 25; 81, 313, 316
Solanum (Solanaceae) 63
S. chaceense Bitter emend. Hawkes & Hjert.
146
S.dulcamara L. 26
S.incapum L. 203
S. tuberosum L. Table 22; 38, 39, 40, 49, 78,
179
Sonneratia (Sonneratiaceag) 91
Sophora japonica L. (Leguminosae-
Papilionoideae) 292
x Sorbopyrus (Rosaceae) 41
Sorbus aucuparia L. (Rosaceae) 310
Sorghum (Gramineae) 41, 89, 165, 222
S. arundinaceum (Desc.) Stapf 165
S. bicolor (L.) Moench. Table 22; 14, 94,
165, 278
race caudatum {Caudatum Group] 198
S. trichocladum (Rupr.) Kuntz 165
Spartina anglia C.E. Hubb. (Gramineae) 399
478

Spinacea oleracea L. (Chenopodiaceae) 152,

179
Spirea (Rosaceae) 325
S. ulmaria L. = Filipendula ulmaria 325
Spondias tuberosa Arruda (Anacardiaceae) 85
Sporobolus (Gramineae) 171, 214
S. lampranthus Pilg. = 8, nervosns 69
S. mervosus Hochst. 69
S. staphianus Gand. 69
Stellaria holostea L. (Caryophyllaceae) 27
Stenocereus (Cactaceae) 393
S. thurberi (Enghelm.) Buxb. 189
Stenochilus maculatus Ker Gawl. =
Eremophila maculata (Myoperaceae) 222
Sterculia setigera Del. (Sterculiaceae) 189
S. urens Roxb, Table 18
STERCULIACEAE 232
Stereospermum kunthianum Cham.
(Bignoniaceae) 254
Stevia (Compositae) 202
S. rebaudiana Bertoni 101, 202
Stipa comata Trin. & Rupr. (Gramineae) 84
S. tenacissima L. Table 17; 267, 275
S. subaristata (Mathei) Caro 222
Stipagrostis (Gramineae) 171
S, ciliata (Desf.) De Winter 76
S. pungens (Desf.) De Winter 172
Stokesia laevis (Hill) E.Greene (Compositae)
259
Striga (Scrphulariaceae) 112, 344
S$. asiatica (L.) Kuntze = S. lutea 345
S. gesnerioides (Willd.) Vatke 345
S. lutea Lour. 345
S. hermontheca Benth. 345
Strychnos nux-vomica L. (Loganiaceae) Table
23; 324
Stylosanthes (Leguminosae-Papilionoideae) 14
Styrax (Styracaceae) 76
S. benzoin Dryand. 302
Suaeda (Chenopodiaceae) 399
S. fruticosa Forssk. ex J.F.Gmel. 36
S. fruticosa (L.) Dumort = S. vera 36, 74

Taxonomic Index

Suaeda vera Forssk. ex 1.F.Gmel. 36, 74

Swartzia madagascariensis Desv.
(Leguminosae-Papilionoideae) 339
Swietenia (Meliaceae) 63, 255
Syagrus coronata (C.Mart.) Becc. (Palmae)
Table 19; 185, 304
Symphytum officinale L. (Boraginaceae) 326
Symplocos (Symplocaceae) 293
Synsepalum dulcificam (Schum. & Thonn.)
Daniell (Sapotaceae) 202
Syringa + correlata A.Braun (Oleaceae) 41
S. vulgaris L. 412
Syzygium arematicum (L.) Merr. & Perry
(Myrtaceae) 199, 300

Tagetes erecta L. (Compositac) 219

TAMARICACEAE 85
Tamarindus indica L. {Leguminosae-
Caesalpinioideae) 409
Tamarix (Tamaricaceae) 74, 87, 199, 228
T. aphylla (L.) Karst. 87,397
T. mannifera (Ehrenb.) Bunge 201
T. nilotica (Ehrenb.) Bunge 201
Tanacetum cinerariifolium (Trev. ) Sch.-Bip.
(Compositae) 14, 94, 95, 339, 340, 341
Tapinanthus bangwensis (Engl. & K Krause)
Danser (Loranthaceag) 401
Taraxacum officinale Weber & Wigg.
(Compositag) 26
Tephrosia (Leguminosae-Papilionoideac) 340
Terminalia (Combretaceae) 288, 289
T. brownii Fresen. 410
T. superba Engl. & Diels 235
Tetracera potatoria G.Don (Dilleniaceae) 189
Tetrapanax papyrifer (Flook.) K. Koch
(Araliaceac) 206
Thaumatococcus daniellii (Bennerr) Benth.
(Marantaceae) 202
Themeda australis (R.Br.) Stapf = T. triandra
(Gramineae) 87
T. triandra Forssk. 87

Theobroma (Sterculiaceae) 63
Taxonomic Index

Theobroma cacao L. Table 19, 20; 79, 123,

185, 188, 361
Thymelaea hirsuta (L.) Endl. (Thymelaeaceae)
‘Table 17; 258, 275
Thymus (Labiatae) 76
T. serpyllum L. 81
T. vulgaris L. 199
Thyrostachys siamensis Gamble (Gramineae)
183, 393
Tilia (Tiliaceae) 224, 241
T. x europaea L. 41
T. x vulgaris Hayne = T. x europaea 41
Tillandsia usneoides L. (Bromeliaceag) 276
Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague
{Umbelliferae) 300
Tragopogon porrifolius L. (Compositag) 85
Trapa (Trapaceae) 178
Trianthema portulacastrum L. (Aizoaceae)
345
Trichodesma (Boraginaceae) 335
Trifolium (Leguminosae-Papilionoideae) 216
T. pratense L. 418
T. repens L. 40,78
Trigonella foenum-graecum L. (Leguminosae-
Papilionoideae) 411
Triodia (Gramineae) 286
Triplochiton seleroxylon K.Schum.
{Sterculiaceae) 229, 230, 232
Tristania (Myrtaceae) 91
x Triticosecale (Gramineae) 41, 170
Triticum (Gramineae) 41, 156
T. aestivam L. Table 22; 34; 41
T. dicoceon Schrank 156
T. durum Desf. 156
T. monococcum L. 34, 156
T.speltaL. 156
T. turgidum L. 156
Tropaeoleum majus L. (Tropacolaceae) 340
Tulipa (Liliaceae) 95
Turbina corymbosa (L.) Raf. (Convolvulaceae)
400

479

Tylosema esculentum (Burch.) A.Schreib.

(Leguminosae-Caesalpinioideae) 85
Typha (Typhaceae) 206, 258, 400
T. angustifolia L. 92
T. australis Schnizl. = T. domingensis 398
T. domingensis Pers. 398
T. latifolia L. 400

Ulex europaeus L. (Leguminosae-

Papilionoideae) 413

Ullucus tuberosus Caldas (Bascllaceae) 78

Ulmus (Ulmaceae) 241
U, americana L.. Table 12; 83

U. fulva Michx. 285

U, pumila L. 182
UMBELLIFERAE Table 24, 25; 36, 323
Urena lobata L. (Malvaceae) Table 16
Uriochloa (Gramineae) 171
Urtica (Urticaceae) Table 10; 296

Vaccaria hispanica (Mill.) Rauschert

(Caryophyllaceae) 401
Vaccinium (Ericaceae) 177
Vanilla planifolia Jacks. (Orchidaceae) 199,
244, 361
Vaseyanthus (Cucurbitaceae) 409
Veratrum album L. (Melanthiaceae) 333
Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. (Compositae)
299
V. galamensis Cass. 5, 24, 46, 49, 93, 299
Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash (Gramineae)
300
Vicia (Leguminosac-Papilionoideae) Table 9
V.fabaL. 181,216,225
V.sativaL. 145
Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper (Leguminosae-
Papilionoideag) 157,344
V. radiata (L.) R. Wilczek 181, 342
V. subterranea (L.) Verde. 178, 180
V. unguiculata (L.) Walp. 265, 345
Virola (Myristicaceae) 408
VITACEAE Table 4
480

Vitellaria paradoxa C.F.Gaertn. (Sapotaceae)

Table 19; 185
Vitis (Vitaceae) Table 10; 193
V.labruscaL. 193
V. vinifera L. 14, 182,193
subsp. ‘sylvestris’ 193

Warburgia (Cancllaccae) 341

Withania coagulans (Stocks) Dunal
(Solanaceae) 204
W. somnifera (L.) Dunal 204
Wolffia arhiza (L.) Wimm. (Lemnaceae) 396

Xanthorrhoea (Xanthorrhoeaceae) 85, 286

Xanthosoma (Araceae) Table 22

Yucca elata Engelm. (Agavaceae) 276

Zanthoxylum flavum Vahl (Rutaccae) 230

Zea (Gramineae) 89, 162
Z. diploperennis H.H.Iltis, Doebly &
R.Guzmin 171
Z.mays L. Table 19, 20, 22; 5, 14, 40, 41,
162,171
subsp. mays 162
subsp.parviglumis H.H.Iltis & Doebley
162
Zizania (Gramineae) 171
Z. aquatica L, 171
Z. latifolia (Griseb.) Turcz. ex Stapf 363
Z. palustris L. = Z, aquatica 171
Ziziphus jubata Mill. (Rhamnaceae) 109
Z. mauritiana Lam. 109
ZYGOPHYLLACEAE Table 4
Zygophyllum (Zygophyllaccae) 398

Z. dumosum Boiss. 80

Taxonomic Index

CONIFEROPHYTA, CYCADOPHYTA,
GINKGOPHYTA AND GNETOPHYTA
(Gymnosperms)
Nomenclature of conifers according to Farjon
(1998)

Abies (Pinaceae) 241

A. alba Mill. 246

A. amabilis Douglas ex J. Forbes 39

A. balsamea (L.) Mill. 245, 286

Actinostrobus (Cupressaceae) 86
Agathis (Auracariaceae) 286
Araucaria (Araucariaceae) 178
Araucaria angustifolia (Bertol.) Kuntze 241

BOWENIACEAE 48

Callitris (Cupressaceae) 286

Chameacyparis lawsoniana (A Murray) Parl.
Cupressaceae) 39
C. nootkatensis (D.Don) Spach 41
C. pisifera (Siebold. & Zucc.) Endl. 41
CONIFEROPHYTA Table 3
x Cupressocyparis leylandii (Dallim. &
Jacks.) Dallim. (Cupressaceae) 41
Cupressus (Cupressaceae) 79
C. dupreziana A,Camus 22
C. macrocarpa Hartw. ex Gordon 41
C. sempervirens L 22
var. dupreziana (A.Camus) Silba = C.
dupreziana 22
var. sempervirens = C, sempervirens 22
CYCADACEAE 48
CYCADOPHYTA Table 31; 96, 184
CYCADOPSIDA Table 3
Cycas (Cycadaceae) 96
C. beddomei Dyer 184
C. circinalis L. 184
C. media R.Br. 184
C, revoluta Thunb. 184
Taxonomic Index

Dacrydium elatwm (Roxb.) Wall. ex Hook.

{Podocarpaceae) 229
Dioon edule Lindl. (Zamiaceag) 184

Encephalartos (Zamiaceae) 184

E. caffer (Thunb.) Lehm. 184

Ginkgo biloba L. (Ginkgoaceae) 178, 394

GINKGOPHYTA Table 3
GINKGOOPSIDA Table 3
GNETOPHYTA Table 3

GNETOPSIDA Table 3

Juniperus (Cupressaceae) 258

J. communis L. 411
J. recurva Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don 299
J.sabina L. 411
J. virginiana L. 299

Larix (Pinaceac) 241

L. decidua Mill. 246

L. occidentalis Nutt. Table 18

Picea (Pinaceae) 241

P. abies (L.) Karst. Table 12; 39, 42, 241, 246

Pinus (Pinaceae) Table 14; 41, 79, 178, 241,

244, 245, 248, 344

P, ayacahuite Ehrenb. & Schltdl. 246

P. banksiana Lamb. 86

P. brutia Ten. 49

P. caribaea Morelet Table 14; 246

P. contorta Douglas ex Loudon 86, 91

P. coulteri D.Don 246

P. elliotii Engelm. Table 14; 246

P. halepensis Mill. 49, 195, 249

P. jeffreyi Grev. & Balf. ex Murray 246

P. kesiya Royle ex Gordon Table 14

P. massoniana Lamb. Table 14

P. merkusii Jungh. & de Vriese Table 14

P.mugo Turra 247

P. oocarpa Scheide ex Schltdl. Table 14

P. palustris Mill. 411

481

Pinus pinaster Aiton Table 14; 246

P. radiata D.Don Table 14; 246, 357
P, roxburghii Sarg. Table 14; 246
P. sylvestris L. Table 12, 14; 98, 246, 247
P, taiwanensis Hayata 344
Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco
{Pinaceae) 241,246

Sequoia sempervirens (D.Don) Endl.

(Taxodiaceae) 42, 86

Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich.

{Cupressaceae) 83,91

Taxus baceata L. (Taxaceae) 221, 229

Tetraclinis articulata (Vahl) Mast.

(Cupressaceae) 286

Thuja (Cupressaceae) 241

T. plicata Donn. ex D.Don 83, 86

Tsuga (Pinaceae) 241

WELWITSCHIACEAE Table 4
Widdringtonia nodiflora (L.) Powrie
(Cupressaceae) 5
W. whytei Rendle 5

Zamia integrifolia Lf, ex Aiton (Zamiaceae)

184
Z. floridana ADC, = Z. integrifolia 184
ZAMIACEAE 48

FILICINOPHYTA, LYCOPHYTA,

PSILOPHYTA AND SPHENOPHYTA (Ferns

and Fern Allies)

Adiantum capillus-veneris L. (Adiantaceae)

349
Asplenium (Aspleniaceae) 340
A. acrobryum H.Christ 349
A. adiantum-nigrum 1.349
A. flabellifolium Cav. 349
A. scolopendrium L. 349
482

Athyrium esculentum Retz = Diplazium

esculentum (Woodsiaceae) 348
Azolla (Azollaceag) 48, 95, 96, 348, 395

A. filiculoides Lam. 348

A. imbricata Roxb. = A, pinnata var,

imbricata 348

A. pinnata R.Br. 348,395

var. imbricata (Roxb.) Bonap. 348

Blechnum indicum Burm.f. (Blechnaceae) 348

Ceratopteris pteridoides (Hook.) Brongn.

(Parkeriaceag) 348

Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.) Brongn. 348

Cyathea (Cyatheaceae) 348

Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw.

{Woodsiaceae) 348
Dryopteris cristata (L.) A.Gray
(Dryopteridaceac) 349
D. filix-mas (L.) Schott. 349
D. dilatata (Vill.) HP. Fuchs 349

EQUISETOPHYTA = SPHENOPHYTA Table

3,350
Equisetum (Equisctaceae) 350
E. arvense I. 350
E. fluviatile L. 350
E. hyemale L.. 350
var, affine (Engelm.) A. A.Eaton 350
E. maximum auct. non Lam. = E, telmateia
350
E. praealtum Raf. = E, hyemenale var. affine
350
E, telmateia Ehrh. 350
EUSPORANGIATAE Table 3

FILICINOPHYTA Table 3; 95, 347

Huperzia (Lycopodiaceae) 351

H. serrata (Thunb.) Trevir. 349

Taxonomic Index

Lastrea cristata (L.) C.B.Presl = Dryopteris

cristata (Dryopteridaceae) 349

LEPTOSPORANGIATAE Table 3
Lycopodium (Lycopodiaceae) 351

L. alpinum L. 351
L. clavatom L. 351
LYCOPHYTA Table 3; 347, 350
LYCOPODOPHYTA = LYCOPHYTA Table 3

Matteuccia struthiopteris (L.) Tod.

(Woodsiaceae) 348

Osmunda (Osmundaceae) 349 350

O. cinnamomea L. 348
O. regalisL. 348

Phyllitis scolopendrium (L.) Newm. =

Asplenium scolopendrium (Polypodiaceae)
349

Pityrogramma triangularis (Kaulf.) Maxon

(Adiantaceae) 350

POLYPODIACEAE Table 4

Polypedium (Polypodiaceae) 350

PSILOPHYTA Table 3; 347, 351

Psilotum (Psilotaceae) 351

P. nudum (L) Pal. 351

Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn (Polypodiaceag)

348, 350

PTERIDOPHYTA = FILICINOPHYTA Table

3,30, 96

Selaginella (Selaginaceac) 351

S. kraussiana (Kunze) A.Braun 351
S. lepidophylla (Hook. & Grev.) Spring 351
S. willdenowii (Poir.) Baker 351
SPHENOPHYTA Table 3; 347, 350

ANTHOCEROPHYTA (Hornworts)

ANTHOCEROPHYTA Table 3; 95, 351352

ANTHOCEROTAE Table 3
Taxonomic Index

Anthoceros (Anthoceraceae) 351

Nitella (Characeae) 352

BRYOPHYTA (Mosses)

BRYOPHYTA Table 3; 30, 95,352, 398

Calymperes delessertii Besch. (Calymperaceae)

398

Eurhynchium riparioides (Hedw.) Jennings

(Brachytheciaceae) 353

Fontinalis antipyretica Hedw. (Fontinalaceae)

353

Hypoum (Hypnaceae) 353

H. cupressiforme L. ex Hedw. subsp.
imponens (Hedw.) Boul. 353
H. imponens Hedw. = H. cupressiforme subsp.

imponens 353

Merceya ligulata (Spruce) Schimp. (Pottiaceae}

353
MUSCI Table 3

Plagiomnium (Mniaceae) 353

Polytrichum (Polytrichaceae) 353, 354

P. commune Hedw. 353

Scopelophila ligulata (Spruce) Spruce =

Merceya ligulata (Pottiaceae) 353
Sphagnum (Sphagnaceae) 352, 353-354
S. obtusifolium Ehrh, 352

Thuidium deliculatum Hedw. (Leskeaceae) 353

483

HEPATOPHYTA (Liverworts)

HEPATIACEAE Table 3
HEPATOPHYTA Table 3, 95, 354, 398

Jugermannia vulcanicola Steph.

(Jungermanniaceae) 354

Marchantia polymorpha L. (Marchantiaceae)

354

Plagiochila (Jugermanniaceae) 355

Riccia (Ricciaceae) 354

Scapania undulata (L.) Dum. (Scapaniaceae)
354
Solenostoma crenulatum (Sm.) Mitt.

(Jungermanniaceae) 354

FUNGI
(Classification follows Hawsworth ez af. (1995))

Absidi (Zygomycota) 363

AGARICALES 98, 355
Agaricus bisporus (Lange) Imbach
{Basidiomycota) 356
A. bitorquis (Quél.) Sace. 357
Agrocybe aegerita (Brig.) Fayod
(Basidiomycota) 357
Alternaria solani (Ellis & Martin) Sorauer
(Ascomycota) 204, 346
Amanita (Basidiomycota) 221, .357
A. muscaria (L.) Hook. 342, 357,358
A. phalloides (Fr.) Link 358
A. verna (Bull) Lamkey 358
A. virosa Lamkey 358
Armillaria. mellea (Vahl) G. Kumm.
(Basidiomycota) 359
Arthrobotrys (Mitosporic Fungi) 363
A. oligospora Fres. 363
484

ASCOMYCETES = ASCOMYCOTA 36
ASCOMYCOTA Table 3; 36, 355, 356, 364
Aspergillus (Ascomycota) 362, 363
A. flavus Link 180
A. niger van Tiegh. 312, 361
A. oryzae (Ahlb.) Cohn 181, 189, 361, 363
Auricularia auricula-judae (L.) Schroet.
(Ascomycota) 357
Aureobasidium pullulans (de Bary) Arnaud
(Mitosporic Fungi) 362

BASIDIOMYCETES = BASIDIOMYCOTA 36
BASIDIOMYCOTA Table 3; 36, 355, 356
Beauveria bassiana (Bals.)Vuill. (Mitosporic
Fungi) 342
Boletus edulis Bull. ex Fr. (Basidiomycota) 356
B. granulatus L. cx Pers. = Suillus granulatus
357
Botrytis (Ascomycota) 195
B. cinerea Pers. ex Fr. 194
Bovista nigrescens Pers. ex Pers.
(Basidiomycota) 258

Calvatia utriformis (Bull. cx Pers.) Jaap

(Basidiomycota) 258
Candida (Ascomycota) 205, 362, 369
C. krusei (Castell.) Berkhout (anamorph of
Issatchenksia orientalis Krudrystsev) 205
C. sake (Saito & Ota) van Uden & Buckley
363
C. tropicalis (Castell.) Berkhout 360
C. utilis (Henneberg) Lodder & Kreger
(anamorph of Pichia jadinii (Sartory,
Weill. & J. Meyer) Kurttzmann) 361
Cantharellus cibarius Fr. (Basidiomycota) 356
Catapyrenium (Ascomycota) 366
Ceratocystis ulmi (Buisman) C. Moreau
(Ascomycota) 53
Ceratostomella (Mitosporic Fungi) 345
Cercospora rodmanii Conway (Ascomycota)
Table 26

Taxonomic Index

Ceriosporella riparia Trujillo (Ascomycota)

Table 26
Cetraria (Ascomycota) 365, 366
C. islandica (L.) Ach. 365, 366
Chlorociboria aeruginascens (Nyl.) Kanouse
ex Ramamurthi, Korf & Battra (Ascomycota)
232, 359
Chiorosplenium aeruginascens (Nyl.) Karst. =
Chlorociboria aeruginascens (Ascomycota)
232, 359
Cladina = Cladonia (Ascomycota) 365
Cladonia (Ascomycota) 362, 364, 365
Cladonia arbuscula (Wallr.) Rabenh. 366
Cladoniomyces = Cladonia (Ascomycota) 362
Claviceps paspali Stevens & Hall (Ascomycota)
362
C. purpurea (Fr.) Tul. 170, 325, 357, 363,
408, 411
Cochliobolus miyabeanus (Tto & Kurib.)
Dreschsler ex Dastur. (Ascomycota) 59, 204
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz.) Penz.
& Sacc. (anamorph of Glomerella
cingulata (Stoneman) Spauld & M.Schrenk}
(Ascomycota) Table 26
Coniophora puteana (Schumach.) Karst.
(Basidiomycota) 359
Conocybe siligineoides Heim (Basidiomycota)
358
Coprinus atramentarius (Bull.) Fr.
(Basidiomycota) 356
C. fimetarius Fr. 357

Dictyonema sericeum Berk. (Basidiomycota)

366
Diploschistes (Ascomycota) 366

Endogone (Zygomycota) 99
ERYSIPHACEAE (Ascomycota) 362
Evernia furfuracea (L.} Ach. = Pseudevernia
furfuracea (Ascomycota) 258, 365
E. prunastri (L.) Ach. 258, 365
Taxonomic Index

Filobasidiclla depauperata Samson, Stalpers

& Weijman (Basidiomycota) 360
Fistulina hepatica (Sch.) Fr. (Basidiomycota)
232, 356, 359
Flammulina velutipes (Curtis) Karst.
(Basidiomycota) 357
Fomes fomentarius (L. ex Fr.) Kickx
(Basidiomycota) 258, 359
F, officinalis (Vill. ex Fr.) Faull 359
FUNGI IMPERFECTI = MITOSPORIC
FUNGI 355
FUNGI Table 3; 30, 355, 363, 364, 342
Fusarium (Ascomycota) 205
F. moniliforme J.Sheld,, teleomorph of
Giberella fujikuroi 101
F. oxysporwm Schlecht. 363

Gaenmannomyces graminis (Sacc.) Arx &

Oliv. (Ascomycota) 395
Gibberella fujikuroi (Sawade) Ito (Ascomycota)
101
G, zeae (Schwein.) Petch 204
Gigaspora (Zygomycota) 99
Glomus (Zygomycota) 99

Hanseniaspora uvarium (Niehaus) Shehata,

Mrak & Phaff (Ascomycota) 190

Helminthosporium oryzae Breda de Haan =

Cochliobolus miyabeanus (Ascomycota)
204

Heppia (Ascomycota) 366

Hirsutella thompsoni Fisher (Ascomycota) 342

Hypogymnia physioides (L.) Nyl. (Ascomycota)

366

Kloeckera apiculata (Reess) Janke (anamorph of

Hanseniaspora uvarium) (Ascomycota)
190

Kuehneromyces mutabilis (Scop.) Singer &

AH.Sm. (Basidiomycota) 357

Lactarius (Basidiemycota) 287

485

Langermannia gigantea (Batsch. ex Pers.)

Rostk. (Basidiomycota) 356
Lecanora (Ascomycota) 365, 398
L. cascadensis Hesler & A.H.Sm. 366
L. dispersa (Pers.) Rohl. 398
Lentinus edodes (Berk.) Sig. (Basidiomycota)
357
Lepista nuda (Buil.) Cooke (Basidiomycota)
357
L. saeva (Fr.) Orton 356
Leptosphaeria salvinii Catt. (Ascomycota) 363
Lipomyces starkeyi Lodder & Kreger
(Ascomycota) 261
Lycoperdon (Basidiomycota) 356
IL. giganticum Batsch. ex Pers. =

Langermannia gigantea 356

Macrolepiota procera (Scop.) Singer

(Basidiomycota) 356
Macrosporium solani Cooke = Alternaria
solani (Ascomycota) 204
Melophia ophiospora (Lév.) Pers. (Mitosporic
Fungi) 250
Metarrhizium anisopliae (Metsch.) Sorokin
(Mitosporic Fungi) 342
Microsporum (Ascomycota) 362
M. gypseum (Bodin) Guiert & Grigoraki 300
MITOSPORIC FUNGI 355
Monascus (Ascomycota) 363
M. purpureus De Went 198
Monilinia fructicola (Winter) Honey
(Ascomycota) 345
Morchella (Ascomycota) 356
M. esculenta (L.) Pers. ex St.-Amans. 357
Mortierelia (Zygomycota) 362
Mucor (Zygomycota) 205, 363
Mylitta australis Berk. = Polyporus mylitae
(Basidiomycota) 357

Nomuraea rileyi (Farlow) Sampson (Mitosporic

Fungi) 342
486

Ochrolechia tartarea (L.) Massali

(Ascomycota) 365

Ophiobolus graminis (Sacc.) Sacc. =

Gaeumannomyces graminis (Ascomycota)
395

Oudemansiella mucida (Schrad. ex Fr.) Hoehnel

(Basidiomycota) 362

Panaeolus sphinctrinus (Fr.) Qué.

(Basidiomycota) 358
Parmelia (Ascomycota) 365
Peltigera canina (1..) Willd. (Ascomycota) 366
Peltula (Ascomycota) 366
Penicillium (Ascomycota) 319, 362, 363
P, camemberti Thom. 363
P. caseicolum Bainier 363
P. chrysogenum Thom 204
P. expansum Link 363
P. icelandicum Soppitt 362
P. notatum Watling 1, 204, 205, 325, 362
P. roqueforti Thom. 363
Pholiora aegerira Brig. = Agrocybe aegerita
(Basidiomycota) 357
P. nameko (T.Ito) S.Ito & Imai 357
P. mugabilis (Schaeff.ex Fr.) Quél. =
Kuchneromyces mutabilis 357
Phoma (Ascomycota) 99
Phragmidium violaceum (Schultz) Wint.
(Basidiomycota) Table 26
Phymatotrichopsis omnivora (Duggar)
Henneb. (Basidiomycota) 395
Phymatotrichum omnivorum Duggar =
Phymatotrichopis omnivora
(Basidiomycota} 395
Pleurotus eryngii (DC.) Quél.
(Basidiomycota) 357
P, oestreatus (Jacq.) P.Kumm. 357
P. tuber-regium (Fr.) Sing. 357
Polyporus indigenus 1.J. Araugo & de Sousa
(Basidiomycota) 357
P. myllitae Cook & Massey 357
P. saporema Moller 357

Taxonomic Index

Psaliiota bispora Lange = Agaricus bisporus

(Basidiomycota) 356
Pseudevernia furfuracea (L.) Zopf
(Ascomycota) 258, 365
Psilocybe (Basidiomycota) 357, 358
P. hoogshagenii Heim 358
P. mexicana Heim 358
Psora (Ascomycota) 366
Puccinia chondrillina Bubak & Syd.
(Basidiomycota) Table 26
Pullularia pullulans (de Bary) Berkhout =
Aureobasidium pullulans (Mitosporic
Fungi) 362
Pyricularia oryzae Cavara (Ascomycota) 59

Ramalina calicaris (L.) Fr. = R, fraxinea

subsp, calcicariformis (Ascomycota) 258
R. fraxinea (L.) Ach. subsp. calcicariformis
(Nyl.) de Lesd. 258
Rhizoctonia (Basidiomycota) 99
R. solani Kuhn (teliomorph of
Thanatephorus cucumis (Frank) Donk)
395
Rhizopus (Zygomycota) 204, 205, 363, 364,
369
R. oligosporus Saito 204
R. oryzae Went & Prins.Geerl. 181
Rhodotorula glutinus (Fr.) Harrison
(Mitosporic Fungi) 360
R. rubra (Sito) Harrison = R, glutinus 360
Roccella (Ascomycota) 294
R. montagnei Bél. 365
R. tinctoria DC. 364

Saccharomyces (Ascomycota) 205, 369

S. bayanus Sacc. 194, 205
S. carlsbergensis Hansen = S. cerevisiae 191
S. cerevisiae Meyen ex Hansen 112, 159,
190, 191,194, 205, 206, 359, 360
S. ellipsoideus Rees = 8. cerevisiae 190

S. oviformis Osterw. = S. cerevisiae 194

Taxonomic Index

Schizosaccharomyces pombe Linder

(Ascomycota) 360

Sclerotinia trifoliorum Eriks. (Ascomycota)

419

Serpula lacrymans (Wulf.) H.E.Schroet.

(Basidiomycota) 359

Sphaerothallia (Ascomycota) 365

Stemphylium solani Weber (Ascomycota) 204

Stropharia cubensis Earle (Basidiomycota)

358

S. rugoso-annulata Farl. ex Murrill 357

Suillus granulatus (1..) Kuntze

(Basidiomycota) 357

Terfezia (Ascomycota) 356

Tirmania (Ascomycota) 356
Torula (Mitosporic Fungi) 205
Tremeila fuciformis Berk. (Basidiomycota)
357
Trichoderma reesei Simmons (Ascomycota)
361
Tricholoma matsutake (S.Ito & Imai) Singer
(Basidiomycota) 356
T. muscarium Kawam. 342
T. nudum (Bull. ex Fr.) P.Kumm. = Lepista
nuda 357
T. personatum Quél, = Lepista saeva 356
Trichyphyton equinum Berk. (Ascomycota)
300
T. rubrum Castell. 300
Trichosporon pullulans (Linder) Diddens &
Lodder (Mitosporic Fungi) 205
Tuber aestivum Vitt. = T, blotii (Ascomycota)
356
T. blotii Desl. 356
T. magnatum Pico ex Vitt. 356
T. melanosporum Vitt. 356

Umbilicaria (Ascomycota) 365

U. esculenta Henning 365

UREDINALES (Basidiomycota) 362
Usnea (Ascomycota) 364, 365, 366, 398

487

Usnea barbata Fries 325

USTLAGINALES {Basidiomycota) 362
Ustilago esculenta Henning (Basidiomycota)
363
U. maydis (DC.) Corda 163

Verticillium chlamydosporum Goddard

(Mitosporic Fungi) 364
V. lecanii (Zimm.)Viégas 343
Volvariella (Basidiomycota) 357
V. bresadolae (Trotter) Singer 357
V. volvacea (Bull. ex Fr.) Singer 357
var. heimii Singer 357

ZYGOMYCOTA Table 3; 36, 355

Zygosaccharomyces bailii (Linder) Guillierm.
(Ascomycota) 360
Z. rouxii Boutroux 361

Z. soja (Saito) Guillierm. = Z, rouxii 361

PROTOCTISTA (Algae, Fungal-like Organisms

and Protozoa)

Acanthopeltis (Rhodophyta) 378

ACRASIOMYCQTA Table 3
Aecodes (Rhodophyta) 381
Ahnfeltia (Rhodophyta) 381

A. plicata (Huds.) Fr. 378, 386

Alaria (Phacophyta) 377,385

A. esculenta (L.) Grev. 382

A. fistulosa Post. & Rupr. 382, 385

Ascophylhan (Phaeophyta) 381, 384

A. nodosum (L.) Le Jol. 375, 386, 387

BACILLIARIOPHYTA = DIATOMS 95,373

Botryococcus braunii Kiitz (Chlorophyta) 260

Caulerpa (Chlorophyta) 386

Chaetoceros muelleri Lemmerm. (Chrysophyta)

260

Chara (Charophyta) 373

488

Chlorella (Chlorophyta) 137, 206, 369

C. vulgaris L. 383

CHLOROPHYTA 206, 291,373

Chondria (Rhodophyta) 325

Chondrus (Rhodophyta) 379, 380, 381

C. crispus Stackh. 378, 379, 387

CHROMISTA 355

CHRYSOMONADA Table 3; 373

CHRYSOPHYCEAE (Chrysomonada) Table 3

CHRYSOPHYTA = CHRYSOMONADA 373

CHYTRIDIOMYCETES =
CHYTRIDIOMYCOTA 363

CHYTRIDIOMYCOTA Table 3; 355, 363

CRYPTOMONADA Table 3; 373

CRYPTOPHYTA = CRYPTOMONADA
Table 3; 373

Codium fragile (Sur.) Har. subsp. atlanticum

(Cotton) Silva (Chlorophyta) 381

Constantinea simplex Setch. (Rhodophyta) 325

CORALLINACEAE (Rhodophyta) 387

CYANOPHYTA = CYANOBACTERIA (see

Bacteria Index)

DIATOMS (Protoctista) Table 3; 95, 373, 377

Digenea simplex {Wulfen) Agardh (Rhodophyta)
325, 381
DINOFLAGELLATA = DINOMASTIGOTA
Table 3; 373
DINOMASTIGOTA Table 3; 367, 373
DINOPHYTA =DINOMASTIGOTA 373
DISCOMITOCHONDRIA 373
Dunaliella (Chlorophyta) 376
D. bardawil Ben-Amotz & Avron = D, salina
subsp. salina 376
D. salina Teodor. 376
subsp. salina 376
D. tertiolecta Butch. 375
Durvillea (Phacophyta) 375, 381
D. antarctica (Cham.) Har. 382
Ecklonia (Phacophyta) 375, 381

E. buccinalis (L.) Hornem. = E. maxima 382

Taxonomic Index

Eckionia maxima (Osbeck) Papenf. 382

E. radiata (C.Agardh) J.Agardh 381
Eisenia (Phacophyta) 375
Enteromorpha (Chlorophyta) 385, 386, 388
Eucheuma (Rhodophyta) 380
Euglena (Euglenida) 369
EUGLENIDA Table 3
EUSTIGMATOPHYTA Table 3

FUCACEAE (Phacophyta) 377

FUCALES (Phacophyta) 381,383
Fucus (Phacophyta) 381
F. evanescens C.Agardh 383
F. serratus L. 387
F. vesciculosus L. 387
Furcellaria fastigara (L.)1.V. Lamour. = F.
lumbricalis (Rhodophyta) 378
F. lumbricalis (Huds.) ].V.Lamour. 378, 380

GAMOPHYTA Table 3; 373

Gelidielta (Rhodophyta) 378
Gelidium (Rhodophyta) 378, 379, 385, 387
G. amansii (Lam.) J.V.Lamour. 378
G. elegans (Kuetz.) Yoshida et al. 378
G. latifolium Bornet ex Hauck = G.
‘ spinosum 378
G. pulchellum (Turner) Grev. = G. elegans
378
G, spinosam (5.G.Gmel.) P.Silva 378
Gigartina (Rhodophyta) 379
G. acicularis (Roth) J.V.Lamour. 387
G. cartilagineum (L.) Gaill. = G, versicolor
378
G.. stellata (Stackh.) J.V.Lamour. =
Mastocarpus stellatus 378
G. tweedii (Roth) J.V. Lamour, 387
G. versicolor (S.G.Gmel.) I.V.Lamour. 378
Gloiopeltis (Rhodophyta) 381
Gracilaria (Rhodophyta) 385, 386
G. coronipifolia J.Agardh 386
G. lemaneiformis (Bory) Weber Bosse 386
G. tikvahiae McLachlan 386
Taxonomic Index

Gracilaria verrucosa (Huds.) Papenf. 387

Grateloupia (Rhodophyta) 381
Gymnogongrus (Rhodophyta) 381

Haptoglossa (Oomycota) 363

ITAPTOMONADA Table 3; 373

HAPTOPHYTA = HAPTOMONADA Table 3;

373

Hypnea (Rhodophyta) 380

Iridaea (Rhodophyta) 381

1 cornucopiae Post. & Rupr. 381
Iridophycus (Rhodophyta) 381

LABRINTHULOMYCOTA Table 3
Laminaria (Phaeophyta) 5, 377, 381, 384, 385

L. bongardiana Postels & Rupr. 383

L. cichorioides Miyabe 382

L. digitata (Huds.} V.Lamour. 375, 377, 387

L. hyperborea (Gunnerus) Fosl. 375, 377,

387

L. japonica Aresh. 375, 382

L. religiosa Miyabe 382

L. saccharina (L.) J.V.Lamour. 381

LAMINARIALES (Phacophyta) 381, 383
Lessonia (Phacophyta) 375
Lithothamnion (Rhodophyta) 384

Macrocystis pyrifera (L.) C.Agardh

(Phaeophyta) 375, 382,388

Mastocarpus stellatus (Stachh.) Guiry

(Rhodophyta) 378, 387

Monoraphidium minutum {Chytridiomycotina)

261

Monostroma (Chlorophyta) 385, 386

MYCOPHYTA 30

MYXOMYCETES (Myxomycota) Table 3

MYXOMYXOTA Table 3

OOMYCETES = OOMYCOTA 361

OOMYCOTA Table 3; 99, 360, 361

489

Pachymenia (Rhodophyta) 381

Palmaria (Rhodophyta) 385
P. palmata (L.) Kubtze 382
Pelagophora porra Léman. = Pelagophycus
porra (Phacophyta) 382
Pelagophycus porra (Léman.) Setch.
(Phaeophyta) 382
Pelvetia (Phacophyta) 381, 383
PERONOSPORACEAE (Oomycota) 362
PHAEOPHYTA Table 3; 373, 374
PHYCOPHYTA = ‘ALGAE’ 30
Phyllophora (Rhodophyta) 380
P. nervosa (Delle Chiaje) Grev. 378, 381
Phymatolithon (Rhodophyta) 384
Phytophthora citrophthora (R.E.Sm. &
E.H.Sm.) Leonian (Oomycota) Table 26
P. infestans (Mont.) de Bary 15, 59
P. palmivora (E.J Butler) EJ. Butler 401
PLASMODIOPHORA Table 3
PLASMODIOPHOROMYCOTA =
PLASMODIOPHORA Table 3
Porphyra (Rhodophyta) 385
P. tenera Kjellm. 382
P. umbillicalis (L.) J. Agardh 382
PROTOCTISTA Table 3; 30, 355, 363, 367,
377
PROTOSTELIOMYCETES (Myxomycota)
Table 3
PROTOZOA 355
Pterocladia (Rhodophyta) 378, 385
P. capillacea (Gmel.} Born. & Thur. 387
Ptilota plumosa (Huds.) Agardh (Rhodophyta)
381
Pythium (Oomycota) 99, 395

RHODOPHYTA Table 3; 373, 374, 385

Rhodymenia paimata (L.) Grev. = Palmaria
palmata (Rhodophyta) 382

Saccorhiza (Phacophyta) 385

Sargassum (Phacophyta) 381, 383, 386
Scenedesmus (Chlorophyta) 206, 369
490
Scenedesmus obliquus (Turpin) Kitz. 381
Turbinaria (Phacophyta) 381
Turnerella mertensiana Postels & Rupr.
(Phacophyta) 381
Ulva (Chlorophyta) 383, 384, 386
U. capensis Aresch. 382
U. lactuca L. = U. capensis 382

U. pertusa Koellm, 382

XANTHOPHYTA Table 3; 371

BACTERIA

Nomenclature according to Holt (1984-1989) and

Holt ez al. (1994)

Acetobacter 370
A. aceti (Pasteur) Beij. 195,311
subsp. aceti 370
subsp. xylinum (A.J. Br.) Buchanan &
Gibbons 370
A. kiitzingianum (Hansen) Bergey ef al. = A,
pasteurians 370
A. melanogenus Beij. = Gluconobacter
oxydans 370
A. oxydans (Henneberg) Bergey et al. =
Gluconobacter oxydans 370
A. pasteurians (Hansen) Beij. 370
A. roseum (Asai) Vaughan = Gluconobacter
oxydans 370
A. suboxylans Kluyver & de Leeuw =
Gluconobacter oxydans 370
A. xylinum (A.J.Br.) Holland = A. aceti subsp.
xylioum 370
ACTINOBACTERIA (Eubacteria) Table 3;
366, 368
ACTINOMYCETALES = ACTINOBACTERIA
368

Agrobacterium tumefaciens (Sm. & Townsend)

Conn 111, 328

Taxonomic Index

Alcaligenes eutrophus Davis 371

Anabaena (Cyanobacteria) 30
A, azollae Strasb. 348,395
A. circinalis Rabenh. 367
Anacystis cyanea (Kiitz.) Dr. & E.F K. Daily =
Microcystis aeruginosa (Cyanobacteria)
367
ARCHAEA Table 3, 70
ARCHAEBACTERIA = ARCHAEA Table 3
Arthrobacter (Corynybacteria) 367
A, simplex (Jensen) Lockhead 368
Arthrospira (Cyanobacteria) 206, 368, 369
A. maxima (Setch. & Gardner) Geitler 365
A, platensis (Nordst.) Geitler 365
Azoarcus 97,98
Azorhizobium 96
Azospirillum brasiliense Tarrand, Kreig &
Débereiner 97, 98
A. lipoferum (Beij.) Tarrand, Kreig &
Dobereiner 98
Azospirolla 97
Azotobacter chroococcum Beij. 97
A. paspali Débereiner 98
A. vinelandii Lipman 375

Bacillus 369
B. lacta Lister = Streptococcus lactis 193
B. macerans Schardinger 371
B. megaterium de Bary 370
B. sphaericus Meyer & Neide 343
B. thuringiensis Berliner 343
B. subtilis (Ehrernberg) Cohn. 181, 205, 367,
369
BACTERIA Table 3; 30, 342, 366
BACTERIOPHYTA = BACTERIA 30
Bradyrhizobium 96
Brevibacterium erythrogenes (Lehm. &
Neumann) Breed 370
Brevibacterium linens (Wolff) Breed 370
Brucella abortus Schmidt & Weis 367

Clavibacter 367
Taxonomic Index

Clostridium 367
C. acetobutylicum C.W.McCoy eral. 371
C. propionicum Cardon & Barker 311
CORYNEBACTERIACEAE 367
Corynebacterium simplex Jensen =
Arthrobacter simplex 368
CRENARCHAEOTA (Archaea) Table 3
Curtobacteriom 367
CYANOBACTERIA (Eubacteria) Table 3; 30,
95, 206, 291, 352, 366, 367, 368, 421
CYANOPHYTA = CYANOBACTERIA 30, 95,
366

Escherichia coli (Migula) Castellani & Chalmers

145, 368

EUBACTERIA (Archaea) Table 3; 95

EURYARCHAEOTA Table 3

Flavobacterium 362
Frankia 96

Gluconobacter 370
G. oxydans (Henneberg) De Ley 370

LACTOBACILLACEAE 367
Lactobacillus 145, 159, 369, 370
L. acidophilus (Moro) Hansen & Mocquot
370
L. brevis (Orla-Jensen) Bergey et al. 204, 369
L. bulgaricus Orla-Jensen = L. delbrueckii
subsp. bulgaricus 370
L. detbrueckii (Leichm.) Weiss subsp.
bulgaricus (Orla-Jensen) Weiss, Schillinger
& Kandler 370
subsp. lactis (Orla-Jensen) Weiss.
Schillinger & Kandler 370
L. plantarum (Orla-Jensen) Bergey et al.
204, 205, 369
Leuconostoc (Cyanobacteria) 369
L. citrovorum (Hammer) Hucker & Pederson =

L, cremoris 369

491

Leuconostoc cremoris (Knudson & Sorenson)

Garvie 369

L. dextranicum Beij. = L. mesenteroides

subsp. dextranicum 370

L. mesenteroides (Cienk.) Tiegh 157, 204,

369
subsp. dextranicum (Beij.) Hucker &
Pederson 370
Methylophilus methylotrophus Jenkins ef al.
368

Micrococcus 367

Microcystis aeruginosa Kiitz. (Cyanobacteria)

367

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Zopf) Lehm. &

Neumann 367

Mycoderma aceti Pasteur = Acetobacter aceti

195

Neisseria gonorrhoese (Zopf) Trevisa 362

N. meningitidis (Albrecht & Ghon)
E.G.Murray 362
N. pneumoniae (Klein) Chester 362
NEISSERIACEAE 367
Nematonostoc (Cyanobacteria) 368
Nitrobacter 367
Nitrosomonas 367
Nostoc (Cyanobacteria) 30, 95, 368
N. commune Vaucher 368
N, ellipsospermum (Desm.) Barnet & Flahault
368

Oscillatoria (Cyanobacteria) 367

Pasteurella pestis (Lehm. & Neumann) Bergey

et al. = Yersinia pestis 367

Pasteuria penetrans Sayre & Starr 367, 368

Pediococcus 204, 369

Pediococcus cerevisae Baloke nomen confusum

204

Phormidium (Cyanobacteria) 368

Propionibacterium 205, 311

492

Propionibacterium freudenreichii C.B.Niel

370
P. shermanii C.B.Niel = P, freudenreichii
370
Pscudomonas 367

Pyrodictium 70

Rhizobium 95, 96, 100

R. leguminosarum (Frank) Frank 97
Rhodococcus 367

Spirulina (Cyanobacteria) 206, 368, 369

S. maxima Setch. & Gardner = Arthrospira
maxima 368
S$. platenis (Nordst.) Gomont = Arthrospira
platensis 368
S. subsala (Oerst.) Gomont var. crassior Oerst.
369
Staphylococcus 362
S. aureus Rosenbach 367
S. sciuri Kloos, Schleifer & R.F.Sm. subsp.
lentus Kloos, Schleifer & R.F.Sm. 205
Streptococcus 362, 367, 369, 370

S. carinii 367

S. cremoris Orla-Jensen = 8, lactis subsp.

cremoris 367
S. lactis (Lister) Lohnis 193
subsp. eremoris (Orla-Jensen) Garvie &
Jarvis 369
subsp. lactis 369
S. thermophilus Orla-Jensen 370
Streptomyces aureofaciens Duggar 368
S. avermitilis Berg ef al. 343
S. erythraeus (Waksman) Waksman & Henrici
368
S. griseus (Krainsky) Waksman & Henrici
325,368
S, olivaceus (Waksman) Waksman & Henrici
141
S. venezuelae Ehrlich, Gottlieb, Burkh.,
Lu.E.Anderson & Pridham 368
Synechococcus (Cyanobacteria) 369

Taxonomic Index

Synechococcus elongatus Naegeli var.

vestitus J.J.Copel 369

Thiobacillus 367
T. ferrooxidans Temple & Colmer 371
T. thiooxidans Waksman & Joffe 371

Xanthomonas 370
X. campestris (Pammal) Dowson 370

Yerstinia pestis (Lehm. & Neumann) van

Loghem 367

ANIMALIA

(Mammals, Birds, Fish, Insects, etc.)

Adalia bipunctata (Coleoptera 113

Agouti paca (Rodentia) 213
Agrotis (Lepidoptera) 343
ALEYRODIDAE 343
Anguillulina dipsaci (Nematoda) 419
ANIMALIA Table 3; 28, 30
Aphelenchoides besseyi (Nematoda) 364
APHIDIDAE 343
Apis indica (Hymenoptera) 225

A, mellifera 225
Arctia caja (Lepidoptera) 406

Artemia salina (Crustacea) 327

Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera) 126

Biomphalaria (Molusca) 339
Blastophaga (Lepidoptera) 52

B. psenes 52
Boarmia selenaria (Lepidoptera) ~~ 343
Bombyx mori (Lepidoptera) 225
Bos grunniens mutas (Ruminantia) 214
BOVIDAL 366
Bruchidius sahlbergi (Coleoptera) bruchid 353
Bulinus (Molusca) 339

Callosobruchus chinensis (Coleoptera) 341

Taxonomic Index

Camponotus (Hymenoptera) 228

Caryobruchus (Coleoptera) 227
Cataenococcus loranthi (Hemiptera) 401
CEROPIDAE 342
CERVIDAE 365
Chrysomyia marginalis (Diptera) 51
Coccus manniparus (Hemiptera) 201
COEREBIDAE (Aves) 51
Connochaetus gnou (Ruminanta) 210
Contarina quinquenotata (Diptera) 53
Crematogaster (Hymenoptera) 401
Cryptoblabes quidiella (Lepidoptera) 343
Cyamophila astragalicola (Hemiptera) 201,
228

Dactylopius cocceus (Hemiptera) 226

Danaus plexipippus (Lepidoptera) 113
Dasyneura gleditsiae (Diptera) 53
Dasyprocta punctata (Rodentia) 213
Dendroctonus micans (Coleoptera) 126
DICAEIDAE (Aves) 51

Diparopsis castanea (Lepidoptera) 51

Distantiella theobroma (Hemiptera) 401
DREPANIDIDAE (Aves) 51

Dysdercus Koenigii (Hemiptera) 341

Earias biplaga (Lepidoptera) 51

Eidon helvam (Chiroptera) 51

Elaeidobrus kamernnicus (Coleoptera) 52
Epomorphus wahlbergia (Chiroptera) 51
EQUIDAE 330

Equus (Perissodactyla) 210

Euxoa (Lepidoptera) 343

Feltia (Leptidoptera) 343

Gazella granti (Artiodactla: Ruminanta) 210

Galago crassicaudatus (Mammalia) 51

Giraffa camelopardalis (Artiodactla:

Ruminanta) 210

Gonimbrasia belina (Lepidoptera) 227

Heliothis armigera (Lepidoptera) 51

493

HEMIPTERA 228

Heterodora schactii (Nematoda) 363

Hippopotanuses (Artiodactla: Suiformes) 210
Homo erectus (Primates) 1

Hyles lineata (Lepidoptera) 227

HYMENOPTERA 51

Ips amitinus (Coleoptera) 126

IL duplicatus 126
I. typoraphus 126
ISOPTERA (Insecta) 235

Kermes ilicis (Hemiptera) 227

Kerria lacca = Laccifer lacca (Hemiptera) 226

Laccifer (Hemiptera) 226

L.lacca 226
Laspreyresia pomonella (Lepidoplera) 342
Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Coleoptera) 53,

126, 342

Liloceris lili (Coleoptera) 53

Liriomyza huidobrensis (Diptera) 53
Loxodonta africana (Proboscidea) 210
Lucilia sericata (Diptera) 326
Lyctus (Coleoptera) 234

Macrosiphum albifrons (Hemiptera) 53

Mammuthis primigenius (Proboscidea) 353
MELIPHAGIDAE (Aves) 51

Melophorus bagoti (Hymenoptera) 228

Musca domestica (Diptera) 340

Myzus persicae (Hemiptera) 113

Najacoccus serpentinus (Hemiptera) 228

NECTARINIIDAE (Aves) 51
NEUROPTERA (Insecta) 113
Nilaparvata spp. (Insecta) 59

Oecophylla longinoda (Hymenoptera) 399

Oncomelania (Molusca) 33%

Orcytes (Insecta) 342

Qstrina nubilalis (Lepidoptera) 113,343

494

Ovis aries (Ruminantia) 214

Pachymerus nuclearum (Coleoplera) 227

Pectinophora gossypiella (Lepidoptera) 340
Phoeniconaias minor (Phoenicopteridac) 368
Phyllocoptruta oleivora (Acarina) 342
Phylloxera vitifoliae (Hemiptera) 193
Physetes catodon Mammalia) 123, 298
POLISTES (Hymenoptera) 275

Rangifer (Ruminantia) 214

Raphaus cucullatus (Aves) 66

Reticulitermes flavipes (Isoptera) 299

Rhynchophorus palmarum (Coleoptera) 227
Rousettus aegypticus (Chiroptera) 51

Sahlbergella singularis (Hemiptera) 401

Schistocerca gregaria (Orthoptera) 342
Schlechtendalia chinensis (Hemiptera) 353
Sciurus carolinensis (Rodentia) 221
Scolypopa australis (Hemiptera) 228
Sinoxylon senegalense (Coleoptera) 253
Solenopsis invicta (Hymenoptera) 343
Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera) 340
Syncerus caffus (Artiodactla: Ruminanta) 210

Tachardiella (Hemiptera) 226

Tauvretragus oryx (Ruminanta) 210
Tilapia (Cichlidae) 369

Thrips hawaiiensis (Thysanoptera) 52

TREMATODA (Platyhelminthes) 33%
Trabutina mannifera (Hemiptera) 228
Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Homiptera) 53
TRICHLOGLOSSIDAE (Aves) 51
TROCHILIDAE (Aves) 51

Trogoderma granarium (Coleoptera) 341

Trypodendron lineatum (Coleoptera) 235

Zonocerus elegans (Orthoptera) 407

ZOSTEROPIDAE (Aves) 51

Taxonomic Index
Chemical Index

Nomenclature according to Sharp (1990). Major

references in bold.

AA, see arachidonic acid

abietic acid 285

acaroid resin 85, 286

acetaldehyde, see ethanal

acetic acid, see ethanoic acid

acetogenins 102

acetone, see propanone

acetone-butyl-alcohol, see propanone-butyl-

alcohol

acetylcholine Table 24, 25; 351

acetylsalicylate 325

acetylsalicylic acid 329

2-0-acetylsalicylic acid 325

acrylic acid, see propenoic acid

agar (agar agar) 285,374, 378-379, 380

agaropectin 374, 378

agarose 374,378,381

aglycones 224, 281

ajuganin 341

ALA, see a-linolenic acid

alanine Table 5

albumins 167, 172

495

alcohol (ethyl alcohol, industrial alcohol, spirits

of wine) Table 22, 25; 73, 102, 124, 131,
163, 189, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 201, 204,
219, 229, 251, 260, 281, 303, 304, 306, 309,
360, 363, 370, 381, 383, 410

alcohol, indolizidine 21
aldehyde 102, 130, 131, 289, 305, 311, 360,
365

aldose sugar, see sugar, aldose

algin 203, 375, 377

alginates 4, 135, 203, 276, 294, 374, 375-377,

379

alginic acid 375

aliphatic aldehydes 102

aliphatic esters 299

aliphatic hydrocarbons 246, 256, 360

aliphatic polyol 68

alizarin 292,293

alkalis 48, 139, 163, 203, 243, 277, 310, 380

alkanes 360

alkaloids Table 23, 24, 25; 21, 102, 141, 146-

147, 182, 188, 220, 221, 281, 313-314, 321,
324,325, 326, 329, 333, 334, 335, 336, 339,
350, 351, 358, 403, 404, 405, 406, 407, 408,
411, 412; alkaloidal glycoside 281

allantoin 326

allelochemicals 100, 101-103

4-allyl-2-methoxyphenol 199

allyl isothiocyanate 200

alternaric acid 346

amanitin 358

ambrosin 339

amides 128

amino-acids Table 5, 8; 68, 75, 102, 106, 129,

136, 137-138, 141, 142, 154, 164, 167, 169,
170, 174, 175, 181, 182, 204, 205, 212, 215,
216, 217, 218, 219, 342, 348, 360, 369;
dispensable amino-acids 137; essential
amino-acids 136, 169, 170, 174, 175, 182,
204, 218, 219, 369; indispensable amino-
496

acids 137; toxic non-protein amino-acids

144-145, 344

amino-nitrogen 128

amino-phenoxazon 365

aminomonoazo 293

-aminoproprionitrile Table 5

ammoniated aluminium alginate 376

ammoniacal copper alginate 377

ampicillin 362

amygdalin 102

amylase (diastase) Table 8; 131, 164, 166, 191,

192, 193, 306; Farrand Test 158; Hagberg
Test 158; a-amylase 133, 144, 157, 158,
159, 170, 171; B-amylase 159, 192; amylase
inhibitors 144-147

amylose Table 22; 132, 133, 157, 161, 162,

174, 306, 308

amylopectin Table 22; 132, 133, 164, 306,

308

anacardic acid (cashew nutshell liquid, CNSL)

179

anagyring 335

anethole 246

aneurine 141

3,6-anhydro-D-galactose 378, 380; 3,6-anhydro-

L-galactose 379

anthocyanidine 143, 197

anthocyanin Table 10; 198, 372

anthraquinones 102, 292, 293

anti-acetylcholine (anticholine esterase)

anticholine esterase 351

apigenin Table 10; 198

araban 135, 206, 312

arabinose 283

arabinogalactans 284

arabitol 309

arachidic acid Table 20, 21

arachidonic acid (AA) 139

arecoline 405

Chemcal Index

arginine Table 5, 8; 145

argol 203

artemene ketone 103

B-asarone 281

ascorbic acid (see also Subject Acid, Vitamin C)

Table 8; 141, 182, 202, 383

aspartate 202

aspartic acid Table 5

atropine Table 23; 221, 336, 412

atropinesterase 221

aurcomycin 325

auxins 100, 101, 384

available carbohydrate, see nitrogen-free extract

avermectins 343

azadirachtin 342

balsams 260, 286, 287, 299, 302

BAPM, see B-(y-L-glutamyl) aminoproprionitrile
behenic acid Table 20, 21
benzene hydrocarbons 299
benzoic acid 102, 287

benzoin 302

benzyl aldehyde 410

benzylpenicillin 362

betalain 198, 294

betanin Table 10; 198

biotin 141
bixin Table 10; 197, 292
bromelin 203,324

butadienes 261

butanoates 371

butanoic acid (butyric acid) 371

butanol (butyl alcohols) 244, 371
butyl alcohol, see butanol

butyl rubber, see rubber, synthetic

butyl esters 371

butyric acid, see butanoic acid

cacoaol 188
Chemical Index

caffeine 189, 405

calciferol (see also Subject Acid, vitamin Dy)

140

calcium alginate 376

calcium oxalate 253

camphor 103, 246, 300, 313

canavanine Table 5; 145

cannabinoids 406, 407

caoutchouc, see rubber

cannabis 406-407

capric acid Table 20, 21;

caprylic acid, see octanoic acid

capsanthin Table 10

capsorubin Table 10

carbohydrase 159

carbohydrates 67, 69, 73, 88, 99, 127, 128,

130-136, 137, 138, 141, 143, 154, 170, 180,
181, 192, 193, 194, 209, 212, 213, 215, 21s,
224, 282, 305-313, 356, 357, 359, 375, 376,
381, 382, 382; available carbohydrates 128

carbolic acid 248

carbonomethyl cellulose 309

carboxymethyl cellulose 313

cardol 179

carotene 124, 140, 219

B-carotene 316; 3-carene 246

carotenoid pigments Table 10; 182, 198, 218,

292

carrageenan 203, 374, 375, 379-381

casein 203, 370, 377, 379, 380

cashew nutshell liquid, see anacardic acid

castanospermine 21, 22
catechin 188, 361

catechol 288

cationic starch 308

8-cedren-13-0l

cellobiose 131

cellulose 122, 128, 130, 131, 135, 205, 206,

211, 220, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 256, 257,
263, 264, 265, 268, 270, 271, 273, 274, 275,

497

276, 284, 305, 308, 309, 311, 312-313, 361,

362, 371; cellulose ethanoates (cellulose
acetates) 263, 313; cellulose ethers 312;
cellulose nitrate 286, 313;

cellulose (dietary fibre) 135-136

cephaeline Table 23

CF, see crude fibre

chicle 403, 405

chloramphenicol 368

chloromethane (methyl chloride) 304

chlorophyll Table 10; 69, 79, 88, 99, 128,

132, 198, 291, 366, 376, 404

cholesterol 135, 138, 143, 165, 168, 174, 178,

379, 381, 411

chymopapain 324

cineole 303; 1,8-cineole 103

cinerin 340

cinnamic acid 102, 287

cis-polyisoprene 287

citral 246

citrate 114

citricacid 114, 202, 203, 312, 361, 375

citronellal 246, 303

citronellol 246
CNSL, see anacardic acid

cobalamin, see also Subject Index, vitamin By

141

cocaine Table 23; 324, 392, 405

cochineal 197, 226-227

codeine Table 23; 324

co-enzyme 141

colchicine Table 23; 110, 324

collagen 289

colloid (see also hydrocolloids, and phycocolloids)

48, 68, 73, 203, 282, 284, 374, 377

concanavalin A 142

coniine 146, 334

copals 285

copper alginate 377, 379

cordeauxiaquinone 292, 294

498

cortisone 368

coupling sugar, sec sugar, coupling

coumarin Table 27, 339, 404

CP see crude protein

creosol (4-methyl-2-methoxyphenol) 248

creosote 248

crocein Table 10; 197, 292

crude fibre (CF) Table 7, 8; 128, 135, 214

crude protein (CP) Table 7, 8; 128, 129, 203,

211, 213, 214

cryptoxanthin 218

curare 336

curcumin Table 10; 293

B-cyanoalanine Table 5

cyanocobalamin 141

cyanogenic glucosides 146, 181

cyanogenic glycosides Table 25; 102, 145, 222,

335

cyanogens 145, 155, 220

cyanohydrins 102

cyanophoric glycoside 102

cyasterone 340

cyclodextrin 371

cystine Table 5, 8; 174

cytochrome oxidase Table 25

cytokinin 384

2,4-D, see 2,4-dichlophenoxyacetic acid

damars 285, 386

damsin 339

Danish agar, see furcellarin

dehydroascorbic acid (see also Subject Index,
vitamin C) 141

deoxyribose, see D-2-deoxyribose

D-2-deoxyribose (deoxyribose) 131

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 131

derris 341

dextrin 132, 133, 158, 261

dextrose, see glucose

o,y-diaminobutyric acid Table 5

Chemcal Index

diamorphine hydrochloride (heroin) 407

diastase, see amylase

2,4-dichlophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) 101

dibenzofuran 366

digitoxin 324

digoxin 324

1,2-dihydroxyethane (ethylene glycol) 309, 311

3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (dopa) Table 5; 181

1-2-dihydroxypropane (propylene glycol} 309

1-2-dihydroxypropane alginate 203

dimethyl ketone, see propanone

dimethyl nonatriene 340

o~y-diminobutyric acid Table 5

diosgenin 328, 411

dipentene 244

dipeptide 202

disaccharides 69, 130, 131, 144, 305, 306

disulphiram (tetracthylthiouram disulphide) 356

diterpine glycosides 101, 202

diterpene resin acids 285

divinylbenzene 311

djenkolic acid Table 5

DNA, see deoxyribonucleic acid

dodecanedioic acid 360

dopa, sec 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine

dyes Table 10, 18, 21; 198, 226, 268, 276, 281,
290-293, 294, 347, 354, 364, 365, 376

dyes, synthetic 12, 227, 244, 291, 293, 325

a-ecdysone 350

ecdysterone 340

EE, see ether extract

EFA, see fatty acids, essential

cllagitannins 289

emetine Table 23

enzymes 16, 68, 69, 70, 92, 95, 101, 106, 111,
112,131, 132, 133, 136, 141, 144, 145,
158,159, 166, 167, 168, 170, 181, 188, 191,
192, 193, 195, 196, 200, 201, 203, 204, 206,
218, 219, 221, 222, 281, 288, 305, 306, 312,
Chemical Index

324, 328, 335, 349, 350, 360, 361, 362, 370,

374, 375; hydrolytic enzymes 159, 192, 193

ergometrinine 325, 363

ergosterol 140

ergotamine 325, 363

ergotoxine 325, 363

erucamide Table 21

erucic acid Table 20, 21; 186, 219, 296, 298

erythritol 309

erythromycin 368

esering, see physostigmine

essential oils (see also exudates and turpentine,

and oils, volatile) 68, 103, 188, 200, 245,
281, 285, 286, 287, 299-304, 349, 410

ethanoate rayon 313

ethanal (acetaldehyde) Table 22; 304, 311

ethanoic acid (acetic acid) 204, 211, 215, 244,

254, 288, 304, 311, 360; ethanoic anhydride
313, 325; ethanoic esters 311

ethanol Table 22; 134, 170, 195, 196, 244, 261,

301, 302, 304, 311, 312, 360, 361, 370, 375

ethene (ethylene) 101, 261, 304, 309

ether extract (EE) 128

ethers 242, 308, 311, 313

ethyl alcohol, see ethanol

ethyl glycol, see 1,2-dihydroxyethane

cthylene, see ethene

cthylene glycol, see 1,2-dihydroxyethane

eucheuman 380

eugenol 199

euseinogen 370

f-exotoxin 343
fagopyrine 175

farnesol pyrophosphate 341

fat, crude, see ether extract

fat substtute 174, 182

fats (see also lipids) Table 19; 127, 128, 138-

139, 141, 152, 154, 157, 167, 168, 174, 178,
184-185, 188, 202, 209, 212, 213, 216, 295,

499

299, 311, 347, 349, 351, 356, 382, 409;

ioding value 139; melting point 139;
saponification point 139; saturated fats
138; unsaturated fats 138

fatty acids (see also lipids) Table 20, 21; 102,

128, 131, 136, 138, 139, 141, 184, 186, 204,
244, 247, 295, 296, 298, 409, diunsaturated
fatty acids Table 20; 296; epoxy fatty acids
299; essential fatty acids (EFA) 139, 187,
188,217, 298; hydroxy fatty acids Table
20; 299, 360; monounsaturated fatty acids
Table 20; 139, 296; multiunsaturated fatty
acids Table 20; polyunsaturated fatty acids
139, 186; saturated fatty acids Table 20;
186, 188, 296; unsaturated fatty acids 138,
139, 187, 296

fatty acid esters 303

fatty alcohols 124, 303

fatty oils (fixed oils) 295-296

fibre, crude Table 8

ficin 203

fibres, synthetic 12

filloerythine 175

flavan Table 27

flavone-related compounds 288, 333

flavonoids 102, 224, 333, 339; flavonoid

aglycones 224; flavonoid pigments 197,
292, 293; flavonoid polymers 143;
flavonoid tannins 292

floatation agents 285

fluorogthanate 222
folic acid 141

formaldehyde, see methanal

formic acid, see methanoic acid

{B-D-fructofuranosidase 360

fructosan 131, 132

fructose 73, 130, 131, 134, 201, 224, 305, 348;

D-fructose 131; fructose syrup 134, 201

fruit sugar, see fructose

fucoidan 381
500

fucosan 381

fucoxanthin 383

fumaric acid 381

fumaroprotocetraric acid 365
funoran 381
furanocoumarins 335
furanose 131

furcellarin (Danish agar) 380

furfural 244, 313

fustic 292

gadoleic acid Table 20, 21;

galactan 131, 135, 206, 374

galactoglucomannan 131

galactomannans 131, 305, 306

galactose 131, 285, 306; D-galactose 131, 283,

378, 379; D-galactose sulphate 380; L-
galactose 378

galacturonic acid 306, 285

gallic acid 144, 188, 288, 349, 361

gallotannin 144, 289

gamboge 290

gellan 122

geraniol 380

gibberellic acid 101

gibberellin 101, 384

ginnanso 381

GLA, see y-linolenic acid

gliadin 157

globulin 172

B-glucanase 219

glucans 135; a-glucans 133; B-glucans 135,

165, 219

B-glucitol 360; D-glucitol 360

glucomannins 131, 306

gluconic acid 360

B-D-glucopyranose 377

glucose 73, 90, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135,

144, 146, 165, 168, 201, 203, 224, 244, 261,

Chemcal Index

305, 306, 308, 311, 312, 313, 360, 369, 370,

405; D-glucose 131

glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase 181

glucosides 102, 181, 222, 292, 361, 405

glucosinolates (thiosinolate) 146, 186, 200, 333

D-glucuronic acid 283; L-glucuronic acid 375

glutamic acid Table 5; 360

B-(y-L-glutamyl) aminoproprionitrile (BAPN)

145

glutelins 169

gluten 106, 134, 157, 158, 159, 165, 166, 167,

168, 170, 171, 172

glutenin 157

glycerides 260, 295

glycerin, see glycerol

glycerol (1,2,3-trihydroxypropane, glycerin)

138, 195, 203, 295, 309, 311, 360, 364, 375,
376, 381

glycerol ethers 311

glyceryl esters 409

glycine Table 5

glycogen 306

glycol esters 311

glycol glycoside 311

glycoproteins 142, 202

glycosides Table 24, 25, 27; 131, 132, 135, 204,

281, 302, 305, 311, 326, 369, 409
goitrin 146

gossypol 187

gramine 221

grape sugar, see glucose

guaiacol 248

gum kinos 286

gum resins 290, 299, 302

gums Table 18; 131, 135, 152, 157, 203, 229,

232, 234, 238, 244, 273, 276, 281, 282-284,
290, 294, 309, 311, 370, 374, 376

gymnemins 202
Chemical Index

haemagglutinins, see lectins

HCN, see hydrogen cyanide

haematoxein (haematein) 292

haematoxylin 292, 294

heliotropin 300

hemicellulose 88, 106, 131, 242, 244, 255, 256,

257,271, 275, 306, 312, 361

n-heptane

heplapeptides 367

heroin, see diamorphine hydrochloride

heteropolyanion 293

hexahydroxydiphenic acid 144

histidine (Table 5, 8

homoarginine Table 5

homovanillic acid 102

hordenine 200

HSP, see protein, heat shock

huperzine 351

hydrocellulose 312

hydrocolloids 122, 127

hydrocortisone 375

hydrocyanic acid 145

hydrogen cyanide (HCN) Table 25

hydromorphine 329

4, hydroxybenzyl glucosinolate 200

4, hydroxybenzy! isothiocyanate 200

hydroxycinnamic acids Table 27

hydroxyethyl starch 308

4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzaldehyde, see vanillin

hydroxypropyl starch 308

hydroxystilbenes Table 27

hyoscine (scopolamine) 412

hyoscyamine 412

hypnean 380

IAA, see indole acetic acid

IBA, see indole butyric acid
ibotenic acid 358
ichthyoetherol Table 25

501

imino-acid 68, 75

indican 292

indigotin 291, 292

indole acetic acid (IAA) 101; indole-3-acetic

acid 101

indole alkaloid 358

indole butyric acid (IBA) 101

indolizidine alkaloid 21

indoxyl 292

meso-inositol hexaphosphoric acid, see phytic

acid

indospicine Table 5

inulin 131, 132, 305

insulin 111, 132, 168, 306. 318, 368

interferon 111

invert sugar, see sugar, invert

invertase 305

iodine 146, 294, 367, 381, 382, 383

ionogenic starch 308

ipomeamarone 346

iridophycan 380

isobornyl acetate 246

isobutylamides 339

isoflavonoids Table 25

isoleucine Table 3, 8; 137, 175

isothiocyanate 146, 201

isothujone 103

itaconic acid 311

jalap 286

jasmolin 340

a-kainic acid 381

ketones 102, 103, 130, 131, 138, 305, 311;

aliphatic ketones 103; artemene ketone 103

ketose sugar, see sugar, ketose

kolanin 405

kosidin 349

kosin 349
502

LA, see linoleic acid

lacquers 243, 245, 285, 286, 290, 313, 371, 381

lactic acid 159, 192, 193, 204, 215, 244, 312,

360, 369

lactide 312

lactone 102, 339, 343

lactose (milk sugar) 131

lagvulinitic acid 244

laevulose, see fructose

laminarin 374, 377

latexes 229, 281, 287, 290, 295, 335, 338, 403,

405, 407

lauric acid Table 20, 21; 186, 187, 298

lawsone (see also henna) 292

lead ethanoate 288

lecithin 203

lectins (haemagglutinins, phytohaemaglutinins)

113, 142-143, 181, 220, 381

leghaemoglobin 101

leurocristine 324, 326

leucine Table 5, 8; 137

lichen acids 365

lignin 128, 135, 241, 242, 244, 255, 256, 257,

263, 271, 273, 275, 316, 313, 361

lignocellulose 362, 271

lignoceric acid Table 20, 21;

lignosulphonates 244

lignosulphonic acid 200

linalool 246, 300, 303

linoleic acid Table 20, 21; 139, 186, 187, 188,

217,298
linolenic acid (LA) 184, 296, 298; a-linolenic
acid Table 20, 21; 139; y-linolenic acid
Table 20, 21; 139

linolenic fatty acids 139

lipase 168, 360

lipids (sce also fats and fatty acids) 260, 281,

295-299, 362, 376

lipoxygenase 168

litmus 294, 365

Chemcal Index

lonchocarpin Table 25

lupanine 146

lycopodium oleic glyceride 351

lysergic acid 329, 408

lysine Table 5, 8; 106, 136, 137, 145, 161, 164,

167, 169, 174, 175, 212, 217

magnesium alginate 375

maleic anhydride 285, 311

malic acid 154, 311

maltase 144

maltose 261, 305, 306

mannan 131, 30S, 306

mannitol 131, 201, 306, 381

mannose 131, 224, 306

D-mannuronic acid 375

MCPA, see 2-methyl-4-2,4-chlophenoxyacetic

acid 101

menthol 246

mercury alginate 377

mescaline (8-(3,4,5-trimethoxyl-phenyl)-
ethylamine) 408

metformin 318
methanal (formaldehyde) 237, 304, 309

methane 261, 353, 402

methanoic acid (formic acid) 244, 288, 296, 304

methanol (methyl alcohol, wood alcohol) 248,

253,261, 304, 361, 368, 382

methicillin 362

methionine Table 5, 8; 137, 174

methyl alcohol, see methanol

methyl cellulose 276, 304

methyl chloride. see chloromethane

2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid (MCPA)

101

S-methylcysteine sulphoxide Table 5; 135

methyl diols 360

methyl esters 124, 206, 260

methyl-interupted triene 296

4-methyl-2-methoxyphenol, see creosol

Chemical Index

methyl pectate 135, 206

methyl salicylate 325

Se-methylselenocysteine Table 5

methysergide 329

microcystins 367

milk sugar, see lactose

mimosine Table 5; 220, 344

minerals 140

miracularin 202

mitogens 142

monellins 202

monofluororacetic acid 222, 335

monosaccharides 130, 131, 282, 305

morin 292

morindin 292

morphine Table 23; 324, 329, 407

mucilages 84, 131, 135, 152, 224, 274, 282,

284-285, 380, 381

muscarine 358

muscazone 342

muscimole 358

mustard oil glycosides 146, 399

mycoprotein 364

myriosinase 200, 333

myristic acid Table 20, 21; 187, 298

NAA, see naphthalene acetic acid

naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) 101

naphthaquinone 102, 292

narceing 324
neostigmine 324, 337

nervonic acid Table 20, 21;

NFE, see nitrogen-free extract

niacin (see also Subject Index.vitamin B;) Table

8; 141,181

nicotine Table 23; 340, 350, 404, 405

nicotinic acid 164

nitrocellulose, see cellulose nitrate

nitrogen-free extract (NFE) 128

nitrogenase 95

503

nitro-glycerine 381

nitro-mannitol 381

non-protein nitrogen 210, 220

non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) 135, 211

non-sugar aglycone 143

noscapine 324

NSP, see non-starch polysaccharides

nucleolides 102

nux vomica 324

nylon Table 21; 264, 293

octanoic acid (caprylic) Table 20, 21; 298

ODAP, see f-N-oxalyl-o,f-diamino-propionic

acid

oil (see also lipids) Table 20; 49, 74, 128, 138,
139, 152, 184, 202, 295, 296, 367, 400;
iodine value 139; saponification value 139;
drying oils Table 19; 294, 295; fixed oils,
see fatty oils; non-drying oils Table 19; 295;
semi-drying oils Table 19; 295; volatile oils
(see also essential oils) 22, 85, 200, 260,
380, 396, 411

oleicacid Table 20, 21; 184, 186, 187, 296,

298, 409

oleoresins 247, 258, 286-287, 299, 411

oligosaccharide 88, 130, 132, 133, 305

opium 7, 323, 407-408

oxaloacetic acid 89

fB-N-oxalyl-a,B-diaminoproprionic acid (ODAP)

Table 5; 145

oxy-phenoxazon 365

palmitic acid Table 20, 21; 184, 296, 298, 409

palmitoleic acid Table 20, 21

pantothenic acid 141

papain 203, 324

papaverine 324

pectase 206

pectic acid 206

pectin 131, 135, 177, 203, 206, 267, 273, 324,

504

380

pectose 206

penicillin 1, 18, 325, 362, 376

penthydric alcohol 309

pentosans 170, 285, 312

peptain 203

peptidase, see trypsin

peptides 129, 136, 142, 202, 203, 367, 400

peroxidase 168

petroselenic acid Table 20, 21

phalloidin 358

PHB, see polyhydroxybutanoic acid

phellandrene 303; (3-phellandrene 246

phenol/phenolics Table 27; 102, 103, 143, 144,

187, 248, 271, 288, 289, 292, 299, 309,
313, 345, 352, 354

phenol-methanal polymers 309

phenoxazin 365

phenyl propanes 102, 135

phenylalanine Table S, 8; 137

phloroglucinol 349

3-phosphoglyceric acid 88

phospholipids 143, 295

phycocolloids (see also colloids) 374-381, 384,

387

phyllophoran 380

phylloquinone (see also Subject Index, vitamin K)

141

physostigmine (eserine) 324, 329, 336, 337

phytic acid (meso-inositol hexaphosphoric acid)

135, 143
phytin 345, 346

phytoalexin Table 27; 345, 346

phytochelatins 400

phytochemicals Table 10; 2, 5, 11, 21, 235,

281-315, 323, 329, 333, 335, 336, 337

phytogluycogen 163

phytohaemagglutinins, see lectins

phytomenadione (see also Subject Index, vitamin

K) 141

Chemcal Index

phytosterols, see sterols

phytotoxins 344

picric acid 286, 367

pinene 246; a-pinene 246, 287, 300; B-pinene

246, 300

pinitol 68

piperonal butoxide 300, 341

pipertone 303

pisatin 345

plasticisers Table 21; 244, 247, 285, 309, 311,

362,371

plastics Table 21; 179, 310, 313, 362

polyacetalyenes 102

polyacetylenic alcohol Table 25

polyacrylonitrile 310

polyacrylates 287

polyamide resins 247

polyesters 264, 309, 310

polyethylene 310, 386

polygodial 341

polyhydric phenols 288

polyhydroxybutanoic acid (PHB) 371

polymethanol esters 304

polyols 68, 144, 309, 310

polypeptides 102

polyphenols 166, 188, 289, 361

polypropylene 264, 277, 310, 371, 386, 390

polypropylene glycol alginate (PGA) 375

polysaccharides 130, 131, 132, 135, 206, 219,

282, 283, 284, 305, 306, 308, 311, 324, 376,
378, 379, 381; non-cellulose polysaccharides
1335, 211; non-starch polysaccharides 135,
211

polyurethane 309, 310

polyuronide 284

polyvinyl acetate (PVA) 310

polyvivyl chloride (PVC) 310

potassium hydrogen tartrate 203

prednisolone 368, 375

proanthocyanidines, see condensed tannins

Chemical Index

procaine 329

progesterone 411

prolamines 169, 172

proline Table 5; 68, 75, 100

propane 102

propane glycol, see 1,2-dihydroxypropane

propanone (acetone, dimethyl ketone) 138, 244,

253,371

propanone-butyl-alcohol (acetone-butyl-alcohol)
170

propanoic acid 202, 211, 311, 370

propenoic acid (acrylic acid) 311

2-propenyl (allyl) glucosinolate 200

propionic acid, see propanoic acid

propylene 309, 311

propylene glycol, see 1,2-dihydroxypropane

prostaglandins 139, 298, 360

protease 142, 159, 298

protease inhibitors 142-144, 220

protein Table 25; 67, 70, 73, 74, 101, 106, 111,
115, 127, 128, 129, 134, 136-137, 138, 141,
142, 143, 144, 146, 148, 152, 154, 157, 158,
160, 161, 163, 164, 165, 166, 168, 169, 170,
171,172, 174, 175, 178, 180, 181, 182, 183,
189, 192, 193, 196, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206,
209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217,
218, 219, 220, 224, 227, 264, 271, 284, 288,
289, 308, 309, 328, 348, 356, 360, 361, 362,
364, 368, 369, 370, 372, 374, 375, 376, 378,
379, 382, 383, 402

protein, crude, see crude protein

protein, heat shock (HSP) 70

protein, true (TP) 128, 129, 210, 205

prothrombin 141

protokosin 349
protopectin 206

prunasine 335

psilocine 358

psilocybine 358

psychotrine Table 23

505

pterocarpan Table 27

pullulan 362

purine 102

purpurin 292

pyrethrins 340, 341

pyridine alkaloids 141

pyridoxine 141

pyrogallol 288

pyrolysis oil 257

pyrrolizidine alkaloids 334, 335

quinacrine 349

quinidine Table 23

quinine Table 23; 291, 323, 407

quinolizidine alkaloids 146, 220
quinones 102, 292; o-quinone 188, 360

racemic acid

raffinose 131

rennet 152, 203, 370

rennin 370

reserpine 324

resinates 179, 285

resins Table 14, 21; 7, 86, 128, 226, 229, 232,

234, 237, 238, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246,
247, 255, 256, 259, 273, 275, 276, 281, 285-
286, 289, 290, 295, 299, 302, 310, 312, 354,
404, 406, 407, 408, 410; polyamide resin
247; polymethanal resin 304; polyterpene
resin 246 ; synthetic resins 309, 311;
terpenoid resins 302

resinoids 302

resinol, see rosin oil

retinal (see also Subject Index, vitamin A) 140

retinoic acid (see also Subject Index, vitamin A)

140

retinol (see also Subject Index, vitamin A) 140,

also see rosin oil

4, a-L-thamnosyloxy benzyl isothiocyanate

399
506

rhamnose 283, 285

riboflavin (see also Subject Index, vitamin By)

Table 8; 141, 181

ribonucleic acid (RNA) 131

ribonucleotides 348

ribose 131

ricinoleic acid Table 20, 21;

RNA, see ribonucleic acid

rosin 243, 244, 245, 247, 250, 276, 285, 286,

294; rosin oil (resinol, retinol) 247

rotenone Table 25; 340, 341

ribber (caoutchouc) 244, 254, 281, 287-288,

309, 354, 371; synthetic rubber (butyl rubber)

245,304
tin 292

saccharine 202

safrole 300, 341

salazinic acid 365

salicin 325, 329

salicylic acid 103,325

sapogenin 143

saponins Table 25: 143, 174, 281, 338, 339,

409

saxitoxin 367

scopolamine, see hyoscing

selenocystathionine Table 5

selenomethionine Table 5

semicellulose 313

serine Table 5; 142

serpentine 328

sesamin 187
sesamol 187

sesamolin 187

sesquiterpene lactones 339

sequiteerpenoids 355

silica 232, 239, 252, 271, 272,315

shikimic acid 349

sinalbin 200

sinigrin 200

Chemcal Index

sitosterol 411

sodium alginate 376, 378

sodium ammonium alginate 377

sodium carboxymethylcellulose 206

sodium lamarin sulphate 377

solanidine 146, 281

solanine 281

solanose 281

sorbitol 203, 309

sparteine Table 23; 146

squalane 295

squalene 174, 295

stachyose 131

starch Table 22; 55, 68, 69, 78, 82, 121, 128,
130, 132-135, 144, 152, 158, 159, 160, 161-
162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 170, 171, 172,
174, 178, 184, 189, 191, 192, 196, 201, 205,
206, 211, 212, 213, 216, 218, 220, 244, 276,
284, 294, 304, 305, 306-312, 347, 349, 361,
362, 363, 370, 371, 375, 376 417, 418;
catonic starch 308; ionogenic starch, 308;
modified starch 121, 135, 308, 310, 361

starch glycoside 311

starch phosphate 308

starch sulphate 308

starch xanthate 309,310

stearic acid Table 20, 21; 184, 296, 298, 409

steroids 102, 143, 281, 350; steroidal alkaloids

146; steroidal sapogenins 411; steroidal
saponins 143

steviol 101

stevioside 101, 202

stigmasterol 411

stilbene ‘Table 27

streptomycin 325, 368

strychnine Table 23

succinic acid 370

sucrose 69, 73, 131, 132, 163, 201, 202, 224,

305, 306, 370

sugar alcohol (see also mannitol) 73, 131, 201,

Chemical Index

306, 381

sugar 68, 73, 82, 109, 128, 130-132,142, 152,

158, 159, 163, 166, 167, 168, 177, 189, 192,
194, 195, 196, 197, 201, 220, 244, 254, 272,
272, 281, 283, 284, 304, 305-306, 309, 311,
312, 360, 362, 363, 370, 371; aldose sugars
305; coupling sugars 370; invert sugars
305; ketose sugars 305; nonreducing sugars
131, 305; reducing sugars 131, 132, 167,
305

sulphate turpentine

sulphated galactans 374

sulphated polysaccharides 381

surfactants Table 21; 295, 308, 309, 310, 311

2,4,5-T, see 2,4,5,-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid

tannic acid 166, 349

tannins Table 25; 14, 102, 143-144, 166, 167,

188, 192, 193, 194, 217, 221, 232, 234, 249,
273, 281, 284, 288-290, 252, 293, 294, 339,
353; condensed tannins (proanthocyanides)
143, 166, 288; hydrolisable tannins 144,
221, 288

tartaric acid 195, 203

tephrosine Table 25

terpenes 102

terpenoids Table 27; 101, 102, 103, 140, 299,

341, 346

terpines 102

tetracyclines 325, 368

tetraethylthiouram disulphide, see

disulphiram

Al-tetrahydrocannabinol (A-9-THC)

thaumatin 202

A-9-THC, see Al-tetrahydrocannabinol 407

thebaine 324

theobromine 188, 189, 405

thiaminase 349

thiamine (see also Subject Index, vitamin By)

Table 8; 141, 160, 161, 349, 350

thiocyanate 146

thioglucoside, see glucosinolate

threonine Table 5, 8; 106, 137, 169

a-thujone 103

thujopene 299

tocopherols (see also Subject Indix, vitamin E)

124, 383; a-tocopherol 140

tomatineg Table 23

TP, see protein, true

trehalose 69, 132

triacylglycerols 184, 295

tricholomic acid 342

2,4,5,-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T) 101

triglycerides 260, 295, 299

1,2,3-trihydroxypropane, see glycerol

B-(3,4,5-trimethoxyl-phenyl)-ethylamine, see
mescaline

triterpene saponins 143

triterpenoids 174, 342

trypsin (peptidase) 142, 181

tryptamine alkaloid 221

tryptophan Table 5, 8; 137, 164, 169, 175

d-tubocurarine chloride (curare) Table 24, 25;

336

turpentine 244, 245-245, 247, 286, 287, 300

tyrosine Table 5, 8

ubiquinone-10 328
urethane 311
urishiol

usnic acid
valine Table 5, 8

vanillin (4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzaldehyde)
veratrine 334

vinblastine Table 23; 324

vincaleuroblasting 324, 326

vincristine Table 23; 324

vitamins (see also Subject Index) 140-142

508 Chemcal Index

waxes 66, 82, 225, 237, 270, 281, 289, 295,

299, 301, 303-304, 308, 409

wood alxohol, see methanol

xanthates 308, 371

xanthin 122
xanthophyll 368, 383
xylan 312

xylitol 313

xylose 284,312
Subject Index

(Major references in bold)

abacd, see hemp, Manila hemp

adhesives (glues) Table 22; 226, 236, 237, 245,

247, 268, 283, 284, 285, 286, 298, 299, 308,
309, 313, 376, 379, 381

afara (Terminalia superba), wood 235

afforestation, see forestry

aflatoxin (Aspergillus flavus) 180, 342

African blackwood (Dalbergia melanoxylon),

wood 230

African, Calabar, Sherbro or Sulima bass palm

(Raphia hookeri), fibre 27, 277, 278

African cedars, see cedars, African

African or Aztec marigold (Tagetes erecta), feed

supplement 219

African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) 52,91,

123, 186, 260; palm kernel oil Table 9; 186,
260; palm oil Tables 9, 19, 20; 123-124,
138, 140, 186, 216, 260, 261, 204

agriculture 4,7, 9, 11, 14, 21, 45, 48, 52, 54,

57,73, 102, 108, 111, 118, 223, 322, 348,
399, 415; monoculture 15, 58, 59, 225,
416; plantations 91, 102, 124, 179, 225,
238, 260, 276, 284, 287, 342, 357, 359, 391,
401, 402, 416

Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, UK Ministry of

(MAFF) 117,126, 147, 149, 420

agroforestry 102, 216, 251, 395-396

ajowan oil (Trachyspermum ammi), fungicidal

properties 300

akund floss (Calotropis spp.) 265

albardine, falsc alfa (Lygeum spartum) 84; fibre

275

alcohols (ethyl alcohol, industrial alcohol and

spirits of wine, see also beverages, alcoholic,
fermentation products and Chemical Index)
Table 22; 163, 219, 229, 251, 304, 410, 423,
356
alder (Alnus spp.), exudate 224

alfa grass, sce csparto grass

algae (sce also seaweeds) Table 3; 2, 4, 30, 36,

131, 151, 179, 260, 291, 306, 309, 314, 325,
347, 367, 369, 375-388, 421; bluc-green
algae, see bacteria, cycanobacteria; brown
algae (Phacophyta) Table 3; 131, 306, 373,
374, 375, 377, 378, 381, 382, 384;
conjugating green algae and desmids
{Gamophyta) Table 3; 373; golden-brown
algae (Chrysomonada) Table 3; 373;
green algae (Chlorophyta) Table 3; 373,
384; red algae (Rhodophyta) Table 3; 325,
373, 374, 378, 379, 382; yellow-green algae
(Xanthophyta) Table 3; 373

allelochemicals 101-103, 200, 299

allelopathy 75, 87, 344-345, 349, 396

alkaloids, see Chemical Index

alkaloids, toxic Tables 24, 25; 147, 182, 221,

334, 336, 358, 405, 413

all scale (Atriplex polycarpa), soap 409

almonds (Prunus dulcis), nuts Table 6; 178;

almond oil 410

amaranths (Amaranthus spp.) 5; amaranth oil

174, 295; grain Table 8; 172-174, 295

amenity plants 7, 390-391, 394; hedges Table

28; 11, 41, 223, 239, 389, 390, 392-393,
418; ornamental plants 7, 38, 42, 78, 102,
239, 340, 349, 350, 351, 372, 394, 401, 402;
shade, shelter, windbreaks Table 28; 11, 12,
41, 53, 389, 390, 391-392, 393, 394, 396,
397; urban or street trees 391, 393-394

American pennyroyal, sec pennyroyal, American

amino-acids, sce Chemical Index

510

Ancient Egyptians 225, 299, 319, 410

Ancient Greeks 1, 4, 101, 224, 258, 319, 320,

330, 404, 412

angelique or basralocus (Dicorynia guianensis),

wood 232

animal diseases 357; bovine spongiforme

encephalopathy (BSE) 149; camel diseases
322; ergotism (Claviceps purpurea) 357,
foot and mouth disease 372; viral diseases
331

anise (Pimpinella anisum), spice 195

anise, Chinese (/iliciwm spp.), insecticide 337

anise, Japanese ({llicium anisatum), piscicide

337

annatto (Bixa orelliana), dye Table 10; 292,

409

anoxia, see respiration

antibiotics 225, 346, 368, 392; chloramphenicol

(Streptomyces venezuelae), erythromycine
(S. erythraeus), streptomycin (S. griseus) and
tetracycline (Streptomyces aureofaciens),
368

antinutrients (see also toxins, vertebrate and

Chemical Index) 142-147, 151, 154, 174,
181, 182, 205

ants 401; honey ants 228; red fire ants 343

aphids 228, 340; gall aphid 353; lupin aphid

53; peach-potato aphid 113; red cotton
stainer 341

apples (Malus x domestica) Table 6; 38, 63,

102, 152, 154, 176, 180, 206, 225, 357,
apple juice 177, 190

apricots Table 6

arachnids 342; spiders 225

Archangel tar, sce Stockholm tar

argan (Argania spinosa), argan oil 187;

propagation 110

arrowroot, Australian or Queensland (Canna

edulis or indica) Table 22; 78, 133, 179;
Florida arrowroot (Zemia pumila) 184;
‘West Indian arrowroot (Marantia
arundinacea) Table 22; 133

Subject Index

artichoke, globe (Cynara scolymus) 179;

Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus)
Table 6; 132, 154, 261, 305

ash (Fraxinus sp.), wood 236; flowering or

manna ash (F. ornus), sweet exudate 131,
201, 228

asparagus (Asparagus officinalis) 39, 154, 179,

350, 384

asparagus pea, see winged bean

aspirin 325-326

athel, see tamarisk

aubergine (Solanum melongena) Table 6

Australian arrowroot, see arrowroot, Australian

autumn Crocus, see crocus, autumn

avocado (Persea americana), conservation 63;

fruit Table 6; 343; juice 188; oil 188

auxins, see Chemical Index

babassu palm (Orbignya phalerata) 87, 213,

227; 0il Table 19; 185, 260

bacaba palm (Oenocarpus distichus), oil 185

bacteria Table 3; 2, 4, 30, 48, 88, 98, 102, 141,

188, 202,268, 288, 366-371, 372, 378, 380,
384, 395, 300; antibacterials 317, 363, 368-
370; cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) 30,
48, 95, 351, 364, 369; bacterial digestion
132, 133, 145, 210, 349; edible bacteria
206, 368-369, 423; denitrifying bacteria
367; genetic engineering bacteria 111-112,
114, 368, pathogenic and toxic bacteria (see
also human diseases) 170, 346, 363, 367-
368, 401; brucellosis (Brucella abortus)
367; crown gall and hairy root diseases
(Agrobacterium tumefaciens) 111

bacterial fermentation, see beverages, alcoholic,

also fermentation processes and products, and
fermented foods

bacterial N-fixation or nitrifying bacteria, see N-

fixation, bacterial

bacteria, symbiotic (see also N-fixation, bacterial}

95-98

Bahia grass (Paspalum notatum), N-fixation 98

Subject Index

Bahia piassava palm, piassaba or coquila

(Autalea funifera), fibre 265, 267, 277, 278

Bahia wood, see Brazilian redwood

balanos (Balanites aegyptiaca), oil 410

balasier or cachibou (Calathea lutea), cauassi

wax 304

balsa (Ochroma lagopus), wood 233

balsams (see also Chemical Index) 260, 286,

287, 299, 302; balsam of Peru (Myroxylon
balsamum var. balsamum) 287; copaiba
balsam (Copaifera spp.) 260, 286; Tolu
balsam (Myroxylon balsamum var. pareirae)
287

Bambara groundnut or ground bean (Vigna

subterranea) 178, 180

bamboos 238,239-240, 274, 279, 393, 412;

edible shoots 183-184; pulp, see fibres, pulp;
water source 189; Calcutta or male bamboo
(Dendrocalamus strictus) 239; spiny
bamboo (Bambusa bambos) 239

bananas (Musa spp.) Table 6; 5, 42, 63, 109,

110, 133, 154, 155, 176, 177, 391; biogas
261; vaccine carrier 328; plantains (M. x
paradisica) Table 6; 182, 183

baobab (Adansonia digitata) 4-5, 25, 51-52, 72,

79, 84, 176, 182, 413

Barbary or Indian fig (Opuntia ficus-indica) 72

barley (Hordeum vulgare) Tables 1, 6, 22; 27,

38, 54, 95,101, 112, 133, 134, 135, 155,
156, 157, 164-165, 172, 196, 212, 218, 219,
306, 308, 309; brewer’s/distiller’s grains
191, 219; brewing 164, 165, 190-192; straw
171

barrels, see wood products, cooperage

basralocus, see angelique

bassing fibre, see palmyra palm

bay (Laurus nobilis), garland 412; herb and oil

199

bean, jack (Canavalia ensiformisy 142, 180;

sword bean (C. gladiata) 180
beans Table 6; 73, 137, 142, 147, 154, 176,
180; broad, field or horse beans (Vicia faba)

511

Table 6; 181, 205, 216, 225; Phaseolus

beans Table 1; haricot or kidney beans (P.
vulgaris) 97, 180; Lima or butter beans (P.
lunarus) 179, 180; runner or green beans (P.
coccineus) Table 6, 179; tepary beans (P.
acutifolius) 13

beans, soya, see soya beans;

beans, winged, see winged bean

bearberry, see uva ursi

bedstraw, ladies or yellow (Galium verum),

rennet 203

beech (Fagus spp.) 38; compost 357; nuts

177; wood 231,241

beef apple, see chicle

beefwood (Causarina equisetifolia), exudate

224

bees 113, 209, 224-225, 400, 419; honeybees

225

beet (Beta vulgaris) 94, 154; seakale or sea

spinach beet (B. vulgaris subsp.maritima)
152, 182; sugar beet (B. vulgaris subsp.
vulgaris) Table 6; 131, 201, 206, 304, 305,
363, 370; beet sugar 154; pectin 206; tops
212

beetles 53, 227, 396; ambrosia beetle 235;

bostrychid beetle 253; bruchid beetles 53,
227, 396; Colorado potato beetle 53, 126,
342; khapra beetle 341; lily beetle 53;
powder post beetle 234, 235; spruce bark
beetles 126; rhinoceros beetles 342

ben oil, see horseradish tree

benzoin (Styrax benzoin), oleoresin 302

betal palm (Areca catechu), masticatory 405

beverages or drinks Table 6; 175, 188-197, 201,

300, 347

beverages, alcoholic 155, 163, 165, 248, 365,

403; cordials 197; distilled and spirit
beverages 41, 55, 160, 170, 189, 195-197;
arrak 205; brandy 174, 189, 196; calvados
196; gin 189, 196; liqueurs 197, 189;
mescal 196; rum 196, 404; shdchic 160;
slivovitz 196; spirits 4, 188, 195, 196;
whisky 189, 191, 195, 196, 248, 249, 353
512

bevereages, fermented 4, 47, 155, 152, 170,

188, 189-197, 365, 367, 370; beer 4, 166,
167, 174, 188, 189, 190-193, 195, 203, 204,
283, 289, 375, 378, 379, 381; Celtic heather
ale 348; chicha or maize beer 163; cider
190, 195, 196; kvass, quass or Russian rye
bread beer 193; mead 224, 408; perry
190, 195; sake, Jananese rice wine or rice
beer 160, 189, 363; wine Table 6; 4, 152,
177, 188, 193- 195, 196, 198, 203, 248, 250,
289, 370, 374, 379

beverages, non-alcoholic (see also cocoa, coffee,

maté, rooibos tea and tea) 163, 189; fruit
juices and soft drinks 131, 170, 188, 189,
201, 306, 312, 361, 375, 379: herbal teas 7,
18; kerkade, see roselle; lemonade 188;
water 129-130, 189

biochemistry 4, 64, 65

bioherbicides, see herbicides

birch (Betula spp.), bark 258; wood 241; black

or sweet birch (B. lenta), birch beer 190;
salicylic acid 326; paper birch (B.
papyrifera), toxin 232

birds 8, 44, 51, 156, 166, 352, 367, 393, 418;

brush-tongued parrots 51; dodo 66; flower-
peckers 51; Hawaiian honey-creepers 51;
honey creepers 51; honey-eaters 51;
humming birds 51; lesser flamingoe 368;
poultry 155, 209, 213, 218, 219, 368, 383,
388; sunbirds 51; white-eyes 51

bird’s-nest orchid (Neottia nidus-avis),

mycorrhiza 99

black locust, see false acacia

blackberries (Rubus spp.), fruit 177;

bioherbicide Table 26

blackboy (Xanthorhoea spp.), acaroid resin 83,

285-286

bladder campion (Silene vulgaris), Cu tolerant

strains 400

bladderpod (Lesquerella spp.), oil Table 20;

260, 299

blacberries (Vaccinium myrtillusy Table 20

blue-green algae, see bacteria

Subject Index

body paint, see cosmetics

borage (Borage officinalis), seed oil Table 20

bracken, sce ferns

Brazil nuts (Bertholletia excelsa) 5,15, 122,

178,179

Brazilian ipecacuanha (Psychotria ipecacuanha),

steroids and pharmaceuticals Table 23

Brazil wood (Caesalpinia spp.), dye 292, 294

Brazilian palm and palm kernel oils Table 19;

185, 216

Brazilian redwood or Bahia wood (Caesalpinia

echinata), dye 292

Brazilian tea, see maté

breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) 5, 63, 205

bread-fruit, hottentot, or kaffir bread

(Encephalatus caffer) 184

brigalow (Acacia harpophylla), N-fixation 97

brittle grass (Setaria geniculata), edible seed

171

broom root, see zakaton

broom-corn, see sorghum, broom-corn

broom grass (Miscanthus sorghum), fibre 278

broomrape (Orobanche spp.), weed 112,344

buckwheat (Fagopyron spp.) Table 8; 172, 175,

176, 340; common buckwheat (F. esculentum
subsp, esculentum) 175; Tartary buckwheat
(F. tataricum) 175

buffalo gourd (Cucurbita foetidissima) 13

bulbs 18, 55, 63, 72, 82, 94, 102, 179

bulrush (Schoenoplectus lacustris), anoxia 92

(see also reed mace)

bushy caper bean (Zygophyllum dumosum) 80

butcher's broom (Ruscus aculeatus), cladode 78

buttercup (Ranunculus spp.), taint milk 401

butterflies and moths 51, 100, 340; caterpillars
227, 340, 343; American, red and spring
bollworms 51; pink bollworm 340; codling
moth 342; European corn-borer 113, 343;
fall aamyworm 340; fig moths 52; giant
looper 343; honeydew moth 343; monarch
butterfly 113-114; mopane moth and worm
227; tiger moth 406; tobacco cutworm 343;
white-lined sphynx moth 227
Subject Index
butterwort (Pinguicula vulgaris), rennet 203

caa-ghe, see sweet herb of Paraguay

cabbage (Brassica oleracea) Table 6; 154, 155,

182, 204, 369

cachibou, see balasier

Calabar bass, bass, see African bass palm

Calabar or ordeal bean (Physostigma

venenosum), physostigmine 329, 336, 337,
411

calabash tree (Cresentia cujere), pollination 51

calamus oil, sce sweet flag

calendar plants 414

calico bush or mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia),

toxic honey 224

cameline (Camelina sativa), oil Table 20

campeachy wood or campeche, see logwood

canary grass (Phalaris aquatica), nitrogen 221

candelilla (Euphorbia amisyphilitica), wax 303

cafiihua, see grain chenopods, cafiihua

cannabis (Cannabis sativa subsp. indica) 406-

407

canola (Brassica napus cv Canola), meal 219;

oil 186 (see also oilseed rape)

caoutchouc, see rubber, Para

Cape jasmine, see jasmine, Cape

capsid 401

carbohydrates, sce Chemical Index

carbohydrate, available (sce also nitrogen-free

extract) 128, 133

cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum), spice 405

caribou 366

camauba wax palm (Copernicia prunifera),

carnauba or Ceara wax 66, 82, 86, 303
carob or locust tree (Ceratonia siliqua), gam
Table 18; 276, 282

carrot (Daucus carota) Table 6; 140, 176, 179,

220; carrot seed oil Table 20

cascara sagrada (Rhamnus purshiana) 324

cashew (Anacardium occidentale), nuts Table

6,179

cassava (Manihot esculenta) Table 6; 63, 137,

513

154, 155, 162, 167, 179, 183, 205, 261;

beer 190

castor oil (Riccinus communis) Tables 19, 20;

296, 299, 369

cat’s whiskers (Cleome gynandra), weed 401

cauliflower (Brassica oleracea Botrytis Group)

Table 6; 141, 179

cauassd wax, sce balasier

Ceara rubber, see rubbers, Ceara rubber

Ceard wax, see carnaba wax palm

cedar, African (Widdringtonia spp.) 5; eastern

red or pencil cedar (Juniperus virginiana)
299; Himalayan weeping cedar (J. recurva),
cedar wood oil 299, 300; western red cedar
(Thuja plicata) 83, 86

celery (Apium graveolens) 179,199,411, 412;

emmenagogue 411

cellulose, see dietary fibre and Chemical Index

centres of diversity/origin Table 1, 6

cereals Tables 6, 8; 5, 13, 69, 95, 97, 105, 112,

133, 134, 135, 136, 141, 144, 152, 154, 155-
172, 178, 180, 183, 189, 192, 216, 217-219,
345, 357, 384, 395, 417; fermented cereals,
204, 205, 304; major cereals 54, 135, 155,
156; minor and wild cereals and grassses 54,
105, 155, 171-172

chamomile {Anthemis spp.), milk taint 401

charcoal, sec fuel, charcoal

charlock, see mustard, wild mustard

checkerberry (Gaultheria procumbens), oil of
wintergreen 325

cherry pie {Lantana camara), weed 401

chestnut, Moreton Bay (Castanospermum

australe), AIDS 21

chestnut, sweet (Castanea sativa) 63, 359; nuts

Table 6; 178, 179; tannin 29C; wood 231,
241

chewing gum 245, 405

chicle, chiku, beef apple, naseberry or sapodilla

(Manilkara zapota), chewing gum 405

chickpea (Cicer arietinum) Table 6; 101, 181

Chile nuts {Araucaria spp.) 178

Chinese gooseberry, see kiwi fruit

514

Chinese or Japanese lacquer tree (Rhus

verniciflug), lacqueur 286

Chinese sumac (Rhus javanica), insect feed 353

Chinese vegetable oil or tallow (Sapium

sebiferum) Table 19; 260

Chinese water chestnuts (Eleocharis dulcis)

179

chrysanthemums, funerals 413

cinnamon (Cinnamonmum verum), cinnamon oil

199, 301; spice 65, 195, 199, 405

citrange (x Citroncirus webberi) 41

citrus (Citrus spp.) Tables 6, 26; 14, 63, 102,

141, 176, 177, 206, 342, 401; citrus
juice 177; citrus oil 300; ; orange flower
absolute 301; clementines, mandarins,
satsuma, tangerines (C. reticulata), fruit
176; import duty 28; oranges (C.
aurantium) Table 6; 14, 154, 155, 383;
pummelo, shaddock (C. maxima) 176

citrus rust mite 342

cladodes or phylloclades 78

cleavers or goosegrass (Galium aparine), seeds

401

climate 11, 15, 16, 18, 25, 43, 44-46, 47, 69,
61,62, 71,72,75,76, 79, 81, 84, 96, 106,
154, 158, 173, 186, 214, 261, 281, 361;
climate change 57-58; humidity 12, 46, 52,
62, 67, 68,79, 82, 236; rainfall 44, 45, 46,
47,52, 57, 65, 66, 67, 68, 76, 79, 80, 84, 96,
106, 114, 169, 211, 395, 396; temperature
(see also stress, temperature) 16, 45, 46, 46,
47,52, 61, 63, 64, 66, 79, 62, 94, 96, 129,
161

clover (Trifolium spp.) 97, 216; red clover

(T. pratense) 418, 419; sweet clover,
(Melilotus spp.) 395; white clover (T.
repens) 78

cloves (Syzygium aromaticum), oil 199; spice

300, 405

coca (Erthyroxylon coca), cocaine 324;

masticatory 405, 408
cocao (Theobroma cacao) 63,79, 123, 184,
188, 189, 361; cocoa Table 6; 123, 188;

Subject Index

cocoa butter Table 19, 20; 138, 184-185

coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) 63,201, 394;

coconut oil Tables 9, 19, 20; 138, 187, 238,
260, 294, 298; coir, bristle or coco fibre
Table 17; 265, 267, 278; 354, 365; copra
187, 251

cocoyam, dasheen or taro (Colocasia esculenta)

Table 6; 63, 133, 183

coffee (Coffea spp.) Table 6; 7, 14, 109, 188,

189, 270, 378, 379, 391

cohune (Orbignya cohune), oil Table 19; 185

coir, see coconut

cola or kola (Cola spp.), nuts 189, 405

colza oil, see rapeseed oil

comfrey (Symphytum officinale), carcinogen

326

common glasswort, sce samphire, sea

conservation (see also plant conconservation) 4,

8,9, 52,396, 415

cooperage, see wood products, cooperage

copra, see coconut

coquilla, see Bahia piassava

cork, see oak, cork

corms Table 22; 18, 55, 78, 102, 179

corn oil, see maize, maize oil

coriander (Coriandrum sativum), seed oil Table

20; spice 199

cosmetics Tables 18, 21; 123, 174, 188, 226,

227, 283, 290, 295, 300, 303, 306, 310, 342,
349, 375, 376, 378, 380, 409, 416; body
paint 409; fragrances (essential oils and
perfumes) Table 11; 246, 247, 287, 299,
300, 301-303, 304, 309, 313, 341, 347, 349,
361, 365, 371 410

cotton (Gossypium spp.) Tables 16, 17; 14, 42,

206, 244, 264, 265, 267, 268, 276, 312, 313,
395; cottonseed meal 219; cottonseed oil
Table 9, 19, 20; 184, 187, 216; Sea Island
cotton (G. vitifolium) 42; tree cotton (G.
arborea) 42; upland cotton (G. hirsutunt)
42

cottonwood (Populus fremontii), hedge 393;

urban tree 394
Subject Index

couch, twitch or witch grass (Elymus repens),

weed 401

cow cockle (Saponaria vaccaria), seeds 401

cowpea (Vigna unguiculara), allelopathy 345

crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis), edible seeds

171

crabs 386; mudcrabs 414

crabwood, see mahogany, bastard

crambe (Crambe hispanica), oil Table 20; 260

cram cram (Cenchrus biflorus), edible seeds

171

crin végétale (Chamaerops humilis), fibre 267,

276

crocus (Crocus spp.) 18, 78; saffron (C.

sativus) Table 10; 299, 291, 319; autumn
crocus (Colchicum autumnale), colchicine
Table 23; 324

cucumbers (Cucumis sativa) 204

cudbear (Ochrolechia tinctorea), dye 365

cudbear or archil (Ramelina farinosa), tinder

258

cuphea (Cuphea spp.), seed oil Table 20; 260

curcumin, see tumeric

cucurbits/gourds Table 6; 154, 176, 189

cypress pines (Cailitris spp.), sandrac 286; bald,

south or swamp cypress (Taxodium
distichum) 83, 91; Leyland cypress
(xCupressocyparis leylandit) 41; Monterey
cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa) 41; Nootka
cypress (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis) 41

cytology 4, 101

daffodil or narcissus (Narcissus spp.) 95

damsissa (Ambrosia maritima), molluscicide

339

dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) 26

dasheen, see cocoyam

date palm (Phoenix actylifera) 50, 52; dates
Table 6; 5, 52; wild date palm (P. sylvestris),
sweetener 201

day length, see photoperiodism

deadly nightshade, see nightshade, deadly

515

deforestation 10, 47, 57, 121, 252, 289, 399,

415

derris or tuba root (Derris elliptica), derris 341

desert banksia (Banksia ornata.} 86

desert locust 336

desertification 57, 58, 85, 252, 399, 415

detergents Table 21; 245, 247, 289, 293, 295,

298, 300, 352

diesel, see fuels, diesel

dioecy S$, 49, 50

dioon (Dioon edule), edible seeds 184

dipterocarp oils 185

djave (Baillonella toxisperma), wood 235

Doctrine of Signatures 320, 354, 366

domestication 4, 5-7, 10, 11, 14, 15, 38, 97,

156, 159, 162, 164, 165, 167, 169, 171, 172,
173,174,175

drinking water 129-130,

drinks, see beverages

drugs (see also pharmaceuticals) 4, 189, 319

drugs, hallucinogenic 357-359, 406-408, 412,

418, fly agaric (Amanita muscariay 357-
358;

drugs, narcotic 405, 406, 408; pharmaceutical

drugs 60, 174, 227, 295, 314, 317, 318,
323, 325, 326, 327, 328, 329, 340, 356, 362,
376

duck salad (Heteranthera limosa), allelopathy

345
dumb cane (Dieffenbachia spp.), toxin 335

dwarf fan palm (Chamaerops humilis), fibre 267

dyer’s rocket (Reseda luteole), dye 291, 409

dyes, dyestuffs and dyeing Tables 18, 21; 12,

225, 244, 268, 276, 289, 290-295, 304, 308,
325, 347, 349, 351, 353, 354, 364, 365, 371,
376; ink dyes Table 18; 293-294; insect
dyes, see insects, dye insects; lichen dyes
364-365; mordants 289, 292, 293, 327, 365;
pigments 167, 197, 198, 203, 290, 309;
stains 290, 294; synthetic dyes 11, 227;
textile dyes 293

dyes, food, see food, colouring agents

516

earth almond, sce tiger nut

earthnut, pignut (Conopodium majusy 178

ebony (Diospyros spp.), wood 255

economic botany (sce also ethnobotany) 1-16,

21, 23, 420; botanique appliquée 2

ccophysiology 21, 65-103

elder (Sambucus nigra), wines 190; witches

413

elephant foot yams (Amorphophallus spp.) 306

(see also yam, elephant’s foot)

elm (Ulmus spp.) 53; sweet elm or Indian moose

(U. fulva), slipper elm mucilage 285; white
elm (U. alba) 83;fibre Table 12

elemis 287; Manila elemi 287

endod, see pokeweed

environment, environmental factors 2, 7, 9, 10,

11, 15, 20, 43-54, 55, 57, 58, 59, 60, 65, 66-
75, 90, 92, 97, 100, 101, 105, 119, 115, 123,
148, 149, 157, 212, 223, 253, 278; plant
adaptations to 76-88; environmental
pollution 419, 421

environmental restraints or stress, see stress

enzymes, see Chemical Index

ergot (Claviceps purpurea) 170,325, 329,357,

363, 408, 411; ergotism 357

erosion, see soils, conservation

eryngo (Eryngium campestre) 357

esparto or alfa grass (Stipa tenacissima) Table

17; 267, 275

essential (aromatic) oils (see Chemical Index);

extraction 301-302

essia (Combretodendron macrocarpum), wood

232

ethnobotany (see also economic botany) 8-11;

Msc course (UK) 13, 422; aboriginal botany
8, 9; archaco-cthnobotany 1; ethnographic
botanique 8; palaco-ethnobotany 1
eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp.), eucalyptus oil
300, 301, 303; gum kinos 286: mallee
species 87; seeds 86; wood Table 12; blue
gum (E. globosa) 241; blue mallee (E.
polybracta) 303; broad leaved pepermint
(E. dives) 303; candle bark (E. radiata)

Subject Index

303; flooded gum (E. grandis) 241;

Gippsland blue gum (E. globulus) 303;
green gum (E. viridis) 303; gully gum (E.
smithii) 303; lemon-scented gum (E.
citriodora) 303; lemon-scented ironbark (E.
staigeriana) 303; Queensland peppermint
(E. exserta) 303; Red River gum (E.
camaldulensis) 303

euphorbia oils (Euphorbia spp.) Table 20

evapotranspiration 44

evening primrose (Oenothera biennis), oil Table

205 362, 369

exudates (see also balsams, elemis, gums, manna,

oleoresins and resins) 8, 201, 245, 247, 282,
283, 287, 302

fabric, see fibres, textile

false acacia or black locust (Robina

pseudoacacia), wood 235

false alfa, sce albadine

fat hen (Chenopodium album), food 174

fats and oils (see also lipids, and Chemical

Index) Table 9; 138-140, 184-188

fats and oils, edible, see vegetable oils

fatty acids, see Chemical Index

feed, livestock 4, 137, 142, 147, 191, 205, 209-

222, 348, 354, 361, 368, 376, 382, 383, 388;
analysis and feed requirements 128-129, 211-
213; browse Table 28; 25, 53, 209, 210,
212, 213, 216, 221, 222, 334, 365; cereals
34, 155, 157, 158, 163, 164-166, 167, 69,
70, 205, 217-220; concentrates, oilseed cakes
and meals 127, 139, 186, 209, 216-220;
fodder Table 22; 4, 11, 14, 53, 128, 144,
146, 165, 205, 209, 212, 216, 222, 271, 365,
383, 396, 402; fodder conservation (hay,
silage, etc.) 126, 155, 166, 203, 209, 212,
214, 215-216; fodder and forage legumes
48,75, 97, 110,145, 216; forage 5, 8, 74,
163, 209, 221; pastures, grasses and grazing
4, 14, 26, 47, 57, 87, 98, 130, 165, 209, 210,
213-216, 216, 334, 342, 384, 414; pulse
and seed legumes 48, 110, 216, 220;
Subject Index

roots and tubers 220; single cell, leaf and

seed proteins, see protein, single cell; toxins,
see toxins, vertebrate

fennel (Ferula spp.), tinder 258

fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum), allelo-

chemicals 101; diosgenin 411

fermentation processes and products 122, 131-

132, 134, 142, 203, 220, 224, 244, 261, 290,
304, 305, 311-312, 324, 335, 348, 363, 364,
370, 404; bacterial fermentation 133, 145,
177, 181, 188-189, 204, 215, 282, 304, 311,
361, 362, 367, 369, 371; fungal fermentation
188, 188-189, 198, 204-205, 304, 348, 359-
362; fermentation retarders 152

fermented beverages, see beverages, fermented

fermented foods 151, 152, 163, 174, 181, 183,

188, 198, 204-205, 361, 363, 365, 367, 369,
370; baking 157, 159

fern allies 30, 347-352

ferns (Filicinophyta) 30, 37, 86, 151, 347-350;

aquatic ferns (Azolla spp.) 48; bracken
(Pteridium aquilinum), carcinogens 348,
349; food (sawarabi and warabi) 348-349;
bungwall (Blechnum indicum), food 348;
cinnamon fern or fiddleheads (Osmunda
cinnamomea), fibre 350; food 348;
ornamental 349; goldenback fern
(Pityrogramma triangularis), basketry 350;
hart’s tongue (Adiantum scolpendrium),
ornamental 349; maidenhair ferm (Adiantum
capillus-veneris), official 349; New Guinea
salt fern (Asplenium acrobryum), salt 349;
ostrich fern (Matteuccia struthiopteris), food
348; royal fern (Osmunda regalis), ale 348;
ornamental 349; tree ferns 86, edible pith
348; water fern (Azolla pinnata), N-fixation
395

fibre, dietary (cellulose; see also Chemical Index)

27,130, 133, 134, 135-136, 154, 157, 165,
178, 186, 209, 211, 216, 217, 220, 305,

fibres, botanical Table 17; 264-267

fibres, commercial 267-268, brush fibres 267,

277-279; cordage fibres 267, 270; filling,

517

stuffing and upholstery fibres 267, 276-277;

mat fibres 267; miscellaneous fibres 267;
paper fibres (see also paper making) 267;
272-274, 294; plaiting and basketry fibres
279; textile fibres 267, 270

fibres, pulp 240, 270-273, 340; bamboo pulp

272; straw pulp 271-272, 309; wood pulp
Table 13; 240-244

fibres, synthetic 12, 263, 308, 312,313

fibres, vegetable Tables 16,17; 4, 9, 11, 27, 32,

42, 58, 240, 258, 263- 279, 293, 347, 350,
353, 364, fibre, wood Table 12; 230, 232,
240; harvesting and treatment 268-269,
properties and classification 267-268;
spinning 269-270;

fig (Ficus spp.) 52, 233; common fig (F. carica)

203

fine bent (Agrostis tenuis), metal tolerance 400

finger millet, see millet

fir, balsam (Abies balsamea), Canada balsam

245, 286; Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga
menziesii), Oregon balsam 246; Euopean fir
silver fir (Abies alba), Strasbourg turpentine
246

fire, 1, 60, 66, 67, 96, 101, 214, 344, 413;

adaptations resistance 85-88; fircbreaks
215, 396-397, fire retardants 310, 377; fire
safety 276

fishes 8, 115, 143, 168, 182, 202, 209, 210,

228, 335, 337, 338, 339, 341; fish oils 138,
140; kelp bass 384; milk fish 386; Nile
perch 369; salmon 338, trout 338

Five Kingdoms classification Table 3; 4, 30,

347, 352. 355,371

flag iris (Iris pseudacorus) 92

flax, see linseed

fleas 340

fleabane (/nula sp.), insect repellent 340

flies 358; blackflies 342; bluebottle 51; house

flies 340, 343; Gleditsia gall midge 53;
Hemerocallis gall midge 53; hover flies
340; sheep blowfly 326; tobacco whitefly
126; whiteflies 53, 343
518

flooding resistance, see respiration

fodder, see feed, fodder

food plants (human) Tables 6,22; 1, 4,5, 8, 9,

10, 11, 14, 19, 26, 38, 54, 55, 57, 69, 78, 82,
85,106, 116, 118, 124, 151-207, 224, 282,
312, 347, 348, 352, 353, 355-357, 365, 368,
382, 385, 396, 401, 415, 416, 420, 421; food
yeasts 205, 361; GM foods 113-114, 115,
125, 148-149, 418, 419, 420; health foods
124, 157, 160, 165, 168, 171, 174, 175, 317;
invalid and diabetic foods 285, 380, 381;
single cell, leaf and seed proteins, see protein,
single cell; staple and major food crops
Tables 1, 6; 6, 13, 14, 15, 58, 63, 153, 154,
155, 156, 159, 161, 163, 165, 166, 169, 420

food additives (see also sweeteners) 197-204;

binding agents Table 18; 308, 377; coating
308; colouring agents, dyes and pigments
Table 10; 124, 152, 167, 197, 197-199, 203,
227, 291, 292,294; 361, 363, 364, 370, 376,
383; flavouring agents 152, 168, 195, 197,
198, 199-200, 204, 205, 300, 313, 347, 361,
369; condiments 154, 176, 199, 200, 356,
382; food acids 311, 312; herbs, pot herbs
and relish 152, 182, 195, 197, 198, 199;
spices 152, 195, 197, 198, 199; vegetable
salt 152,199, 349

food preservation 192, 203; antimicrobials 202;

antioxidants 124.168, 202

food texturing Table 18; 203-204, 282, 378;

clarifying and fining agents 152, 203, 283,
289, 378, 379; cream of Tartar 203;
emulsifiers Table 18; 131, 152, 203, 283,
306, 310, 313, 374, 375, 378, 380; gelling
agents Table 18; 152, 374, 375, 378, 379-
380; humecants 203; leavening and raising
agents 134, 152, 157, 159, 203, 360; pH
control 203; sodium carboxymethylcellulose
206; stabilisers Table 18; 131, 152, 204,
283, 306, 371, 374,37 5, 378, 379, 380,
381; surfactants 310; tenderisers (enzyme
modifiers) 152, 203, 324; thickeners Table
18; 132, 152, 163, 165, 168, 184, 203, 282,

Subject Index

308, 313, 350, 371, 375, 378, 379, 380,382;

vegetable substitute rennet 152, 203-204,
370

food and feed analysis 128-129

Food and Drug Administration (US) 147, 149

food safety regulations 147-149

Food Standards Agency (UK) 147, 149

forage, see feed

forestry, afforestation 4, 7, 8, 11, 12, 14, 45, 52,

54, 102, 107, 122, 231, 310, 415; forest pests
126

foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), digitoxin 324

foxglove, Greek (D. lanata), digoxin 324

fragrances, see cosmetics

frankincense (Boswellia spp.), resinoid 302

fruit (edible) Table 6; 1, 4, 7, 14, 55, 63, 107,

109, 123, 127, 130, 140, 147, 151, 152, 154,
155, 175-177, 178, 179, 180, 183, 199, 206,
305, 310, 384, 419; fermented fruit 195,
196;

fruit juices, see beverages, non-alcoholic

fuel 4, 10,57, 161, 166, 204, 229, 247, 248,

251-261, 343, 349, 396, 421; biofuel Table
21; 124, 240, 252, 259-261, 303, 304, 310;
charcoal Table 15; 239, 251, 253-255, 257,
358, 380; combustion Table 15; 255-258;
diesel, kerosine, etc. Table 15; 124, 228,
246, 259, 260; fuelwood or firewood 182,
229, 230, 251, 252-253; kindling and tinder,
see tinder; peat fuel, see mosses, peat

fumitories (see also tobacco) 403-404, 406

fungal plant discases 345; downy mildews 362;

powdery mildews 362; smut fungi 362;
Bakanae disease (Giberella fujuroi) 101;
blast (Pyricularia oryzae) 59; boot lace or
honey fungus (Armillaria meilea) 359;
brown rot disease (Monilinia fructicola)
345; brown spot disease (Cochliobolus
myabeanus) 59; cacao black pod disease,
Butler's fungus (Phytophthora palmivora)
401; clover rot (Sclerotinia trifoliorum)
419; dry rot fungus (Serpula facrymans)
359;
Subject Index

Dutch elm disease or wilt (Ceratocystis

ulmi) 53; early potato blight (Alternaria
solani) 346; grey mould (Botrytis cinerea)
194; late potato blight (Phytophthora
infestans) 15, 59; take-all (Gaeumannomyes
myces graminis) 395; Texas root rot
(Phymatotrichopsis omnivora) 395;

wet rot fungus (Coniophora puteana) 359

fungi 2, 4, 30, 36, 69, 132, 203, 235, 268, 287,

306, 355-367, 375, 379, 380; amadou, 359;

blue-green oak (Chlorociboria
aeruginascens) 232, 359; brown oak
(Fistulina hepatica) 232, 359; fungal
associations 99-100, 107; hallucinogenic
fungi, see drugs, hallucinogenic; lichen fungi,
see lichens; macro fungi 359-360; micro-
fungi 188, 204, 360-364; N-fixing fungi, see
N-fixation, fungal; panacea (Fontes
officinalis) 359; pathogenic fungi 4, 300;
predatory and parasitic fungi (see also fungal
plant diseases) 359-360; symbiotic fungi
(ectotrophic, endotropic and vesicular-
arbuscular mycorrhiza (VAM); see also N-
fixation, fungal) 98-100; tinder (Fomes
fomentarius) 258, 359; toxic fungi, death
cap (Muscaria phalloides) 358; destroying
angel (Amanitia virosa) 358; ergot
(Claviceps purpurea) 357; spring aminita

(Amanitia verna) 358; yeasts, see yeasts

fungi, edible 4, 151, 180, 356-358; [poor man’s]

beefsteak, lange de boeuf or oak tongue

fungus (Fistulina hepatica) 356; black-
fellows’ bread (Polyporus myllitae) 357,
blewit (Lepista saeva) and wood blewit (L.
nudum) 356, 357; boletus, penny bun, cep
or steinpilz (Boletus edulis) and granulated b.
(Suillus granularus) 356, 357; chanterelle or
hom of plenty (Cantharellus cibarius) 356;
common ink cap (Coprinus atramentarius)
356; Tew’s ear (Auricularia auricula-judae)
357, matsutake (Tricholoma matsutake)

356; morels (Morchella esculenta) 356,

357;

519

mushroom, cultivated (Agaricus biporus),

Japanese wood m, or shii-take (Lenzinus
edodes), king m. (Stropharia rugoso-
annulate), oyster m. (Pleurotus ostreatus),
paddy straw m. (Volvariella bresadolae),
parasol m. (Macrolepiota procera),
pavement m. (Agaricus bitorquis), slime m.
{Pholiota nameko) and southern poplar m.
{Agrocybe aegerita) 357, puff balls
(Lycoperdon spp.) and giant puff ball
(Langermannia gigantea) 356; truffle,
black, Périgord or winter (Tuber
melanosporum), llalian white trufle (T.
magnatum) and summer truffle (7. aestivum)
356, 357; two-tone pholiota (Kuehneromyces
mutabilis) 357; velvet shank (Flammulina
velutipes) 357

fungicides Table 23; 299, 300, 342, 345-346,

377

fushia bush, see spotted berrigan

gamboge (Garcinia hanburyi), dye 290

garden cress (Lepidium sativum) 179

garlic (Allium sativum) Table 6

gaz (Astragallus adscendens), gaz of Khunsar

201,228

Georgina gidgee or gidyea (Acacia georginae),

toxicity 222, 334-335

genetics Table 23; 5, 329

gentian violet (Gentiana spp.) 324

giant hogweed (Heracleum montegazzianum),

toxicity 335

gingelly oil, see sesame oil

ginseng (Panax spp.), pharmaceuticals 324

globe artichoke, see artichoke

glues, see adhesives

gomuti palm, see sugar palm

goosegrass, see cleavers

gorse (Ulex europaea), witchcraft 413

grain amaranths (Amaranthus spp.) Table 8;

172-174, 295

grasshopper, cannabis toxicity to 407

goat’s rue, see rue, goal's

520

grain chenopods (Chenopodium spp.) Table 8;

172, 174-175; caiiihua, kaniqua, quananhua
(C. pallidicaule) 175; huazontle (C.
belandieri subsp. nurtaliae) 175; quinoa (C.
quinoa) Table 8; 105, 124, 174, 405

gram, black (Vigna mungo) 151, 205, 344;

green gram (V. radiata) 181, 344

grape vine (Vitis vinifera), dye 198; grapes

Table 6; 14130, 154, 182, 193-195, 200,
203, 359

green manure 11, 32, 344, 345, 348, 389, 391,

395

ground bean, see Bambara groundnut

groundnuts or peanuts (Arachis hypogea) Table

6; 14, 176, 178, 264; aflatoxin 180;
antinutrients 141, 142, 144, 146; groundnut
oil Table 9, 19, 20; 139, 187, 188, 216, 260

groundsel (Senecio vulgaris), waterlogging 92;

Riddell’s groundsel (S. riddeliii), toxin 334

guavas 401

guar (Cyamopsis tetragonolobus) gum Table

18; 276, 282

guarand (Paulinia cupana), caffeine 189

gum arabic (Acacia senegal) Table 18; 121-

122, 203, 283-284, 294

gum damars, see resins

gum ghatti (Anogeissus latifolia) Table 18

gum kinos, see eucalyptus

gum naval stores 244

gum saracocolla (Astracantha gummifera)

Table 18

gum spirit of turpentine, see turpentine

gum talha (Acacia seyal) 18, 283

gum tragacanth (Astracantha microcephala)

Table 18; 78, 376

gumwood (Liquidambar styraciflua), fibre 244

gumali fibre, see sugar palm

gums (see also muilages, resins and oleoresins,
and Chemical Index) Table 18; 282-284

gutta-percha 287

guayule rubber, see rubbers, guayule rubber

hackberry (Celtis australis), food 1

Subject Index

halophytes 48, 73, 74, 75, 112, 260; glycophytes

74; gypsophyte 48; non-halophytes 73, 76

hallucinogens, see drugs, hallucinogenic

hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna), hedge 392

hazel (Corylus spp.), nuts Table 6

heather (Erica spp), honey 224

hedges, see amenity plants, hedges

hellebore, white false (Veratrum album), toxin

324

hemlock (Conium maculatum), allelochemicals

101; toxins 146, 319, 334

hemp (Cannabis sativa subsp. sativa) Table 16,

17; 265, 267, 278, 406; Indian hemp, C.
sativa subsp. sativa), narcotic 406; Manila
hemp or abacé (Musa textiiis), fibre Table
17; 267, 276; Mauritius hemp (Furcraea
foetida), fibre 265, 267, firebreak 397;
New Zealand hemp or flax (Phormium
tenax), fibre Table 17; 265, 267; sunn hemp
(Crotalaria juncea), classification 32; fibre
Table 17; 32, 276; green manure 32

henbane (Hyoscyamus niger), hexing herb 412

henequen (Agave fourcroydes), fibre 263, 276

henna (Lawsonia inermis), dye 291, 409

herbal lore, medicine or remedy, see medicines,

herbal

herbals 1-2, 318-322, 329-331, 356, 414, 419;

Arabian 239, 319, 320, 330; Chinese 1, 23,
321, 319, 329, 340, 407; Egyptian 1,319,
329; European 1, 319, 320, 414; English
Tig. 1; 320, 330, 355, 412; Greek 1, 319,
330, 412; Indian 319, 321-322, 330-331;
New World 322; Roman 1, 320, 325, 330,
407; Samerian tablets 318, 407
herbicides (weedicides) 98, 107, 112, 343-344,
398, 402, 417, 419; bioherbicides Table 26;
343. 343; herbicide resistance 112, 113,
114,115

herero cucumber (Acanthosicyos naudiniana),

drinking water 130, 189

hickory (Carya ovata), fibres Table 12

hollyhock (Althaea rosea) 38

honesty (Lunaria annua), seed oil Table 20

Subject Index

honey 8, 160, 195, 224, 225, 228, 328, 335,

379, 404, 408; mead 224, 408; propolis
224-225

honeydew, see insects, honeydew

hops (Humulus lupins) 190, 384, 391

hornworts or horned liverworts (Anthocerophyta)

351-352

horsechestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum),

exudate 224

horseradish (Armorcia rusticana) 199, 399

horseradish tree (Moringa oleifera), ben oil or

moringa oil Table 20; 41; water purification
399

horsetails (Sphenophyta) 247, 350; common

horseail (Equisetum arvense), food 350;
Dutch rush (£. hyemale), food, 350; scourer
350; (var. affine), ornamental 350; giant
hossetail (E. telmatela), ornamental 350;
water horsetail (E. fluviatile), food 350

horticulture 4, 7-8, 11, 52, 54, 101, 278, 310,

322, 353, 390

hot housemaid, see sage, clary sage

huazontle, see grain chenopods, huazontle

human diseases 19, 317, 412; Alzheimer's

disease 350; beriberi 161; boils, pimples,
spots (Staphylococcus aureus) 367,
bubonic plague (Yersinia pestis) 367;
cheese maker's, farmer's and mushroom
worker’s lung 362; colon cancer 165;
Creutzfeldt-Takob disease (CID) 149;
deficiency diseases 127; diabetes 165;
ergotism (Claviceps purpurea) 357; favism
181; heart disease 165; Hodgkin's disease
142; leukaemia Table 23; multiple sclerosis
328; neurolathrysm 145; osteolathyrism
145; pellagra 164; pneumonia
(Streptococcus carinity 367; poliomyelitis
372; rheumatoid arthritis 328; ringworm
(Microsporum spp.) 362; schistosomiasis
(Bilhaziasis) 339; skin diseases 164, 248,
366; thrush (Candida spp.) 362; tuberculosis
(Mycobacterium tuberculosis) 367; veneral
diseases 323

521
hyacinth (Hyacynthus oriemalis), day length 94,
95

Indian fig, see Barbary fig

Indian hemp, see hemp, Indian hemp

Indian moose, see elm, sweet

Indian mulberry, see mulberry, Indian

Indian rubber, see rubbers, Pari rubber

Indian sandalwood, see sandalwood, Indian

indigo (Indigofera spp.), dye 291, 292, 293

inkberry, see pokeweed

insecticides (see also pesticides) Table 23; 113,

115, 300, 338, 340-343, 350, 355; 377, 404,
419, azadirachtin 342; bioinseclicides 342-
343; derris 341; nicotine 404; pyrethrum
341; resistance to insecticides 112, 115;
synthetic 246

insects (see also beetles, butterflies, etc.) 8, 51,

52,55, 69,77, 81, 106, 115, 144, 156, 163,
166, 169, 180, 187, 209, 223, 225, 234, 240,
245, 253, 285, 299, 333, 334, 338, 339, 340,
341, 342, 343, 344, 350, 352, 353, 354, 407,
418; cochineal insects 197, 226-227; edible
invertebrates 227-228; honeydew, lerp,
manna insects 228, 401; kermes dye insects
227; lac insects 226; pollination by 51, 52,
223, 299; toxins, see toxins, invertebrate

Irish spurge (Euphorbia hybernica), piscicide

338

iroko (Chlorophora excelsa), wood 232

ironweed (Vernonia anthelmintica), epoxy fatty

acids 299

ironwood (Olneya tesota), tattoo 405

ISO standards 125; fibre (tex values) 268;

mustard 200; pulp 270; turpentine 246

istle, Mexican fibre or Tampico (Agave

lophantha) 277

ivory palm (Phytelephas spp.), vegetable ivory

306

jaggery or toddy palm (Caryota urens), kitool

fibre 267; sweetener 201
Jamaican satinwood, see satinwood
522

Jamaican sorrel, see roselle

Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica), weed

53, 402

Japanese lacquer tree, see Chinese lacquer tree

jasmine (Jasminum officinale), oil 301, 302;

Cape jasmine (Gardenia jasmoides), dye
198; yellow jasmine (Gelsemium
sempervirens), toxic honey 224

Java almond (Canarium luzonicunt), Manila

elemi 287

jelutong (Dyera costulata), chewing gum 405

Jerusalem artichoke, see artichoke, Jerusalem

artichoke

jicid, see ye'eb

juniper (Juniperus spp.), berries 196; oil (see

also cedar, eastern red and Himalayan
weeping cedar) 300; tinder 258; common
juiper (J. communis) and savin (J. sabina),
abortifacients 411

Job's tears (Coix lacryma-jobi), edible seeds

171

Jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis) 13,33, 50, 110;

jojoba oil 110, 123, 133, 299, 409, 416

jujube (Ziziphus spp.) 109

jute (Corchorus spp.), fibre Tables 16, 17; 265,

267, 269, 270, 390

kaahge, see sweet herb of Paraguay

kaffir bread, see bread-fruit, hottentot

kalla grass (Leptochloa fusca) 75, 97,399, 402

kangaroo grass (Themeda triandra), seeds 87

kaniqua, see grain chenopods, cafiihua

kapok, see silk cotton tree

kapur (Dryobalanops spp.), wood 230

karaya gum (Stercutia urens) Table 18; 290

kauvula (Endospermum macrophylium), wood

323
kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus) Table 17; 269

kerkedeh, see roselle

kitool fibre, see jaggery palm

Kiwi fruit or Chinese gooseberry (Actinidia

deliciosa) 123

kola, see cola

Subject Index

kowal (Senna obtusifolia), fermented food 204,

205, 369

kurrajong (Brachychiton spp.), water source

189

lac insects 209, 226; Indian lac insect 226

lacewings 113

lady’s fingers or okra (Abelmoschus esculenmus),

allelopathy 344

ladybirds 113, 340

Lagos silk rubber, see rubbers, Lagos silk rubber

landolphia rubber, see rubbers, landolphia rubber

lang-lang or lalang (/mperata cylindrica), weed

401

larch (Larix occidentalis), gum Table 18;

European larch (L. decidua), Venetian
turpentine 246

larkspur (Delphinium spp.), toxin 335

latexes, see rubbers and Chemical Index

laudanum 407

lavender (Lavandula spp.), oil 301

leaf adaptations 79-82

lead tree (Leucaena leucacephala), toxin 220

lechi-caspi, see sorva

leeks (Allium ampeloprasum) 82

legislation, EU, ‘E’ numbers 149, 197, food

176; quality control 126; CITES 55-56,
125, 126; food safety 147-149; import and
export 125-126; intellectural property rights
116-120; plant breeders’ rights 117-119;
Plant Health Orders (UK) 125-126;
trademark names 119-120

lentils (Lens culinaris) Table 6;

lesser spearwort (Ranunculus flammula), rennet

203

lettuce (Lactuca sativa) Table 6; 152, 155, 182,

344

Leyland cypress.see cypress, Leyland cypress

lichens 30, 355, 364-366; arabitol 309; bio-

indicators 365, 398; lichen dyes 364-365;
feed 214; food 151; litmus 294, 365;
manitol 131, 306; N-fixation 95;

nomenclature 36; tinder 258;

Subject Index

oak mosses 258, 365; cudbear (Ochrolechia

tartarea), dye 365; cudbear or orchil
(Ramalina fraxinea), tinder 258; Iceland
moss (Cetraria islandica), food 365;
iwatake or rock tripe (Umbilicaria
esculenta), food 365; mousse de chéne or
stag’s horn (Evernia prunastri), perfume 365;
orchil (Rocella tincioria), dye 364;

licuri wax, see nicuri palm

lignum-vitae (Guaiacum spp.), wood 232,233

lilac (Syringa vulgaris), weather gauge 414

lily (Lilium spp.) 41; Bermuda or Easter lily (L.

longiflorum) 95; Madonna lily (L.
candidum) 41

lime (Tilia spp.), nectar 224; common lime (7.x

europaea) 41

ling (Cailuna vulgaris), honey 224

linseed (Linum usitatissimum), board 237; flax

Tables 16, 17; 263, 265, 267, 268-269, 276,
404; linseed oil Tables 19, 20; 216, 250,
294, 296, 299

lion’s paw (Leontice leontopetalum), rhizome

78

lipids (see also fats and fatty acids, and Chemical

Index) 281, 295-299; drying oils Table 19;
294, 295; non-drying oils Table 19; 187,
295; semidrying oils Table 19; 186, 187,
295

liverworts (Hepatophyta) 30, 351, 352, 354-

355; bioindicators 398; scale moss
(Plagiochila spp.), antifeedant 355

locust, black, see false acacia

locust bean gum, see carob

logwood, campeachy wood or campeche

(Haematoxylon spp.), dye 292

London plane (Platanus x hispanica), urban tree

309

lotus (Nelumbo spp.), seeds 178

lubricants, see oils lubricating

lucerne (Medicago sativa), feed 216, 219

lupins (Lupinus spp.), toxins 142, 220, 335; blue
or tarwi lupin (L. mutabilis), alkaloids 146;
tarwi oil 188;

523

yellow lupin (L. luteus), alkaloids Table 23

lycopods (Lycophyta) 347, 350-351; club

mosses (Lycopodium spp.) 351; alpine
clubmoss (L. alpinum), dye 351; stag’s horn
moss (L. clavatum), lycopodium powder
351; rose of Jericho (Selaginelia
lepidophylla), medicine 351

macadamia (Macadamia spp.), nuts 14, 179

macauba oil, see nicuri oil

mace, see nutmeg

Madagascar periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus),

pharmaceuticals Table 23; 324

madder (Rubus tinctorum),dye 291, 292

Madras thorn (Pithecellobium dulce), hedge 392

MAFF, see Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, UK

Ministry of

mahogany (Swietenia spp.), seed 63; wood 22,

63, 231, 255; African mahogany (Khaya spp.)
22; bastard mahogany or crabwood (Carapa
guianensis), wood 232; Gabon mahogany or
okoume (Aucoumea Kaineana), wood;
Philippine mahogany (Shorea spp.) 22

maidenhair tree (Ginkgo biloba), nuts 178;

street tree 393

maize or mealies (Zea mays) Tablesl, 8, 22; 5,

14, 27, 41, 54, 90, 93, 97, 106, 107, 108,
113, 114, 132, 133, 134, 135, 137, 141, 154,
156, 159, 162-164, 165, 166, 169, 171, 172,
301, 308, 340, 344, 345; American corn flour
160; brewing 192; distilled 196; edible
pollen 206; feed 134, 163, 166, 217, 218,
219; fermented 163, 261, 304, 370, 371;
maize or corn oil Table 9, 19, 20; 134, 138,
164, 163, 187, stover/straw 209; Balsas
teosinte (Z. mays subsp. parviglumis) 162;
perennial maize (Z. diploperennis)

Malabar oil grass (Cymbopogon flexuosus),

essential oil 300

mammals 140, 143, 144, 146, 149, 333, 334,

352, 353; African elephant 210; agouti
213; antelopes 210; arctic fox 383; bats
51,79, 393; bear 356; buffalo 210, 211;
524

bushbaby 51; camels 130, 210, 322; cattle

4, 14,142, 149, 209, 211, 213, 218, 221,
222, 334, 349, 358, 383; caribou 214;
common eland 210; deer 365; dog 210,
356, 412, 413; giraffe 210, 335; Grant's
gazelle 210; grey squirrel 221;
hippopotamus 210; horse 168, 210, 214,
219, 221, 277, 330, 345, 350, 383; paca
213; mink 383; moose 366; musk ox 366,
pigs 210, 216, 218, 219, 354, 356, 383;
reindeer 214, 365; rodents 129, 334, 349,
352,362; sheep 14, 146, 209, 210, 214,
219, 221, 222, 335, 383; sperm whale 123,
298; wildebeest 210; wooly mammoth
353; yak 214; zebra 210, 330

man, Neolithic; period of 1, 6, 156, 159, 193,

258, 263, 318, 359, 407; Peking man 1

mandrake (Mandragora officinarum), hexing

herb 412-413

mango (Bromus mango), edible seed 171

mangoes (Mangifera indica) Table 6;

Manila hemp, see hemp, Manilla

manna, see insects, honeydew

manna ash, see ash, flowering

maple (Acer sp.), charcoal 196; black maple (A.

nigrum), silver, striped or sugar maple (A..
sacchariferum), maple sugar 201

mapoon or rotten cheesefruit (Coelospermum

decipiens), Sc tolerance 400

marketing 11, 15, 121-126

marrow (Cucurbita pepo) 176,179

mastic (Pistacia lentiscus), mastic 286, 404

masticatories 403, 404-405; fungal 358

maté, Brazilian or Paraguay tea (flex

paraguarensis) 188

Mauritius hemp, sec hemp, Maurtius

May grass (Phalaris caroliniana), edible seed

17

meadowfoam (Limnanthes alba) seed oil Table

20; 260
meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria), salicylic
acid 325

mealies, see maize

Subject Index

medicinal creosote 248;

medicine (see also pharmaceuticals) Fig. 1; 4

5,11, 20, 26, 58, 111, 118, 201, 239, 248,
317-331, 336, 347, 349, 353, 401, 406, 407;
folk, herbal, shaman or traditional medicine
1,4, 23, 225, 283, 317, 318-323, 327, 329-
331, 351, 366, 411, 412; human medicine
317-329; veterinary medicine 329-331

medlar, Bronvaux (+Crataegomespilus sp.) 41

melon 112

Mexican fibre, see istle

Mexican whisk, see zakaton

midnight-hortor (Oroxylum indicum), pollination

51

milk caps (Lactarius spp.), latex 287

milkweed, common (Aesclepias syriacus),

monarch butterflies 114

milkweed vine (Morrenia ordorata), weed

control Table 26

millets Table 1; 5, 70, 155, 156, 345; fuel

Table 15; Italian whisk 265; brown top
millet (Brachiaria ramosa) 172; finger
millet (Eleusine coracana) 155; foxtail
millet {Setaria iralica) 172; Guinea millet
(Brachiaria deflexa) 172; Indian barnyard
millet (Echinochloa colona) 172; Japanese
barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumentacea)
172; kodo millet (Paspalum scropiculatun)
172; little millet (Panicum sumatrense) 172;
pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucumy Table 6;
14,90, 97, 154, 165, 168; yellow cat-tail
millet (Seraria pumila) 172

milling, cereals 134, 157, 158, 159, 161, 165,

168, 170, 171, 187, 218; flax 269

mimosa (Acacia mearnsii), tannin 290

minerals, dietary 127, 135, 136, 140, 154, 157

178, 193, 209, 212, 216, 217, 382; trace
elements 140, 204, 316
mint (Mentha spp.) 199

miraculous berry (Synsepalum dulciferum),

sweetener 202
miraculous fruit (Thaumatococcus daniellii),

sweetener 203
Subject Index

misletoe (Tapinanthus spp.), damage 401; dwarf

mistletoc (Arceuthobium spp.), damage 401

mistletoc mealy-bug 401

mitnan paper, see shaggy sparrow wort

molasses and syrup, see sorghum, molasses and

syrup, and sugar cane, molasses and syrup

molasses grass (Melinis minutiflora), companion

crop 340

mopane (Colophospermum mopane), mopane

worms 227

moringa, sce horseraddish tree

morphology 34, 65, 76, 78, 164; night buds 72;

sclerophytes 76, 80; succulents Table 28;
68, 71, 75, 77, 78, 189, 285, 397; sufrutices
79, 80; xcrophytes 68, 76, 81, 285

Moreton Bay chestaut, see chestnut, Moreton Bay

mosquitoes 343, 348, 373, 395, 412

mosses (Bryophyta) 30, 347, 352-354; bio-

indicators 398; feed 214, 353; common fern
moss (Thuidium deliculatum), fibre 353;
copper moss (Merceya ligulata), prospecting
353; hair moss (Polytrichun commune), fibre
353; peat (Sphagnum spp.) 196, 353-354,
390; peat fuel 353; peat substitute 278,
peatcork, peatfoam, peatwood 354; tinder
258; willow moss (Fontinalis antipyretica),
fibre 353

mountain laurel, see calico bush

mucilages (sce also gums, resins and oleoresins,

and Chemical Index) 84, 152, 224, 274,
284-285, 380, 381; slippery clm (Ulmus
Julva) 285

mulberry (Morus spp.), hedge 223; Indian

mulberry (Morinda citrifolia), dye 292;
paper mulberry or sa (Broussonetia
papyrifera), bast fibres 265; white mulberry
(Morus alba), silkworms 225

mulga (Acacia aneura), honey ants 228, seeds

88

murtmuru palm (Astrocaryum murmur), oil

Table 19; 185
mushrooms or toadstools (Agaricales), edible 4,
355-357; mycorrhiza 98; toxic 358

525

mushroom sugar 132

mustard, condiment 200; green manure 395;

seed oils Table 9; 186; black mustard
(Brassica nigra), condiment 200; brown,
Indian or oriental mustard (B. juncea),
condiment 197, 200; seed oil Table 9; 186,
secds 401; white mustard (B. kirta), oil
Table 20; white or yellow mustard (Sinapsis
alba) 179; condiment 200; seeds 401;
wild mustard or charlock (5. arvensis), weed
seed 401

myrrh (Commiphora myrrha), myrth 301, 302,

410

narcissus, see daffodil

nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus), aphids 340

naval stores (see also resin, rosin, tall oil,

turpentine, wood tar and creosote, and
Chemical Index) 245-248

N-fixation 4, 11, 48, 84, 96, 97, 98, 344, 396;

bacterial 48, 84, 95-98, 100, 351, 367,
fungal 98-100

narcotics, see drugs, narcotic

naseberry, see chicle pine needle oil 247-248;

neem (Azadirachta indica), azadirachtin 342;

neem oil 342

nematodes 342, 363, 364; eclworm 419; beet

cyst nematode 363; rice white tip nematode
364

nettle (Urtica spp.), dye Table 10

New Zealand flax or hemp, see hemp, New

Zealand

nicuri or ouricuri palm or nut palm (Syagrus

coronata), ouricuri or licuri wax Table 19;
185, 304

Niger seed (Guizotia abyssinica) oil Tables 19,

20

nightshade, deadly (Atropa belladonna), atropine

Table 23; 26, 221; hexing herb 412
nightshade, woody (Solanum dulcamara) 26

nipa palm (Nypa fruticans), aerenchyma 91

nitrogen-free xtract (NFE) 128

nomenclature, see taxonomy

526

non-wood board 263

non-wood forest products (NWFP) 8, 227, 229,

416

nutmeg and mace (Myristica fragrans), spice

63,199, 405

nutrition 14, 54, 127-149; animal 211, 212,

219; human Table 7, 8; 151, 152, 154, 157,
160, 163, 164, 166, 174, 178, 181, 184, 197,
418; nutritional analysis 128-129

nuts Table 6; 130, 139, 141, 151, 152, 155,

176, 177-179, 342

nux vomica (Strychnos nux-vomica) 324;

strychnine Table 23; 324

NWFP, see non-wood forest products

oak (Quercus spp.) 63; acorns 177, 221; brown

oak 232, 359; blue-green oak 232, 359;
tannin 221, 231; Aleppo oak (0.
pubescens), tannin 294; American oak (Q.
falcata), allelopathic 103; cork oak (Q.
suber), cork 249; kermes 227; holm oak
(Q. ilex), dye 227; kermes oak (Q. coccifera
subsp. coccifera), cochineal 226; scarlet oak
(Q. coccinea), barrels 249; white oak (Q.
alba), fibres Table 12

oak mosses 365

oakuam 276-277

oats (Avena spp) Table 6; 27, 95, 113, 134, 135,

160, 165, 166, 167-168; feed 167, 212, 218,
219; black oats (A. strigosa) 167, naked oats
(A. nuda) 167, red oats (A. byzantina) 167;
white or yellow oats (A. sativa subsp. sativa)
167; wild oats (A. sativa subsp. fatua), weed
167

obeche (Triplochiton scleroxylon), wood 229,

230

oca (Oxalis tuberosa) 260

ocotillo (Fouquiera splendens), hedge 392

oilseed crops 13, 24, 46, 74,93, 110, 130, 186,

200, 216, 260

oilseed rape (Brassica napus) 112,113,114,

216, 260, 418] rapeseed and colza oil (see
also canola oil) Table 9, 19, 20; 139, 186,
Subject Index

216, 219, 296

oiticia (Licania sclerophylla), oil Table 19

okoume, see mahogany, Gabon

okra, see lady’s fingers

oleoresins (see also balsams, gums, mucilages,

and resins) 247, 258, 286-287, 299, 302,
411

oils, see lipids; lubricating oils Table 21; 232,

247, 295, 298, 299, 311, 378; volatile oils
22, 85, 296, 396, 411; waste oils, treatment of
354

oilseed cake 186,209, 216-217

ololiuqui (Turbina corymbosa), hallucinogenic

honey 408

olive (Olea europaea) 34, 109, 260; fruit 176,

177, 187; leaves 412; olive oil Table 9, 19,
20; 139, 187, 260 409, 410

onions (Allium cepa) Table 6, 82, 130, 179,

375; wild 18

opium poppy (Papaver somniferum subsp.

somniferum), alkaloids Table 23; 324, 407

orache (Atriplex hortensis) 152

orchil or cudbear (Remelina fraxinea), tinder

258

orchil (Rocella tinctoria), dye 364-365

ordeal bean, see Calabar or ordeal bean

ouricuri palm, see nicuri palm

oysters 382

pagoda tree (Sophora japonica), dye 292

paint Table 21; 294, 295, 371, 375, 381

palm cabbage 182

palm nut palm, see nicuri palm

palm sugars 179, 190, 201, 205

palm wine and toddy 190

Palmer saltgass (Distichlis palmeri), edible seed
171

palmyra palm (Borassus flabellifera), cane 278;

bassine fibre 267, 278; sweetener 201

paper Table 13, 17; 230, 233, 239, 24 0, 263,

268, 272-276, 294, 303, 310, 376, 378, 379,
381, 402; cigarette papers 271, 276, 404;

rice paper, sec rice paper tree

Subject Index

paper making 230, 274-276, 360; paper pulp

Table 13, 17; 240-244, 270-272, 360

Panama hat palm, toquilla (Carludovica

palmata), Panama hat 279

Panama rubber, see rubbers, Panama rubber

paper mulberry, see mulberry, paper

paprika, see pepper, green

papyrus (Cyperus papyrus), ancient 294, 319,

329, 349; fuel 261; paper 272

parsley {Petroselenium crispum), oil Table 20;

abortifacient 411

pasnip (Pastinacea sativa), wine 190

pataua (Oenocarpus bataua), oil 185

pawpaw (Carica papaya), breeding 114;

enzymes 203, 324; fruit Table 6; soap
substitute 409

peaches/nectarines Table 6;

peanuts, see groundnuts

pears Table 6;

peas (Pisum sativum) Table 6; 73, 147, 154,

205; mange tout or sugar peas (var.
macroparpum) 179, 180

pectin {see also Chemical Indec) 135, 177, 203,

206-207, 324, 380

pencil cedar, see cedar, eastern red

pencil striped sapele (Entandrophragma

cylindricum), wood 230

penicillin (Penicillium notatum) 1, 318, 325,

362, 376

pennyroyal, American (Hedeoma pulegioides),

abortifacient 411; Euopean pennyoyal
{Mentha pulgeum), abortifacient 411

pepper (Piper nigrum), condiment 199; betal

pepper, sce betal; green peppers (Capsicum
annuum) Table 6; 53, 182; dye Table 10

perfumes, see cosmetics, fragrances

perilla (Perilla frutescens), oil Table 19

pests Table 28; 11, 43, 49, 53, 55, 59, 60, 102,
106, 107, 114, 123, 126, 169, 175, 187, 224,
334, 338, 340, 342, 364, 396, 400, 408, 412;

pesticides (see also insecticides, rodenticides, etc,)

13, 59, 107, 114, 148, 309, 340, 341, 394,
398, 417, 419; resistance to 58, 59, 115, 419

527

petroleum nut tree (Pittiosporum resiniferum),

seed oil 260

peyote cactus (Lophophora williamsii),

hallucinogen 408

pharmaceuticals and pharmaceutical industry

Table 21; 1, 8, 12, 16, 60, 78, 116, 123, 124,
174, 85,97, 226, 247, 282, 283, 287, 300,
303, 304, 310, 313, 317, 318, 319, 321, 323,
324-329, 342, 352, 362, 369, 371, 374, 375,
376, 378, 379, 380, 381, 416, 417, 418, 420,
421; abortifacients and contraceptves 411;
anaesthetics Table 23; 318; analgesics
Table 23; 325, 327, 407, 408; anthelmintic
325, 381; anticholinergic Table 23; 351;
antipyretic 325; antimalarial Table 23;
407, cardiac stimulant Table 23; 405; emetic
Table 23; emmenagogue 411; glaucoma
336; oxytoxic agent Table 23

photoperiodism and day length 49, 50, 92-94

phreatophytes 47, 83-84, 96

phylloclades, see cladodes

phyllodes 78, 81

physic nut (Jatropha curcas), oil 260

physiology, see ecophysiology

physostigmine, see Calabar or ordeal bean

phytochemicals and their derivatives (see

also plant metabolites, and Chemical Index)
5,10,281-313

piassaba, see Bahia piassava palm

pickleweed (Salicornia bigelowii), seed oil 260

pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) 180

pignut, see earthnut

pili nuts (Canarium spp.) 178

pine (Pinus spp.) 41; fuel 255, 259; naval stores

244; nuts 178; pine needle oil 247-248;
pine oil 244, 246, 285; pulp 243; rosin
247, 285; wood 231, 241, 294; Aleppo pine
(P. halepensis), casks 195, 249; big-cone
pine (P. couters), Caribbean pine (P.
caribaea), chir pine (P. roxburghii), Jeffrey's
pine (P. jeffreyi}, Mexican white pine (P.
ayacahuire), turpentine 245-246;
jack pine (P. banksiana), bark 286;
528

lodgepole pine (P. contorta), bark 86;

turpentine 245; longleaf pine (P. palustris),
oleoresin 411; abortifacient 411; maritime
pine (P. pinaster), Bordeaux turpentine 246;
mugo pine (P. mugo), pine needle oil 246;
Scot's pine (P. sylvestris), fibres Table 12;
pine necdle oil 247; turpentine 246; shore
pine (P. contorta), roots 91;

pineapple (Ananas comosus) Table 6; 177;

bromelin 203,324

pitwri (Duboisia hopwoodii), masticatory 405

plant breeders’ rights, see legislation

plant breeding 4, 15-16, 21, 24, 40, 42, 43, 54,

58, 63, 69, 75, 93, 105-115, 116, 166, 167,
169, 186, 187, 191, 220, 338; genetic
engineering 15, 58, 69, 75, 110-115, 116,
132, 202, 338, 360, 400, 417-420. 421; GM
crops and food 98, 113, 114, 11, 125, 132,
135, 148, 149, 328, 418, 419, 420;
propagation 109-110; tissue culture 54, 63,
110, 202, 348, 372

plant collecting 17-21, 24-26, 420; collecting

seeds 61, 62-63

plant collections 17-18, 22, 23; use of collections

24-26

plant conservation 5, 8, 25, 57-64, 108, 110,

231, 233, 290, 353; CITES, see legislation,
CITES; in situ and ex situ conservation 60-
61; in vitro conservation 63-64; seed banks
61-63

plant discases 11, 15, 43, 49, 53, 55, 58, 59, 60,
102, 123, 126, 339, 396, 400, 419

plant discases, resistance to Table 27, 28; 35, 49,

58,102, 106, 108, 111, 333, 338, 345, 357

plant diversity Fig. 1; 5-6

plant introduction 6-7, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 25,

46, 48-56, 59, 97, 105, 106, 107, 109, 122,
169, 172, 174, 175, 190, 191, 193, 217, 278,
339, 385, 402, 203, 420; invasiveness Table
28; 49, 5§3- 54, 55, 350, 393, 401; provenance
15, 18, 25, 27-28, 40, 49-50, 54, 68, 84, 123,
249

Subject Index

plant metabolites (see also Chemical Index,

phytochemicals) 100

plant propagation, sce plant breeding

plantains, see bananas

plasticisers Table 21

plastics Table 21

photosynthesis Table 4; 43, 67, 78, 88-91, 132,

205, 305, 306, 376; C5 15, 69, 70, 88-90,
172, 173, 205; C; 15, 88-90, 98, 166, 169,
172,173, 205; CAM 69, 70, 88, 90-91

pili (Canarium spp.), nuts 178

plums/prunes Table 6

poached egg plant (Limnanthes douglasif), inscct

attraction 340

poison ivy (Rhus radicans), toxin 335

pokeweed, ended or inkberry (Phytolacca

americana), dye 294; mitogen 142;
molluscicide 339, 142

pollen flour 206

pollination 34, 40, 50, 51-52, 55, 60, 79, 106,

113, 225, 399, 418; cross pollination 113,
223, 419; self pollination 107, 108, 109,
223

pollinators 4, 11,19, 49, 51-52, 113, 109

pollution 148, 271, 308, 311, 352, 394, 398-

400, 419; atmospheric pollution 257-258,
352, 354, 393, 398, heavy metal pollution
353, 354, 366, 399-400; nuclear pollution
366; salt, minerals and mine pollution 399-
400; water pollution 98, 352, 398-399

pollution indicators 352, 366, 388, 398-400

pomegranate (Punica granatum), dye 291

poplar (Populus spp.), biofuel 260; propolis

224; wood fibre Table 12; 243

potato (Solanum tuberosum) Table 1, 6; 12, 15,

18, 38, 41, 53, 59, 63, 78, 113, 117,126,
132, 133, 141, 143, 146-147, 154, 165, 179,
183, 281, 328, 384, 395; starch Table 22,
276, 304, 309, 370

propagation, sec plant breeding

Subject Index

proteins, dietary (see also amino-acids and

Chemical Index) 74, 106, 127, 128-129,
134, 136-138, 143, 144, 146, 154, 157, 158,
160-161, 163, 164, 165, 166.169, 170, 171,
172, 174, 175, 178, 180, 181, 182, 183, 189,
92, 193, 196, 204, 205-206, 209, 210, 211,
212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220,
224, 227, 264, 356, 361, 368, 369, 376, 382;
leaf nutrient proteins (LNC) 205; leaf protein
205, 402; leaf protein concentrate (LCP)
152, 205, 211; mycoproteins 363; sced
concentrate proteins (SCP) 205; seed protein
181; single cell proteins (SCP) 205-206,
211, 271, 361, 368, 374, 383; textured
vegetable proteins 181-182
pscudocereals Table 8; 152, 155, 172-175
psillium plantago (Plantago afra), psillium 285
purple moor grass (Molinia caerulea) 80
purple redstem (Ammania sp.), allelopathy 345
purslane (Pormlaca oleracea) 152, 182, 401
pytethrum (Tanacetum cinerariifolium) 14; day
length 94, 95; insecticide 341

quananhua, see grain chenopods, caihua

quandong (Santalum accuminatum). nuts 14

quebracho (Schinopsis spp.), tannin 290

Queensland arrowroot, see arrowroot, Australian

quince (Cydonia oblonga) 177

quinine (Cinchona officinalis), anti-malarials

Table 23; 323, 407, synthetic quinine 291

quinoa, see grain chenopods, quinoa

radish (Rhaphanus sativus) 179, 204, 408; wild

radish (R.. raphanistrum) 113

raffia palm (Rephia farinifera), fibre 265, 267

ragwort (Senecio jacobaea), toxin 401

rain tree (Albizia saman), wood 234

raishan (Digitaria cruciata), edible seeds 171

raisins andcurrants Table 6;

rambutan (Nephelium spp.), seed 63

ramic (Boehmeria nivea), fibre Table 16, 17;

265, 257, 276

ramin (Gonystylis bancanus), wood 229

529

rapeseed oil, see oilseed rape

raspberries (Rubus spp.), fruit 117

rattans 238-239, 279, 286; water source 189

red brome grass (Bromus rubens) 84

red cotton stainer (Dysdercus koengii) 341

reed grass (Glyceria maxima), flooding 92, and

(Phalaris arundinaceae), soil nitrogen 221

reed mace or bulrush (Typha latifolia), plasticity

400; lesser reed mace (T. angustifolia),
anoxia 92

religious, magical and ritual plants 321, 322,

324, 379, 347, 358, 403, 406, 408, 411-414

rennet substitute and milk curdlers 152, 203-

204, 370

reptiles 8

reserpine (Rauvolfia spp.) 324

resins (copals and damars; see also gums,

muilages, oleoresins, and Chemical Index)
Table 14; 7, 85, 86, 201, 229, 232, 234, 237,
238, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245-246, 255, 256,
259, 273, 275, 276, 281, 285-286, 290, 299,
341, 404, 406, 407, 408, 410

respiration 67, 89, 90, 101, 215; anaerobic 84,

88, 91-92; anoxia 92; flooding resistance
92

resurrection plants 69

rhizomes Table 22; 55, 63, 72, 78, 87, 91, 92,
199, 183, 184, 240, 278, 347, 348, 349, 350,
396, 410

rhizosheaths, see root adaptations, rhizosheaths

rhubarb (Rheum x hybridum) 152; wine 190

rice, Asian or paddy (Oryza sativa) Tables 1,6,

7,22;5,7, 54,55, 59,97, 101, 111, 113,
132, 133, 134, 135, 137, 147, 152, 154, 155,
156, 157, 159-162, 165, 308, 382; brewing
160, 189, 192; cultivation Table 26; 48,
345, 348, 368, 395; feed 218; English corn
flour 163; fermented 160, 198, 205, 361;
rice bran oil 138, 161, 218; silica 315;
straw 205, 271, 276, 357; toxic yellow rice
362; African rice (Oryza glaberrima) Table
7,159
530

rice, American wild (Zizania aquatica) 171;

Manchurian wild rice (Z. latifolia) 363

rice, paddy mimic weed (Echinochloa oryzoides)

92,172

rice paper tree (Tetrapanax papyrifera), rice

paper 206

rice root, see zakaton

rice stem rot (Leptosphaeria salvinii) 363

rooibos (Aspalanthus linearis), tea 5

root adaptations (see also N-fixation,

phreatophytes and sufrutices) 47,71, 79, 81,
82-85, 91, 92; adventitious roots 85;
lignotubers 87; plank buttresses or tabular
roots 82, 83; pneumatophores 91-92;
rhizosheaths 84, 96; root tubers 85; stilt
roots 82-83; xylopodia 86

roots, edible, see vegetables, root

roselle or Jamaican sorrel (Hibiscus sabdariffa),

fibre Table 17; kerkade 179, 188

rosewood (Aniba spp.), bois de rose oil 300, 303

rosin 243, 244, 245, 247, 250, 276, 285, 286,

294, 302

rotten cheesefruit, see mapoon

roughage, see dietary fibre

rowan (Sorbus aucuparia), vitamin C310

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, collections 25;

databases 21; economic botany 13, 420;
taxonomic publications 36-37

rubber, synthetic, see Chemical Index

rubbers (see also latexes and Chemical Index)

229, 281, 287-288, 401; Cearé rubber
(Manihot glaziovii) 12, 14, 288; guayule
rubber (Parthenium argentatum) 12,13,
124; gutta percha 287; Lagos silk rubber
(Funtumia elastica) 12, 14; landolphia
rubber (Landoiphia spp.) 12; Panama rubber
(Castilla elastica) 288; Pard or Indian
wbber or caouichouc (Hevea brasilensis)
12, 14, 59, 63, 24

rue (Ruta graveolens), toxin 335; abortifacient

411; goat's rue (Galega officinalis), source of
metformin 318

Subject Index

rush, Dutch, see horsetails, Dutch rush; soft rush,

(Juncus effusus) 92

rye (Secale cereale) Table 6; 38, 95, 134, 135,

157, 169-170; alcoholic beverages 190, 191,
193, 196; bread 369; straw 237, 271

sa, see mulberry, paper mulberry

sabai grass (Eulaliopsis binata), paper pulp 272

safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), seed oil Table

19; 139, 186

saffron, see crocus, saffron

sage, clary or hot housemaid (Salvia sclarea),

essential oil 301; creeping sage (S..
sonomensis), firebreak 397

sago palm (Metroxylon sagu) 55, 78, 91; sago

starch Table 22; 184

salad oils or dressings Table 21; 185, 186, 187,

379

salad vegetables 151, 182, 415

salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), edible leaves

182

saltbush, Castlevalley (Atriplex cuneata) 397,

fourwing saltbush (A. canescens) 397;
Gardner's saltbush. (A. gardneria) 397; old
man saltbush (A. nummularia) 12

samphire, rock (Crithmum maritimum) 182; sea

or marsh samphire or common glasswort
(Salicornia europaea) 3, 182

sandalwood, Indian (Sentalum album), oil 300,

301,303; wood 232

sandrac, see Cypress pines and thuya

sapodilla, see chicle

sassafras oil 341; Brazilian sassafras (4niba

pretiosa), oil 300; Chinese sassafras
(Cinnamomum camphora), oil 300, 303

satan’s facces (Ferula assa-foetida), talisman

413
satinwood, Jamaican or West Indian
(Zanthoxylum flavum), wood 230

sausage tree (Kigelia africana), pollination 51

sauwi (Panicum sonorum), edible seed 171

saxifrage, round-leaved (Saxifraga rotundifolia),

day length 95
Subject Index

scale insects 201, 226, 228; cochineal scale

insect 226; kermes scale insect 227

seakale, sce beet, seakale

sealing wax 226

scawced biochemicals 374-381; agar 285,

374, 378-379; alginates 203, 374, 375-377,
carrageenans 203, 374, 379-381; iodine
294, 381; laminarin 374, 377; minor
chemicals (fucoidan, fucosan, ginnanso, a-
kainic acid, lectin and mannitol) 381

seaweeds 373-388, 414; annimal feed 383;

cultivation 384-386; edible scaweeds 382-
383; energy 382; harvesting 386-388; food
382-383; feed 383; manure 384; chizi-
kombu (Laminaria japonica) and hosome
kombu (L. religiosa) 382; dulse (Palmaria
palmata) 382; giant kelp (Macrocystis
pyrifera) 388; Irish moss (Chondrus crispa)
378, 379; kelp (Laminaria spp.) 5,377,
382, 384; landlady’s wig (Ahnfeltia plicata)
378; lava (Porphyra umbilcalis), 382,
murlins (Alaria esculenta) 382; nori
(Porphyra tenera) 382; rock weeds
(Fucaceae) 377; lettuce, sea (Ulva capensis)
382; sugar wrack (Laminaria saccharina)
381

selenium weed (Nepiunia amplaicaulis), Se 400

sempilor or yaka (Dacrydium elatum), wood

229

senna (Senna alexandrina), pharmaceuticals

324,328

serendipity berry (Thaumatococcus daniellir),

sweetener 202

sesame (Sesamum orientale), ginelly or sesame

oil Table 19; 187, 294

shade plants (see also shelter plants) 11, 53, 389,

391, 392, 393, 304, 396

shaggy sparrow wort or mitnan (Thymelaea

hirsuta), fibre Table 17; mitnan paper 275

shea butter (Vitelllaria paradoxa) Table 19;

185, 401

sheep’s fescue (Festuca ovina), metal tolerance

400
531

shelter belts or plants Table 28; 11, 41, 390, 391,

392, 394, 397

Sherbro bass, see African bass palm

shoti or zedoary (Curcuma zedoaria) Table 22

shrimps 386; brine shrimps 327, 328, 369

silk cotton tree (Bombax spp.), pollination 51

silk cotton or kapok tree (Ceiba pentandra),

kapok or kapoc 265, 270, 276

silkworms 209, 223, 225

single cell oils 261

sisal (Agave sisalana), fibre Table 16, 17; 14,

265, 267, 270

skeleton weed {Chondrilla juncea), weed control

Table 26

slippery elm, see elm, sweet

snails 143, 339, 342

soap Tables 21, 22; 13 9, 185, 245, 247, 294,

295, 298, 300, 303, 34 2, 349, 376, 409,
410

soapberry (Sapindus spp.), soap substitute 409

soapwort (Saponaria officinalis), soap substitute

409

social uses (see also fumitaries, masticatories,

narcotics, and stimulants) 403-414

soft rush, see rush, soft

soil conservation 8, 396; soil erosion 47, 389-

390; soil stabilisation 11, 366, 399

soils 25, 43, 44, 45, 47--48, 49, 59, 66, 68, 83,
114, 169, 170, 214, 231, 281, 333; alkaline
soils 164, 399; flooded or swampy soils 55,
83,91, 92, 159; peat soils 175, 353-354,
390; saline soils 59-60, 73-74, 175; sandy
soils 84; soil fertility or nutrients 6, 87, 96,
97, 216, 221, 222, 352, 395, 396; soil micro-
organisms (see also N-fixation) 48, 325, 367,
395. 418, 419; soil minerals 43, 48, 140,
224, 334, 399- 400; soil moisture or water
43, 45, 46, 47, 52, 67, 68, 77, 81, 310; soil
temperatures 71, 73, 85, 88, 10
souari nuts (Caryocar nuciferum) 178

South American leaf miner 53

532

sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) Table 6; 5, 14, 15,

41, 89, 90, 94, 97, 154, 155, 156, 165-167,
169, 172, 202, 308; broom-corn brushes
278-279; feed Table 22; 219; fermented
Table 22; 205, 304; food dye 198; pest
control 340, 345; sorghum beer 166, 167,
192-193, 204; sorghum molasses and syrup
167, 201

sorrel (Rumex acetosa) 152; Jamaican sorrel,

see rosclle

sorva or lechi-caspi (Couma macrocarpa),

chewing gum 405

souari (Caryocar nuciferum), nuts 179

South American leaf miner 53

soya (Glycine max) Table 6; 5, 13, 74, 138,

142, 144, 146, 154, 181, 184, 204, 205, 212,
216, 260, 343, 382; soya bean oil Tables 9,
19, 20; 139, 141, 184, 186, 187, 203, 216,
260, 299; soya sauce 181, 361

Spanish moss (Tilandsia usneoides), fibre 276

speargrass, bunched (Heteropogon contortus),

seeds 87, giant speargrass (F1. rriticeus),
thirst quencher 189

sperm whale, oil 123, 298, 299, 416

spices, see food additives

spinach (Spinacia oleracea) 152,179; sea

spinach, see beet, scakale; ‘spinach’, see
vegetables, green (pot herbs and spinach)

spittle-bugs 342

spotted berrigan or fushia bush (Eremophila

maculata), toxicity 222,335

spruce (Picea spp.), fibre Table 12; wood 241;

Norway spruce (P. abies), Jura balsam 246

squash (Cucurbita spp.) Table 1;

starch, sce Chemical Index; feed starch 211, 212,

216, 218, 220; food starch 128, 132-135,
152, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 167,
170, 172, 174, 177, 178, 205, 418; sago
starch Table 22; 55, 184; starch fermentation
products, sce fermentation processes and
products; super-slurpers 310-311; warabi
starch 349
Subject Index

stem and shoot adaptations 77-79; brachyblasts

81

stimulants 324, 405; cardiac Table 23; 405

Stokes’ aster (Stokesia laevis), oil 299

Stockholm or Archangel tar 248

stolons 78, 87, 182

strawberrics (Fragaria x ananassa) 111, 141,

176

streptomycin (Streptomyces griseus) 325,368

stress 16, 58, 66, 76, 92, 100, 107, 284, 346,
376; heavy metals 66; herbivory stress 333-
334; salt stress (see also halophytes) 66, 73-
76, 399; temperature stress of shock 16, 46,
66, 69-73, 96, 346; water stress (sce also
respiration, anoxia and flooding resistance)
66, 67-69, 76, 79, 80, 81, 90, 96, 284

strychnine, sce nux-vomica

sugar (see also Chemical Index} 152,197, 201,

202, 205, 361

sugar or gomuti palm (Arenga pinnata), gumati

fibre 277, 278; sweetener 179, 201

sugar beet, see beet, sugar

sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum) Table 6;

14, 78, 109, 128, 154, 166, 196, 201, 261,
272, 342, 345; molasses and syrup 196, 201,
205, 215, 304, 311, 360, 361, 404

sugar pea (Pisum sativum var. macroparpum)

180

sugar wrack (Laminaria saccharina) 381

Sulima bass, see African bass palm

sunflower (Helianthus annuus), seed oil Tables

9, 19, 20; 138, 139, 184, 186, 216, 260;
edible seeds 178

sunn hemp, see hemp, sunn

surfactants Table 21; 195, 308, 309, 310, 311

sweet coltsfool (Petasites palmata), vegetable salt

199
sweet flag (Acorus calamus), calamus oil 340;
phytochemicals 281

sweet herb of Paraguay, caa-ehe or kaahée (Stevia

rebaudiana), auxin 101; sweetener 202

sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) Tables 6, 22; 5,

133,179, 345
Subject Index

sweeteners Table 6; 152, 154, 197, 201-202,

306. 375, 381

symbiotic relationships (see also bacteria,

symbiotic, and fungi, symbiotic) 48, 95-100,
107, 348, 355, 356, 395

tall oil including tall oil rosin 243, 244, 247,

285; distilled tall oil 244, 247

tamarisk or athel (Tamarix aphylla), litter 87

tambalacoque (Sideroxylon sessiliflorum) 66

Tampico fibre, sce istle

tannia (Xanthosoma spp.) Table 22

tanning 244, 289-290, 292, 304, 353, 381

tannins (see also Chemical Index) 14, 221, 232,

249, 273, 281, 284, 288-289, 293, 294. 353

tannins, dietary, see dietary tannins

tapeworm 349

tapioca (Manihot esculenta) 133,162

taro, see cocoyam

tarwi, see lupin, blue

taxonomy 4, 21-26; botanical plant

nomenclature 26-37; cultivated plant
nomenclature, 37-42; trademark names, see
legislation, trademark names

tea (Camellia sinensis) Table 6; 14, 63;

caffeine 189; o-quinoncs 361; Assam tea
(var. assamica) 188; China tea (var.
chinensis) 188

tea substitute (Adiantum capillus-veneris) 349

tef (Eragrostis tefy 172

termites 234, 235, 299

textiles, sce fibres, textile

thrips 52

thyme (Thymus vulgaris), herb 199

thuya (Zetraclinis articulata), sandrac 286

tiger nut, earth almond (Cyperus esculentus)
178,179

timber (sce also wood, and wood products) 11,

27, 58,229-231, 232, 233, 234, 236, 237,
239, 249, 251, 252, 271; decay 355, 359;
service life Table 11, 235

tinder and kindling 252, 258-259, 349, 359

toadstool, sec mushroom

533

tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) 111, 114, 251, 309,

311, 338, 345, 349, 403-404, 405, 407, 411;
smoking tobacco (N. tabacum) ‘Table 23; 14,
93, 403; Aztec or wild tobacco (MN. rustica)
403

tobacco cutworms, see buterflies and moths

tobacco mosaic virus, see viruses

tobacco white fly, sce flies

toddy palm, see jaggery palm

tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) Table 6; 12,

13, 16, 53, 69, 73,75, 76, 93, 111, 112, 113,
115, 141, 147, 152, 154, 176, 179, 372;
tomatine Table 23; Galapagos tomato (L.
cheesmanii) 75

tonka bean (Dipteryx ordorata), coumarin 404;

wood 234

toquilla, see Panama hat palm

toxins 92, 144, 255; antifungal Table 27;

345-346; arrow poisons Table 24; 336-337;
bacterial toxins 343, 367-368; contact
poisons 335; feed toxins 212, 220-222; fish
poisons (piscicides) Table 25; 143, 337-338,
339; food toxins (see also antinutrients) 148,
154, 181; fungal toxins (mycotoxins) Table
26, 27; 180, 342-343, 345, 358, 362;
herbicides, sec herbicides; homicide and
ordeal poisons 335-336; insecticides, see
insecticides; invertebrate toxins 113-114,
224, 338-343; molluscicides 143, 339;
neurotoxins 181, 367; plant toxins Table
25; 114, 232, 253, 327, 333-346, 369;
rodenticides Table 23; 334; vertebrate toxins
(see also antinutrients, and food/feed toxins)
333-338

transpiration 65, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 90, 285,

393; stomatal and transpirational cooling 71
triticale (xTriticosecale) 170-171

tuba. root, sce derris root

tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa), essential oil 302

tubers Table 22; 18, 55, 179, 182, 220, 286,

293, 305, 306, 410, 411

tufted hair grass (Aira caespitosa), Cu and Zn

tolerance 400
534

tulip (Tulipa spp.), colour breaking 54, 372;

day length 95; starch 133

tulps (Moraea spp.), toxin 334

tumeric or curcumin (Curcuma longa), food dye

Table 10; 179, 293

tung oil (Aleurites spp.) Tables 19, 20; 294, 297

tucuma (Astrocaryum wcuma), oil 185

turkey bush (Eremophila gilesii), firebreak 397

turnip (Brassica rapa Rapifcra Group) 78

turpentine 244, 245-246, 247, 248, 286, 287,

300

tutu (Coriana arborea), toxic honey 224, 228

twitch grass, sce couch

ullucu (Ullucus tuberosus), tuber 78

urban trees 393-394

usnic acid (Usnea barbata) 325

uva grass (Gynerium sagittatum), soap substitute

409

uva ursi or bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi),

pharmaceuticals 324

vanilla (Vanilla planifolia), flavour 199, 361;

synthetic 199, 244, 361

varnishes Table 21; 245, 256, 294, 295, 377

vegetable fats Table 20; 184-185, 351, 409

vegetable ivory 306

vegetable oils Table 9, 19, 20, 21; 138, 139,

141, 154, 182, 184, 203, 297

vegetable salt 152, 199, 349

vegetable suphur 306

vegetables 74, 117, 132, 135, 147, 152, 155,

163, 174, 175, 179-184, 348, 356, 363; green
vegetables (pot herbs and spinach) Table 6;
141, 174, 175, 182-183; legume and pulse
vegetables Table 6; 141, 176, 180-182; root
vegetables 182-183, vegetable juices 147

vernacular names 4-5

vernalisation 94-95

vernonia (Vernonia spp.), oil 299

vetch, common (Vicia sativa), toxins 107, 144,

145; joint vetch (Aeschynomene virginica),
control Table 26

Subject Index

vetchling, blue (Lathyrus sativus), lathrogens

144, 145

vetiver (Vetiver zizanioides), oil 300

vine hopper 228

vine rootlouse 193

vinegar 152,177, 182,195, 197, 311, 370

vimses 331, 371-372; virus diseases 54, 331,

371: beet neeotic yellow vein virus (beet
rhizomania) 126; cacao swollen shoot virus
401; cauliflower mosaic virus 111;
eupatorum yellow vein virus 54; foot and
mouth disease 372; grassy stunt virus 59;
poliomyelitis 372; potato virus 54, 372;
tobacco mosaic virus 372; tomato mosaic
virus 372; tulip breaking virus 54, 372;

viroids 372; avocado sunblotch viroid 372;

hop stunt viroid 372; potato spindle tuber
viroid 372

vitamins 127, 128, 134, 136, 140-141, 154,

157, 166, 167, 178, 180, 189, 192, 197, 204,
209, 212, 216, 217, 220, 246, 354, 369, 418;
vitamin A Table 8; 124, 129, 140, 166, 220,
376; vitamin B or vitamin B group 99, 141,
192, 193, 348, 361; vitamin B; 141, 161,
349, 350, 382; vitamin B; (vitamin G) 141;
141; vitamin Bj 141; vitamin Bs 141;
vitamin By; 141, 167, 382, 383; vitamin B
complex 141; vitamin C 141, 167, 176,
181, 183, 188, 310, 356, 382; vitamin D
140, 356; vitamin D, 140; vitamin E 124,
140, 186, 217, 356, 382, 383; vitamin G, see
vitamin B,; vitamin K 141, 356

wallaba (Eperua falcata) 78

walnut (Juglans regia), nuts Table 6; 63, 139,

128, 179; wood 231, 236
wasps 340; fig wasps 52; paper wasp 275

water conservation 8

water hyacinth (Eichiiornia crassipesy, biogas

261; control Table 26; weed 402, 398

watermelons (Citrulus lanatus) Table 6; 14,

130, 189, 369

wattles (Acacia spp.), tannins 289

5
Subject Index

waxes 66, 82, 224, 225, 257, 270, 281, 301,

303-304, 409

wecedicides, see herbicides

weeds Table 26; 4, 11-12, 19, 53, 89, 92, 102,

112, 114, 167, 172, 174, 182, 261, 310, 343,
344, 345, 394, 399, 400-402; super weeds
115

weevils 52; adzuki bean weevil 341

‘West Indian satinwood, see satinwood

western red cedar, see cedar, western red cedar

wheat (Triticum spp.) Tables 1, 6, 8, 26; 13, 15,

27,34, 41, 54, 95,105, 106, 112, 114, 134,
135, 154, 153, 156-159, 164, 165, 168, 170,
171, 172, 175, 190, 1911, 217, 218, 219,
340, 368, 382, 416; wheat germ 140, 141,
142; wheat germ oil 157; wheat straw 237,
271, 357; common bread wheat (7. aestivum)
Table 22; 156, 190; conc or rivet wheat (T.
turgidumy) 156; durum, flint, hard or
macaroni wheat (T. durum) 156,157,158;
emmer (I. dicoccon) 156, 157, 190; einhorn
(T. monococcum) 156, 157; spelt (I. spelta)
156, 190

whisk fems (Psilophyta) Table 3; 351

wild rice, see rice, wild

willow (Salix spp.), basketry 279; hedge 393;

241; tinder 258; wood 241, 260; white
willow (S. alba), asprin 325

willow moss (Fontinalis antipyretica) 353

windbreaks Table 28; 11, 239, 389, 390, 391-

392,393

winged bean or asparagus pea (Psophocarpus

tetragonolobus) 5; oil 187

wintergreen, oil of, sce checkerberry

witch grass, see couch

witchetty bush (Acacia kempeana), witchetty

grubs 227

witchweed (Striga spp.) 112,345

woad (Insatis tinctoria), dye 291, 292, 294, 409

wood (see also timber) 8, 126, 226, 229-235,
271; import 126; wood properties and
characteristics Table 11; 231-233

535

wood products 8, 235-250, 311; board (chip-,

core-, block- (corcboard), fibre-, hard-,
lamina- and particleboard (chipboard) 229,
230, 236-237, 251, 263, 270, 309; coopcrage
and barrels 194, 248-249, 276; naval stores,
sce naval stores; plywood 229, 230, 236-
237; pole and post timbers 300, 231, 344;
veneers and inlays 229, 230, 231, 235-236;
wood chips 126, 229, 289; wood fibre
Table 12; 230, 265, 271, 275, 276; wood
pulp (see also paper making, pulp) Table 13;
206, 229, 230, 240-244, 251, 263, 270, 273,
312, 313, 361; wood pulp by-products 244;
wood pulping processes Table 13; 242-244;
wood tar and creososote 235, 248, 409

woody nightshade, sce nightshade, woody

wormwood (Artemisia absinthivm) 195

xanthan gum 282, 370

xerophytes 68, 76, 81, 285

yaka, see sempilor

yam bean (Pachyrhizus erosus), starch Table 22

yams (Dioscorea spp.) Table 6; 5,18, 63, 78,

183, 413; Chinese yam (D. opposita), and
elephant’s foot yam, hottentot bread (D.
elephantipes), diosgenin 411; lesser yam (D.
esculenta), starch Table 22

yeasts 101, 111, 188, 190, 193, 194, 195, 202,

204, 205, 244, 260, 304, 348, 359-363, 369,
370, 375; baker's or brewer’s yeast
(Saccharomyces cerevisine) 112, 141, 159,
190, 259; food yeasts 137, 205-206, 244,
361; leavening 14, 203

ve’eb or jicid (Cordeauxia edulis), dye 292; nuts

178

yew (Taxus baccata), wood 221, 229

ylang-ylang (Cananga odorarta), concrete 301

zakaton {Muhlenbergia micoura), root fibres,

Mexican whisk, broom or rice root 278

zedoary, see shoti